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Aristotle
Annotated Journal Articles on Aristotle
Panayides, C. Y. (2007). Aristotle on Truth, by Paolo Crivelli. Ancient Philosophy,27(2),
444–447. https://doi.org/10.5840/ancientphil200727219
Through the study of truth, philosophy can emphasize the traditions modern day
has inherited from Greece. Aristotle is an important part of this history, by sharing his
theories in the concept of truth. Crivelli accomplished two goals in his writing, a precise
reconstruction of Aristotle’s views on truth while supplying a philosophical
understanding of them (2007). Crivelli offers an overview of Aristotle’s theory of truth,
followed by the methodology. Aristotle on Truth examines Aristotle’s concepts of not
only truth, but also discussions of falsehood.
By focusing on truths and falsehoods, Crivelli explains Aristotle’s concepts of
universals and significations and the role these play in understanding his theory of truth.
Aristotle’s belief is that there are three kinds of true or false: sentences, thoughts, and
certain objects (Crivelli, 2020). Objects are seen as the most questionable of his theory of
truth, in that generally, thoughts or sentences fall into the categories of true or false, but
many modern thinkers would argue against objects having a sense of true or falsehood.
However, objects, according to Crivelli, play a major role in support of Aristotle’s views
on truth. Through objectivity, Aristotle can defend the argument of truth and falsehood
existing in sentences and thoughts.
Through our reading in Windows Into the History and Philosophy of Education it
is also stated many philosophers disdain towards Aristotle’s thinking of truth. Smith
states Luther’s dislike towards Aristotle and his thinking; “...Aristotle as a ‘damned,
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conceited, and rascally heathen” (Smith, 2020). This thinking by Luther coincides with
the writings of Crivelli, as explained Aristotle had an impressive basis for his theory, but
many philosophers did not agree with this thinking as a whole.
Truth (Aristotle) - The Logic Museum. (n.d.).
https://www.logicmuseum.com/wiki/Truth_(Aristotle)#:~:text=Possibly%20Aristotle's%2
0most%20well%2Dknown,is%20not%2C%20is%20true%E2%80%9D.
According to the Logic Museum, Aristotle’s most well known definition of truth is
in Metaphysics (2018). Aristotle claims that true things exist or have existed and false
things never have. To quote his theory on Metaphysics:
“To say Of what is that it is not, or of what is not that it is, is false, I'll just say of
what is that it is, and of what is not that it is not, is true” (Aristotle).
For example, it is true that snow is white and it is not blue, therefore the truth is in
speaking snow is white, and the falsehood would be saying that snow is not white.
According to Aristotle’s theory of Metaphysics, this concept of truth may also align with
a correspondence theory of truth.
The Logic Museum describes this theory of Aristotle’s truth in The Categories; as
statements change, so do their truths, once a statement is altered, it was at one time true,
but now is not. Similarly, with opinions, these statements are believed to have capacity
because this modification occurs in the case of something else (Logic Museum, 2018).
Aristotle believed that truths, according to his Metaphysics, can be changed and
ultimately removed from the statement of truth.
This article also reflects on his definition of truth in the first chapter of De
interpretation, and Aristotle’s belief of a coherence of truth. Aristotle believed that truth
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is a matter of composition or separation ( Logic Museum, 2018), and that in thoughts, as
well as in speech an idea of truth or falsity would imply there's a separation between true
and false, however many ideas may lay in combination of true and false. Similarly, in De
Anima, Aristotle describes the idea that something is always either true or false however
and understanding that may not be so, when it comes to believing true versus false it
stands with whatever is immaterial (Logic Museum, 2018).
In an article published through Stanford, The Correspondence Theory of Truth,
describes similar thinking by philosophers Russell and more in the 20th century. They
argue that the correspondence theory of Truth as Aristotle has been argued to agree with
truth is in correspondence to or with a fact (Stanford EDU, 2015). This article argues that
the correspondence theory of truth is most often associated with the metaphysical
concepts that Aristotle believed in. However in recent years there have been many
competitors that disagree with this concept, the belief of deflationary theories of truth or
the identity theory have replaced Aristotle's views of metaphysics. There's also the idea
of a truthmaker theory as well as pluralism that compete with the views of the
correspondence theory.
Dotts, B. (n.d.). Chapter 3: Classical Philosophy: Aristotle. Pressbooks.
https://open.online.uga.edu/critical-contemporary-education/chapter/chapter-3-classical-p
hilosophy-aristotle/#:~:text=Besides%20both%20good%20laws%20and,to%20establish
%20unity%20and%20commonness.
Classical Philosophy:Aristotle, examines the history of Aristotle, and his political
theories. As a student of Plato, Aristotle had significant disagreements with
acknowledging political concepts; Aristotle rejected Plato’s political economy, as well as
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the idea that communism served the guardian class, and Plato’s elitist scheme (Dotts,
n.d). Aristotle, although studied under Plato, he placed his importance of values on
practical matters, he believed in public education and the benefits of polis to citizens.
Aristotle believed in a teleological understanding, what is the potential end of an
object or human being? With this methodology, Aristotle and his students analyzed
constitutions in order to understand an ideal constitution. When it came to education and
society, Aristotle focused on an empirical and practical method. He argued towards the
belief that individuals were social and should learn as such; humans could not achieve
self-realization in isolation (Dotts, n.d.).
With this thinking formed his system of Education as well, Aristotle believed in
maintaining a republic with good laws and virtue, formal education could be responsible
for the state and public. Aristotle believed that public education should not create
uniformity but rather establish unity and commonness (Dotts, n.d.). He believed all
children should attend the same public schools, therefore preventing any types of
divisions among society; education and good laws were to be more effective than threats
and discipline (Dotts, n.d.).
Similarly, according to Ruth Kotinksy, and the Limited surviving written works of
Aristotle it was concluded that he believed education was central; when it comes to the
practice of educators curriculum must be combined with the philosophy of life. Aristotle
believed strongly in the flourishing of an individual and learning should stem from that
idea of what is good rather than what is correct. he also plays a strong emphasis on
balanced development, this meant not just one area of curriculum, but rather play,
physicality, music, science, and philosophy played a role informing an individual. He
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saw learning happening through life, through learning by doing, and by becoming the
individuals that we are through our education. “ anything that we have to learn to do we
learn by the actual doing of it…” (Aristotle Niconachean Ethics, p.91).
Synthesis of Articles on Aristotle
It can be concluded that Aristotle looked at education and the truth as reason and habit, as
learning is complemented by reason or the cause of things, and an individual cannot be a
successful member of society without the full understanding of truth versus falsehood. As
philosophical thoughts evolve and extend, it can be understood that Aristotle's theology is deep
rooted in educational thought.
Preliminary Thesis Statement: Aristotle
Although much of Aristotle’s work has not survived the years, his influence on
educational thinking has been fundamental in the development of learning. As his metaphysical
approach of truth and falsity influences the societal importance of human reasoning, the concept
of non-isolationary thinking improves educational practices. When examining truths value in
educational practices and policies, it is essential to understand Aristotle’s definition of truth, his
learning structures, and disapproved thinking from previous philosophers.
The Effects of Educational Policies on Students and Their Learning.
Annotated Journal Articles on The Effects of Educational Policies on Students and Their
Learning.
Barile, J. P., Donohue, D. K., Anthony, E. R., Baker, A., Weaver, S. R., & Henrich, C. C. (2011).
Teacher–Student Relationship Climate and School Outcomes: Implications for
Educational Policy Initiatives. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,41(3), 256–267.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9652-8
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According to this multilevel study, limited empirical research was
evaluated to understand the impact of teacher policies on student education. The
relationship between teacher evaluations and reward policies impacted student
mathematics achievements and dropout rates. A student sample of students attending 431
public high schools, including an equal number of boys and girls with an average age of
16 (Barile et al. 2011), was used to determine the association between teacher policies
and student achievement.
The results of this study included three areas, teacher evaluation policies that gave
students the ability to evaluate their teachers; schools with teacher reward policies that
incorporated high level teachers with high performing students; and finally students with
a better perception of teaching climate leading to lower student dropout rates. These
results were evaluated and discussed regardless of their educational policy implications
(Barile et al. 2011).
By identifying the educational policies and teacher climates that impact the
students most significantly, it can better understand what long term gains will improve
student performance and overall societal structure. The majority of public high schools
have policies that allow for principals and administrators to evaluate teachers (National
Center for Education Statistics, 2010), however, this method of evaluation is not as
reliable as student evaluations.
Although statistics show that administrator evaluations of teachers is not an
effective policy when determining teacher performance, very few schools have
introduced alternative policies. The majority of high schools still have not introduced
student lead teacher evaluation, even though research shows policies that allow students
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to assess their teachers shows improvements in teacher student relationships (Manefield
et al. 2007).
Sahlberg, P. (2007). Education policies for raising student learning: the Finnish approach.
Journal of Education Policy,22(2), 147–171.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02680930601158919
By arguing that system-wide excellence can be achieved with the use of education
policies in Finland, comparisons can be made to effective policy implementation
strategies. As a country, Finland has used education to promote their economic and social
development, and this improvement has been achieved through education policies based
on equity, flexibility, creativity, teacher professionalism, and trust, (Sahlberg, 2007).
Finnish education policies differ from other countries in the sense that they do not
focus on standardized testing or external learning standards; rather they build their
policies on the intention of raising student achievement through sustainable leadership.
By emphasizing intelligent accountability, Finnish school policies encourage optimal
learning environments that best support students reaching their goals.
By utilizing students’ internal motivators, Finland has approached educational
policy creation through shared values and visions. However, according to Sahlberg, it is
difficult to pinpoint a specific policy or method of implementation, and therefore Finnish
education research focuses on broader policies and reforms. Finland educational policies
have as a whole have not been influenced by the global education reform movement
(Hargreave et al. 2001).
This global education reform is something that has been adopted by most other
parts of the world, and since the 1980s has focused on standardization of education,
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increased focus on literacy and numeracy, and consequential accountability systems
(Sahlberg, 2007). The success or failure of a school is based on this reform’s method in a
way that schools are rewarded or punished based on their scores and external evaluations.
Salhberg describes this reform as “like an epidemic that spreads and infects
education systems through a virus” (Sahlberg, 2012, no page). This idea takes a hold on
educational policies as a solution for a system that feels “cracked” (Ball and Olmedo,
2013, 85). Although this is something that seems to have taken hold in more modern
years, this arose in the 1970s and 1980s (Harvey, 2007), and it is something that is
constantly changing.
Jeffrey, A. Bogard, S. How students can help build better education policy. (2021, July 22).
Center for American Progress.
https://www.americanprogress.org/article/students-can-help-build-better-education-policy
Jeffrey Bogard describes the ratio inequality in educational stakeholders as 53.1
million students out-number the 3.1 million teachers by a landslide. In 2019, only 23
states included student members on their Board of Education, and the majority of these
students didn’t have voting power when it came to policy creation (Bogard, 2021).
Unfortunately, when it comes to student input at the decision making level, these voices
are rarely heard, and leads to the question: how can policies help students succeed when
students aren’t involved?
Community-centered policymaking could lead to a huge shift of educational
policy implementation and its success. By allowing students to have their voices heard,
benefits can increase, not just for the students but all stakeholders involved.
“...inclusion of student voice ‘can increase academic motivations, strengthen
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reports of positive school climates and boost students’ overall perceptions of
school’” (Student Voice, n.d.)
By including students in policy making, their experiences can ensure policies
reflect social racial and cultural needs of the students who these policies will directly
effect (Bogard, 2021).
Currently, the Education Department has efforts that incorporate student voice,
but these contributions don’t include students from diverse backgrounds, and those
included are used to speak for all students with a shared identity, not to be involved in
decision making (Public Comment Project, n.d.). Although the US has included in the
U.N Convention on the Rights of the Child, the importance of student voice and capacity
building (Sheir, 2019), it is still well behind other countries in student inclusion.
Synthesis of Articles on The Effects of Educational Policies on Students and Their
Learning.
Through the evaluation of educational policies and student achievement, it can be clearly
seen that there is a connection between students’ abilities to be successful and individual school
policies. As many states follow the same policies implemented by government officials or
departments of education, it is up to the schools to uphold effective policy implementation that
benefits students. Ultimately, it is these policies that shape the learning experiences and
opportunities of students (Gracefabian, 2023).
Preliminary Thesis Statement: The Effects of Educational Policies on Students and Their
Learning.
Over the years, as educational systems evolve and grow, educational policies continue to
change. Beginning with No Child Left Behind, to Common Core Standards and standardized
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testing for school funding, schools and students have had to adapt and adjust along with these
changes. As policies change and students adapt to this change, it then in turn fuels more change
to policy, and many of these policy adjustments occur due to student achievement and teacher
evaluations put into place by these policies. Research shows this revolving system of educational
policy implementation and student achievement, as education policy determines the structure of
an educational system.
References
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Aristotle The Nicomachean Ethics, London: Penguin. (The most recent edition is 1976 – with an
introduction by Barnes).
Ball, S. J., & Olmedo, A. (2013). Care of the self, resistance and subjectivity under neoliberal
governmentalities. Critical Studies in Education, 54(1), 85–96.
Gracefabian. (2023, July 26). Educational policies and how they affect students - Gracefabian -
Medium. Medium.
https://medium.com/@gracefabian2023/educational-policies-and-how-they-affect-student
s-2238cb42a65e#:~:text=Educational%20policies%20have%20a%20profound,and%20op
portunities%20available%20to%20students.
Harvey, D. (2007). A brief history of neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Infed.org. (2012, December 7). Aristotle and education – infed.org:
https://infed.org/mobi/aristotle-and-education/
Manefield, J., Collins, R., Moore, J., Mahar, S., Warne, C. (2007). Student voice: A historical
perspective and new directions. Research and Innovation Division, Office of Learning
and Teaching, Department of Education.
National Center for Education Statistics, I. o. E. S., US Department of Education. (2010).
Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) from
http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/ELS2002/.
Public Comment Project, “Mission and Goals,” available at
https://publiccommentproject.org/mission (last accessed June 2021).
Sahlberg, P. (2012). How GERM is infecting schools around the world? Retrieved from
https://pasisahlberg.com/text-test/
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Harry Shier, “Student Voice and Children’s Rights: Participation empowerment and
‘protagonismo’,” in Michael E. Peters, ed., Encyclopedia of teacher Education
(Washington: Springer Nature, 2019), available at
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333934649_Student_voice_and_childrens_right
s_Participation_empowerment_and_’protagonismo.
Smith, G. L. (2020). Windows into the History and Philosophy of Education. Kendall Hunt
Publishing Company.
Student Voice, “A Roadmap to Authentically Engage Youth Voice in the U.S. Department of
Education,” available at
https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5b7baf6ce413596290921486/5fd3c02f183ddd441da768
2c_Student%20Voice_Youth%20Engagement%20Report_ED.pdf.
The Correspondence Theory of Truth (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). (2015, May 28).
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/
