Care and Development of Infants and Toddlers - An Introduction

CARE AND DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND

TODDLERS - AN INTRODUCTION

When you think about infants and toddlers, what words and images come to mind? William James imagined

infants as experiencing a “blooming, buzzing confusion” (James, 1890). More recent and more accurate

images consider infants and toddlers as young scientists making sense of their world as they actively engage

with it (Gopnik, 2012; Gopnik, Meltzoff & Kuhl, 1999). The goal of this section is to briefly introduce you

to infants and toddlers by presenting demographic information, guiding principles of infant/toddler care

and education and to demonstrate why quality care and education for infants and toddlers is so important

As a collective, the term “infants and toddlers” refers to children from birth to three years of age. More

specifically, infancy refers to children between birth and one year of age, while toddlerhood refers to

children between 1 and three years of age. In many texts, infants and toddlers are perceived as a

homogenous group (i.e., Maguire-Fong, 2014); however, recent research highlights the importance of

recognizing the individual differences between children under three years of age (Frank, Braginsky,

Yurovsky & Marchman, 2021; Kidd, Donnelly & Christiansen, 2018; Pérez‐Edgar, Vallorani, Buss &

LoBue, 2020). It is now undeniable one cannot consider all infants or toddlers to be developmentally similar

or to have similar experiences. There are important, early forming and long-lasting individual

developmental differences (Marchman & Fernald, 2008).

Over 50% of the nation’s children under three years of age are children of color.

About 40% of infants and toddlers live in households where the income is less than twice the federal poverty

level (about $50,000 a year for a family of four in 2018).

Approximately 20% of infants and toddlers live with a single parent.

Less than 40% of infants and toddlers are read to every day.

There are racial/ethnic disparities across several critical domains, such as prenatal care, preterm birth rates,

breastfeeding rates and crowded housing.

There are disparities based on family income, such as maternal mental health, breastfeeding rates,

neighborhood safety, adverse childhood experiences, book reading frequency, and developmental

screenings.

1.3: What does Care and Education of Infants and Toddlers mean?

Care and Education of Infants and Toddlers

What does care and education of infants and toddlers even mean? Perhaps it is most clear to start by

describing what it is not. Care and education of infants and toddlers is not babysitting. Babysitting, or

keeping an eye on a child and making sure they are safe, is hardly even the minimum of what this means.

is just like preschool or at least the goal is for it to be as similar to preschool as possible. The activities

might differ and the allotment of time devoted to activities may be different, but many infant and toddler

programs attempt to be replications of preschool curricula, using a diluted approach.

Care and education of infants and toddlers is and should be very different from preschool curriculum. The

term curriculum is being used more frequently in reference to infants and toddlers, but it carries a different

meaning than what is commonly considered when people think about curriculum. What do you think about

when you consider the term curriculum? Do you envision a curriculum book that lays out day-by-day

activities with weekly and monthly themes? This is common in many preschool settings. Curriculum for

infants and toddlers is different. Curriculum for children under three years of age focuses on relationships

Principles of Care

Decades of research and theory have produced some general guiding principles that are an important

starting place for understanding infant and toddler care and education. [1]

Principle #1: Children are active participants in shaping their own development.

Infants and toddlers seek out information from their environments and social partners through eye gaze,

communication/language, physical touches and manual manipulations of objects. Specific types of

information attract infants’ attention and provide unique access into helping them understand how the world

process in walking efficiency. Additionally, actively engaging in the practice of walking is related to

individual differences in language and cognitive development since walking creates new opportunities to

engage with other people, holding objects while being mobile and encountering new objects and

experiences (Karasik, Adolph, Tamis-LeMonda & Zuckerman, 2012; Schneider & Iverson, 2021; West &

Iverson, 2021)

Principle #2: Relationships and experiences are the primary ways development occurs.

Infants and toddlers develop through adult-child and child-child relationships and through exploring their

Principle #3: Development is complex and transactional.

Children and their contexts shape each other in ongoing and cyclical ways—referred to as the transactional

model of development (Sameroff, 2009; Sameroff & Mackenzie, 2003). For example, each child is raised

in a cultural context that shapes all aspects of development, but the child’s particular familial or cultural

context may also affect the larger community context over time in complex ways. The same environmental

factors can affect different children and families in different ways. Likewise, different environmental

factors can have a similar effect on children. For example, toddlers from lower SES homes typically are

exposed to less language; however, this is not always the case as even amongst all low SES families, some

toddlers are exposed to an

Each bar represents one child's level of word exposure. There are total of 28 bards on this graph, for 28

different children. This graph shows the number of words that different kids heard from grownups in 1 day.

The bottom section/green part of each bar shows the number of words that grownups said to that kid in 1

day. The top/blue part of each bar shows the number of words that kids overheard when grownups were

talking to other people. For example, kid 2 heard 2,500 words total. 2,000 words are directed to her, and

500 words are overheard. Child 23 hears 20,000 words total. 2,000 words are directed to her, 18,000 words

are overheard. Child 27 hears 21,000 words total. 15,000 words are directed to her, 6,000 words are

overheard.

Principle #4: Development and learning occur in multiple systems or contexts.

Infants and toddlers develop as the result of the direct interactions they have with the people in their world

(family, friends, non-parental caregivers), as well as the indirect influences, including community

Principle #5: All areas of development are interrelated.

During the infant and toddler period, the domains of development (i.e., physical development, cognitive

development, and social development) are interrelated. Development in one domain influences

development in other domains. For example, an infant's motor ability to sit independently is related to

cognitive and language development (Oudgenoeg-Paz, Volman & Leseman, 2012; Veldman et al., 2019).

As a result, developmental domains cannot be considered in isolation from each other. The dynamic

interaction of all areas of development must be considered when planning for and interacting with all

children, especially infants and toddlers. [1]

often associated with positive outcome benefits. For example, achieving motor milestones earlier (sitting

or walking) is related to short-term growth in language abilities (Carina, Leinweber & Ritterfeld, 2019; He,

Walle & Campos, 2015). While milestone charts can provide approximates for what is considered typical

development, recent research into early individual differences highlights the important role caregivers have

for providing high-quality positive care and educational environments for infants and toddlers (Lopez et

al., 2020; Ramírez, Lytle & Kuhl, 2020). [1]

Principle #7: Birth to age 3 is a distinct developmental period that is the foundation for later development.

Periods of rapid growth and change, such as during infancy, offer the greatest opportunities for experiences

Jankowski, & Van Rossem, 2008). Infancy and toddlerhood is characterized by rapid growth and

development of concepts, attitudes, skills, and abilities that are foundational for current development, later

success in school, and lifelong learning (Domond et al., 2020; Early Head Start National Resource Center,

2012; Losier et al., 2021). [1]

Figure :The fun of exploration (Image by Senjuti Kundu on Unsplash)

[1] Horm et al., (2016). Developmental foundations of school readiness for infants and toddlers: A

4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Todd LaMarr.

1.5: Why is Care and Education with Infants and Toddlers Important?

The rapid growth that unfolds during the first three years of a child’s life is unprecedented and establishes

a developmental foundation for future years to build off of. The experiences infants and toddlers have are

related to short-term and long-term growth trajectories. Not only are the infant and toddler years associated

with school readiness, but the first three years are also a wise investment for long-term academic and

brings about the idea of formal academics such as letters and numbers presented in ways that are not

developmentally appropriate for infants and toddlers. However, as the term school readiness became more

broadly defined and the research base documenting the important foundations for later learning established

during the first three years expanded, families, programs serving infants and toddlers, and policymakers

have increasingly accepted that school readiness begins in infancy.

Several organizations have issued guidance and developed resources for programs, practitioners, and

families on how to think about and offer services to support the foundations of school readiness in infants

and toddlers. For example, in 2013, the National

Framework for Programs Serving Infants and Toddlers. An important aspect of the Early Head Start

framework is the relationship between the provision of high-quality services and children’s growth and

development. The quality of early childhood service is multidimensional and encompasses not only

characteristics of staff but also the quality of the interactions and relationships among staff members and

the children and parents with whom they work. States have also published expectations for infants, toddlers,

and their caregivers (National Center on Child Care Quality Improvement, 2019). As of 2019, all U.S. states

have developed early learning development guidelines for preschool children (3 to 5 years old), and most

states, although not all, have early learning development guidelines that either include or are separate for

infants and toddlers. [1] [2]

Figure : Children's well-being and competence enhance children's growth and development, enhance

parent-child

1.5.1

relationships, strengthen families, provide children with individualized services, develop strong

a positive path for school readiness and life-long success. It is also true that all opportunities involve risk.

A risk with applying the concept of school readiness to infants and toddlers is the temptation to funnel

practices developed for preschoolers to children under three years of age. To avoid this risk, attention to

the unique developmental characteristics of infants and toddlers and purposeful reflection is required to

ensure activities and interactions are age-appropriate. [1]

Infant and Toddler Care & Education: A Wise Investment

The experiences infants and toddlers receive during the first three years of life can have a long-lasting

impact on their later development, academic achievement and income in adulthood. While there are

high school (compared to dropping out) and less likely to be in poverty as adults (Domond et al., 2020;

Gertler et al., 2014; Losier et al., 2021). Attending center-based programs, compared to informal care, such

as by a family member, can have a long-lasting, positive impact on a child’s social-emotional, language

and cognitive development (Davies et al., 2021; Felfe & Lalive, 2014; Gomajee et al., 2018; Hansen &

Hawkes, 2009; Luijk et al., 2015; Orri et al., 2019). Infants and toddlers who attended a center-based

program for at least one year saw the greatest social and emotional benefits later in childhood (Gomajee et

al., 2018). During the COVID-19 pandemic, infants and toddlers who attended group care programs,

compared to those in informal care, had higher cognitive abilities (Davies et al., 2021). In Chile, toddlers

who attended center-based care had higher cognitive and language scores, compared to toddlers in informal

care (Narea, Arriagada & Allel, 2020; Narea, Toppelberg, Irarrázaval & Xu, 2020).

education, occupation, and income (McLoyd, 1998). In 2020, there were 37.2 million people in poverty in

the U.S., approximately 3.3 million more than in 2019 (United States Census Bureau, 2012). Approximately

40% of infants and toddlers live in households that are low-income or in poverty (Keating et al., 2021). In

California, infants and toddlers of color are more likely to be growing up in poverty (Keating et al., 2021).

Figure shows the 1.5.3

percentage of children under three years of age in California, by race, who are living in poverty. Compared

to only 7% of White children, 39.2% of American Indian/Alaska Native, 31.8% of Black and 22.2% of

Hispanic children are growing up in poverty (Keating et al., 2021). [3] [4]

Figure : Percentage of infants and toddlers in California in poverty, by race. Asian 7.7 %, Multiple Races

9.5%, Non-Hispanic

1.5.3

Black 31.8%, Hispanic 21.2%, Non Hispanic Other 26.1%, Non-Hispanic White 7.0%, American

Indian/Alaska Native 39.2% (Image by Todd LaMarr is licensed under CC by 4.0[5]

The negative impact SES can have on childrens’ development begins to show an effect during the first three

years. Significant disparities in vocabulary and language processing efficiency were evident at 18 months

between infants from higher and lower SES families. In fact, by 24 months, there is a six month gap between

horizontal axis,

1.5.4

spanning from 5 to 37 months. Total gray matter volume is shown on the vertical axis. The blue line shows

children from Low SES households; children from Mid SES households are shown in red. The green line

shows children from High SES households. ([9]

The negative impact SES can have on childrens’ development is a worldwide concern. Latin America is a

region that struggles with wealth inequality. After examining young children from five Latin American

countries, differences in language skills between the highest and lowest wealth groups emerged by three

years of age (Schady et al., 2014). In Ecuador and Colombia, children from higher SES families score

higher on language and cognitive assessments and the relationship between SES and ability only grows

wider with time (Paxson & Schady, 2007; Rubio-Codina et al., 2015; Schady, 2011). By two years of age,

statistically significant differences in IQ had emerged between British children of high and low SES

The quality of care and education in group care programs during the first three years can be an important

factor to reduce the impact SES can have on children’s developmental trajectory (Felfe & Lalive, 2014;

Holochwost et al., 2021). Children from low SES families score lower on academic readiness and

achievement, unless the children attended a formal childcare program during their first four years of life,

including during infancy and toddlerhood (Geoffroy et al., 2010). Infants and toddlers from low SES

families exposed to center-based child care demonstrate better reading, writing, and mathematics scores

than low-SES children never exposed to center-based programs (Laurin et al., 2015). Children from low

SES families who begin center-based care by five months of age have better reading and mathematical

skills than infants and toddlers who do not start until eighteen months of age or later. Toddlers who were

read to everyday by caregivers had higher reading and math scores as four year olds (Lombardi, Fisk &

Care and Development: Conclusion

The development that takes place over the first three years is unlike what happens in any other period. The

growth of personality, physical abilities and language are rapid and being able to witness the process of

how development unfolds is truly remarkable. Nevertheless, the experiences children are exposed to during

this time (both positive and negative) can have a direct impact on their developmental trajectories. Infants

and toddlers are not a homogenous group various individual differences across children are essential to

recognize because they can impact a child’s unique developmental trajectory. Investing into the first three

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Maternal sensitivity and language in infancy each promotes child core language skill in preschool. Early

Childhood Research Quarterly, 51, 483-489.

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early childhood policy: Using evidence to improve outcomes in learning, behavior, and health for

vulnerable children. Cambridge