Fast Fashion: A Thorough Examination on Human Rights
Violations in Bangladesh and Global Environmental
Degradation
Introduction
Originally, because fashion was composed of durable materials, it was seen as a luxury that only
the upper class and upper middle class could purchase. As labor costs reduced and technology
advanced, fashionable clothing was now offered to the middle class because of its new lower
price. As a result of growing consumer demand and fashion merchants' weekly production and
release of new items to stay up to date with trends, fast fashion emerged. Due to its prolific
output of new goods, the fashion industry has been ranked third among global polluters in 2021
(Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022). Fast fashion has become a phenomenon that is taking over
Western society and is projected to continuously grow immensely. The term fast fashion was
derived from the desire to keep up constant rotating trends. The term "fast fashion" was first used
in a 1990 New York Times article to refer to the rapid production of apparel items that can be
sold in retailers in roughly two weeks (Birch, 2023). Fashion retailers were finding it difficult to
meet the massive demand for new apparel produced by the middle class's introduction of
fashionable clothing. Mass retailers started assessing ways to create things that customers would
want to buy in the shortest amount of time to meet the huge demand for changing fashion trends.
In the late 1940’s, fashion retailers, H&M and Uniqlo discovered that outsourcing ready-
made garment workers in developing countries could reduce production costs and increase
profits (Idacavage, 2018; Industries 440, 2021). They discovered that less restrictive labor laws
and standards in developing nations like Bangladesh could result in lower compensation for
ready-made garment workers (Industries 440, 2021). Furthermore, the pay for ready-made
garment workers can be quite low when compared to developed nations like the United States
because labor rules and regulations are less restrictive in developing nations (Le, 2020). With
Bangladesh's low labor costs, advanced textile technology, and duty-free market access to the
European Union, more than 180 fast-fashion retailers have chosen Bangladesh as one of their
preferred locations of choice (AQF, 2021). Still, given that ninety-seven percent of the things
that Americans buy are made overseas, these workers are among the lowest paid in the world and
are often exploited as cheap labor (Elrod, 2017). Bangladeshi ready-made garment workers are
thus exposed to hazardous working conditions, long work hours, and low pay.
In addition to fashion retailers outsourcing ready-made garment workers from emerging
nations with less strict laws and regulations to enhance their own profit margins and continue
producing clothing quickly, they began to search for new textile materials that could reduce
material cost. To produce pieces of clothing in a short amount of time at a low cost, retailers
have become dependent on low quality materials to produce clothing (Ganz, 2020). My
environmental data examination will mostly concentrate on the low-quality textile materials such
as the use of plastic, water consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to the
detrimental effects of the low-quality materials that are used to make apparel, the volume of
clothing that is thrown out annually has made the fashion industry one of the most polluting
sectors of the economy (Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022; Beall, 2020). Approximately 92
million tons of textile waste are produced annually worldwide (Beall, 2020); where the average
American alone produces about seventy-one pounds of textile waste annually (Beall, 2020).
According to experts, the world's clothing consumption will reach approximately 134 million
tons by 2030, continuing its sixty-three percent growth trend (Beall, 2020; Maratos, 2023). It’s
clear that fast fashion has caused significant environmental harm in the United States during the
last ten years due to fast fashion’s intent to provide clothing that is on trend at a rapid pace at an
affordable price.
This project examines the motivations and outcomes behind mass retailers outsourcing
their workforce into developing countries. It raises environmental and human rights issues
discussing the comparison of legal working conditions domestically and internationally and the
impact low quality clothes being produced at a rapid pace has on the environment. Using content
and data analysis methods, diverse literature will be evaluated to further explore motivations
behind fast fashion and its key role in human rights and environmental policy. Moreover, I hope
to expand on the direct correlation of fast fashion increasing human rights violation and
environmental degradation.
I argue that “trendy” fast fashion retailers should take into heavy consideration what
human rights violations are occurring to their employees and the environmental impact their
production has on the environment. To enhance this relationship, I will be relying on case studies
such as the Tazreen Fashions building fire in Bangladesh, Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in
New York City, Rana Plaza building collapse in Bangladesh, and the Los Angeles Garment
Factory Center. Additionally, I will be examining various working conditions and hazards
garment workers are facing consistently. I will also be creating my own data set of released
media, specifically newspapers, on the Tazreen Fashions and Rana Plaza case studies to
demonstrate the impact media had on these cases. While additionally taking into consideration
responses on such issues from mass retailers, governments, and organizations. Although fast
fashion is predicted to increase, many retailers are promising to reduce mass consumption and
focus on sustainable methods to produce clothing items and shoes. I will be reviewing promised
statements of mass retailers and examine if there's any correlation to the treatment of their
garment workers and their environmental impact.
1. Literature Review
1.1. Timeline of Fast Fashion
The evolution and significance of the fashion phenomenon, which has several long-term
political, social, economic, and cultural ramifications, can be better understood by looking at
history (Scarpellini, 2023). Most individuals now consider fashion to be central to their lives,
which fuels their ongoing need to follow the newest trends. This was still deemed relevant to the
early ages of fashion. The fashion industry was originally designed to produce pieces of clothing
that would be enduring and everlasting. However, over the course of the years, we can see how
dramatically the quality of clothing has decreased and desire for clothing has increased.
Some claim that the history of fashion may be traced back to the 1400s, between the
medieval and modern times. However, fashion began to change drastically in the nineteenth
century as the French Revolution brought new fashion trends to the United States (FHT, 2024).
During this time, the fashion industry’s primary source of desired textile material was wool
through farm raised sheep (Idacavage, 2018). Both residential and commercial settings prompted
the development of a practical sewing machine (Loscalzo, 2005). Every piece of clothing was
created by hand and more refined causing an increase in price of clothing making fashion limited
to the lower and middle class (Kupferschmidt, 2004; FHT, 2024). During the late nineteenth
century, new aniline dyes and textile machinery was introduced including the first patent sewing
machine (Perkin, 2002; FHT, 2024). Traditionally, women were responsible for producing linens
and clothes for the family, a talent that was passed down from moms to daughters (Loscalzo,
2005). With the introduction of the sewing machine, clothing was able to be produced more
efficiently and rapidly which also allowed for the prices of clothing to be reduced (Idacavage,
2018). Due to such reduced prices, the demand for manufactured clothing began to increase
tremendously as more people were able to afford fashion items (Idacavage, 2018, FHT, 2024).
As World War II was going on and the demand for clothing increased, in the United States most
clothed items were made in homes or small factories in which were made by women and
children workers who were not assisting in the war (Idacavage, 2018). However, once demand
was surpassing retailers’ expectations, fashion companies began to shift their methods. Fashion
brands began adopting lower quality textile materials and outsourcing production in developing
countries which resulted in the birth of what is known as fast fashion (Idacavage, 2018, FHT,
2024).
As a result of media exposure to fast fashion, people of all ages and economic
backgrounds started to place a higher priority on fashion. Fashion trends started to form globally
because of this media exposure, and the urge to stay current with trends increased (Bläse, R.,
Filser, M., Kraus, S., Puumalainen, K., & Moog, P., 2024). Fashion retailers started looking for
alternate ways to make apparel to satisfy the growing demand from customers. The 1960s and
1970s saw the emergence on both sides of the Atlantic of important publications dedicated
exclusively to the history and modernism of textiles and clothing (Welters & Lillethun, 2018).
This led to a shift in the 1960s where fashion retailers heavily relied on labor outsourcing in
underdeveloped nations to save millions of dollars on labor costs (Niinimäki, K., Peters, G.,
Dahlbo, H., Perry, P., Rissanen, T., & Gwilt, A., 2020; Idacavage, 2018). Alongside labor cost
reductions, fashion retailers also started to look for ways to save expenses by producing garments
from lower-quality textiles (Idacavage, 2018,). In the fashion industry, the “first” brands to
pioneer this method of outsourcing in developing countries and use of low-quality textile
materials were H&M and Uniqlo (Idacavage, 2018, Industries 440, 2021). In addition to making
more money from newly adopted techniques, fashion retailers H&M and Uniqlo were able to
prioritize the middle class by guaranteeing to deliver high-quality apparel at a price that was
attainable (Industries 440, 2021). Along with low prices, to satisfy all of their customers' needs,
H&M and Uniqlo also assured them that new products will be shipped daily (Industries 440,
2021). With low prices and inventory to fit every consumer's needs, consumers began to drive
fashion retailers' sales tremendously (Cook, S. C., & Yurchisin, J., 2017). As a result of this
achievement, several fashion retailers started using the same strategies and techniques to increase
their revenue and level of success.
During this time, the term ‘fast fashion’ was first coined through the publication of an
article released by the New York Times in 1990 (Birch, 2023). The rise in popularity of fast
fashion only increased after this article as it pushed numerous fashion retailers to make apparel
more quickly, at lower quality, and at reasonable costs. With that, it brings us to what we know
as fast fashion today. In the most recent years, fast fashion brands have begun to outsource their
ready-made garment workers and factories in the developing countries of Bangladesh, Vietnam,
the Philippines, and Indonesia (illuminem, 2023). In addition to outsourcing ready-made garment
workers in developing countries, fast fashion brands are also utilizing harmful materials to
produce clothing at a low cost (Hageman, E., Kumar, V., Duong, L., Kumari, A., & McAuliffe,
E., 2024). Some of those harmful materials that are often used by many fashion retailers to
minimize cost production include microplastics, polyester, azo dyes, and phthalates
(Alptekinoglu, A., Stadler Blank, A., Meloy, M. G., & Guide, V. D. R. Jr., 2023; Herlinger,
2016). Additionally, fast fashion retailers disregard the environmental damage caused by all of
these materials as well as the human rights violations resulting from the way ready-made
garment workers are treated in fashion factories (Herlinger, 2016).
1.2. Fast Fashion Retailer Dominance
Since the internet's creation, online shopping has significantly dominated the fashion industry to
unimaginable lengths (Pan, X., Li, J., Luo, J., & Zhan, W., 2024). Nowadays, consumers can
order apparel online and have it quickly delivered to their home—all from the comfort of their
own bed (Nash, 2019). With so much knowledge at consumers’ fingertips, they are now able to
find clothing that looks very similar to high end clothing at a low cost. During consumers'
purchases, the quality of the clothing is displayed under the details before clothing is purchased.
Despite the low quality of textile materials being listed, consumers are still willing to purchase
pieces of clothing because of how affordable it is compared to clothing that is made of higher
quality materials.
Young adults in the middle class have long been targeted by fast fashion, and social
media is an excellent platform to follow its global ascent (El-Shazy, 2023). Social media has
started to take over as technology develops because it is now easily disposable and accessible at
one's fingertips. Due to social media's global dominance, its power and impact have greatly
increased on people’s lives including their fashion choices (El-Shazy, 2023). There are about 2.3
billion users across the two biggest social media sites, Instagram and Tiktok, with over 1.3
million Instagram users and 1 billion Tiktok users in the United States (Campbell, 2022; Ceci,
2022). Because so many people utilize social media, there is a constant rotation of fashion trends,
which generates demand for reasonably priced clothes that satisfies customer needs.
With over one billion active users per month globally and over 94 million active users in
the US, TikTok's user base is expected to continue rising as its popularity soars (Doyle, 2022). It
is anticipated that as the number of active users grows, so will the popularity of video
views.With more than 56.6 million posts and over 210.3 billion views on TikTok, the theme of
fashion has emerged as one of the most popular categories (TikTok. 2024). Two of the most
popular recurring themes in TikTok videos with the hashtag #fashion have been hauls of
inexpensive fast fashion items or high-end clothing duplicates (dupes). Typically, when users
post videos of their fashion finds or dupes the hashtag #clothinghaul is used which has over
386.7 thousand posts and over 2.2 billion views (TikTok. 2024). Brands like Fashion Nova,
Shein, H&M, Zara, Fashion Nova, and Forever 21 have been often included in these fashion
hauls (Ergin, E., Gümüş, M., & Yang, N., 2022; TikTok, 2024).
The demand for people to purchase from such affordable priced fashion retailers has
increased as clothing hauls have gained popularity (El-Shazy, 2023). Being able to provide
consumers with duplicates of their favorite high-end fashion brands has allowed fast fashion
brands to create a mass following (Shi, Z., Liu, X., Lee, D., & Srinivasan, K., 2023). However,
with duplicates being created, many fast fashion brands and retailers began to create products
that are almost identical to designs made by small or independent fashion businesses which has
become highly controversial (Hamilton, 2022; Shi, Z., Liu, X., Lee, D., & Srinivasan, K., 2023).
One of the biggest fast fashion retailers, Shein, has become notorious for stealing designs from
small and independent fashion businesses (Hamilton, 2022). Small business owner, Bailey Prado,
has been a victim of stolen designs from Shein as she has contacted the company for over forty-
five of her own product designs (Hamilton, 2022; Shi, Z., Liu, X., Lee, D., & Srinivasan, K.,
2023). All of her products are handmade, but Shein still managed to not only steal her designs,
but also the style, aesthetics, and feel of her product (Hamilton, 2022). Shein has still not
responded or compensated Prado for her stolen designs and their profit from them (Hamilton,
2022).
To increase their popularity, many fast fashion clothing companies have taken over social
media and established a strong following due to their frequent releases and affordable celebrity
partnerships. Fast fashion brands have benefited from celebrity relationships by increasing the
number of views on their videos and persuading fans that celebrities also shop at fast fashion
retailers (Sarin, N., & Sharma, P.; 2023). Mass merchants started to take advantage of outsourced
textile labor and materials to continue producing garments at low costs after they realized the
high demand for dupes and affordable clothing.
1.3. Workforce Demographics
The $2.4 trillion apparel and footwear sector in the United States supports millions of jobs
globally (HRW, 2024). Fast fashion companies frequently use members of two distinct groups
due to their access to inexpensive labor in other developing nations. According to many studies,
women and children make up most ready-made garment workers overall, followed by refugees
(Khurana, 2011; Manik, Yardley, 2012). Since these workers are the ones who are most directly
affected by the working conditions that fast fashion businesses enforce, it is critical to understand
the demographics of the population in the countries where labor is outsourced.
It has been standard practice in outsourced garment factories to hire mostly women and
children. Bangladesh's economy and culture are formed by patriarchal ideas, which limits the
career prospects available to women in the country. In a survey conducted for the year of 1989, it
discovered that approximately 90% of the 300,000 workers employed by 772 certified and
registered garment factories were women (Rupantur, 1995; Ahmed, 2004). Employers like to
hire women because they are obedient and inexpensive workers (Kabeer, 1994; Ahmed, 2004).
The "docility and dispensability" of these women is what draws employers in (Kabeer, 1994;
Ahmed, 2004). At this time, the pay for female garment workers in Bangladesh was around 2.5
dollars, or 96.8%, less than the salary of garment workers in the United States, which was at
$7.53 (Beatty, 1995; Ahmed, 2004).
In a more recent survey, it found that women make up over 80% of the workforce
in the apparel business as they depend heavily on their income to maintain their families (Bain,
2018; Rupantur, 1995). Data show that sixteen to twenty-year-old’s make up 60% of the female
labor force (Rupantur, 1995; Ahmed, 2004). The percentage of single girls is between 70% and
75% and women that are widowed or abandoned make up about 2% to 3% (Rupantur, 1995;
Ahmed, 2004).
Similarly, refugees frequently look for work for the same reason and land jobs with
ready-made garment companies (CCC, 2022). Seeking jobs that will hire immediately, refugees
look for employers who will let them work even if they are not legal immigrants. Due to debts
from relatives, recruiters, or traffickers—or from other sources—that may have caused them to
flee to other countries, refugees may also look for work swiftly (CCC, 2022). Since many
refugees live in constant fear of deportation and are not granted legal status by countries at face
rate, they believe that staying in the factory for as long as possible is the safest course of action
(CCC, 2022). There is little to no legislation protecting refugees in the workforce in most of the
outsourced nations where fast fashion retailers locate their factories (Bain, 2022). Fast fashion
retailers are aware that garment workers depend on these occupations to provide for their
families, yet retailers continue to exploit and capitalize garment workers for their low-cost labor.
1.4. Human Rights Implications
To better understand the human rights implications and violations within the industry, it is
important to evaluate the effects of fashion retailers outsourcing their workforce in developing
countries with less restrictive human rights laws and regulations. Fast fashion is fueled by
outsourced ready-made garment workers with a wide range of abilities, from fulfillment to
embroiderers. Textile factories in Bangladesh, India, and China continue to treat their workers
unethically despite being the backbone of the ready-made garment industry. The persistent
pressure ready-made garment companies endure to manufacture hundreds to thousands of items
of apparel at a low cost may be the cause of the unethical methods and treatment. Nonetheless,
the desire to reduce production costs for retail profit shouldn't come at the expense of
diminishing or eliminating the rights of ready-made garment workers.
Because Bangladesh offers inexpensive labor, cutting-edge textile technology, and duty-
free market access to the European Union, it has emerged as the preferred destination for more
than 180 fast fashion shops (AQF, 2021). However, these workers are among the lowest paid in
the world and are frequently taken advantage of for cheap labor, despite that ninety-seven
percent of goods purchased in the United States are created abroad (Elrod, 2017). Textile
workers in Bangladesh are more susceptible to low wages, extensive work hours, and hazardous
working conditions as it has become one of the largest garment exporters to the United States
(Ahmed, 2004).
On average, a textile worker in Bangladesh earns about sixty-seven dollars a month
where the average textile worker in the United States earns anywhere between $2,583 to $3,383 a
month (Le, 2020; Long, X., & Nasiry 2022). The average cost of living in Bangladesh is
approximately $294 dollars per person, not including housing or utilities, therefore ready-made
garment workers who make sixty-seven dollars a month are left in dire need and impoverished
(Cost, 2022). But since most ready-made garment workers also have families to support, their
average cost of living for a family of four is roughly $812, not including rent or utilities leaving
them desperate (Bain, 2018; Cost, 2022). Workers are forced to forgo meals since they are not
paid enough to cover basic expenses like food and water while working twelve-hour or longer
shifts (Bain, 2018). It has become a consistent trend to provide ready-made garment workers in
outsourced countries with unlivable wages due to less restrictive labor laws and regulations.
In addition to paying unlivable wages, many fast fashion factories are in terrible
condition, with leaks, poor lighting, wall fissures, and inadequate ventilation (Le, 2020). In
Bangladesh, many textile factory workers have reported multiple times of issues with the
infrastructure of the building, unsanitary conditions, and hazardous workstations, but most often
reports are ignored by supervisors (Le, 2020). Factories that fail to consider the possible risks
associated with overlooked or unfixed reported issues could result in numerous catastrophic
incidents which has been in the case of Tazreen Fashions factory, Triangle Shirtwaist Factory,
Rana Plaza, and the Garment Center in Los Angeles (Manik, Yardley, 2012; Case Study:
Tazreen Fashions (Bangladesh), 2024). Even though there have been fatalities in fast fashion
factories due to unfavorable working circumstances and wages, ready-made garment companies
continue to take advantage of their employees by profiting from their need for sustenance and
less restrictive labor standards and laws.
1.5. Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York City
During the early 1900s, New York City's garment industry gave workers' low pay, long work
hours, and factories were frequently overcrowded during (Wagner, n.d.). On March 25, 1911, a
fire swept across the small Triangle Waist Company garment factory located in lower Manhattan
on the eighth, ninth, and tenth stories of the Asch Building (OSHA, 2011). It was almost time to
check out of work and head home when the fire started on the eighth floor of the sweatshop
building (Margolis, T., Keller, K., & Rones, J., 2011). As the fire spread rapidly, it was nearly
impossible for all garment workers to evacuate the building in a safe manner. There was only one
fire escape in the entire structure, and that had fallen during an unsuccessful rescue attempt
(OSHA, 2011). As the flames got stronger, machines and tables started to trap and crush garment
workers (OSHA, 2011). Managers' locked doors, which prevented employees from stealing, or
doors that opened the incorrect manner crushed the terrified workers (OSHA, 2011). Because
there was little to no water available to put out the fire, firefighters' ladders were too short to
reach the upper stories, and the safety netting was inadequate, leaving the workers with very little
escape route. (Margolis, T., Keller, K., & Rones, J., 2011). Despite their best efforts, garment
workers were unable to escape the intense flames, and several garment workers started to leap
out of the windows. (Margolis, T., Keller, K., & Rones, J., 2011).
Firefighters were able to extinguish the fire in thirty minutes despite the building's
ongoing flames. Regrettably, the fire in the clothing factory claimed the lives of 146 individuals
due to its extreme intensity making it New York’s deadliest workplace tragedy in history for the
next ninety years (Margolis, T., Keller, K., & Rones, J., 2011; OSHA, 2011). Most of the lives
that were lost were those of young ladies who had just moved to Europe and had no time or
opportunity to flee (Margolis, T., Keller, K., & Rones, J., 2011). Due to the real-time media
coverage of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire and the claimed lives of young immigrant
women, the labor movement and other organizations fighting to advance the rights of immigrants
and women in the workplace were inundated with urgency (OSHA, 2011).
1.6. Los Angeles Garment Work Center in 2015
Following the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, the garment working industry had made
significant improvements for garment workers. This has been evident in the last several years,
yet despite these initiatives and notable advancements, garment workers continue to face difficult
obstacles. Approximately 45,000 (11%) of the 500,000 manufacturing jobs in the United States
are provided by garment manufacturers in the city of Los Angeles (Garcia, N.,
ShadduckHernández, J., and Valles, D., 2015). The fast fashion production end of a global
supply chain is housed in a wide variety of sweatshops and garment factories in the Downtown
Fashion District of the Los Angeles area (Garcia, N., Shadduck-Hernández, J., and Valles, D.,
2015). Workers are recent arrivals from Asia and Latin America who are assembling enormous
amounts of textiles from overseas as garment workers (Garcia, N., Shadduck-Hernández, J., and
Valles, D., 2015).
Even though the United States' largest manufacturing hub is located in Los Angeles'
Downtown Fashion District, garment workers nevertheless confront numerous challenges. In the
Downtown Fashion District, garment workers deal with long hours, dangerous working
conditions, low pay, and wage theft (Garcia, N., Shadduck-Hernández, J., and Valles, D., 2015).
In a recent survey of 307 garment workers in Los Angeles, many reported direct working
conditions that they face in the factories (Shadduck-Hernández, J., Nuncio, M., Martinez, M., &
Pech, Z., 2016). A total of 221 workers (72%) stated that their workplace is covered in dust and
184 workers (60%) claimed that their workplace has excessive heat because of poor ventilation
(Garcia, N., Shadduck-Hernández, J., and Valles, D., 2015; ShadduckHernández, J., Nuncio, M.,
Martinez, M., & Pech, Z., 2016). In addition, 128 employees (42%) reported seeing rats and mice
in the sewing states (Garcia, N., Shadduck-Hernández, J., and Valles, D., 2015; Shadduck-
Hernández, J., Nuncio, M., Martinez, M., & Pech, Z., 2016). As well as 144 workers (47%)
reported that they regularly deal with dirty and poorly maintained restrooms at work (Garcia, N.,
Shadduck-Hernández, J., and Valles, D., 2015; ShadduckHernández, J., Nuncio, M., Martinez,
M., & Pech, Z., 2016). Furthermore, exits and doors in factory buildings have been reported to be
blocked or locked regularly by 128 employees (42%)
(Garcia, N., Shadduck-Hernández, J., and Valles, D., 2015; Shadduck-Hernández, J., Nuncio, M.,
Martinez, M., & Pech, Z., 2016).
The Downtown Fashion District continues to be the largest manufacturing site for the
garment industry in the United States which brings in over 6.4 billion dollars annually and is
projected to increase each year (LA Fashion District Business, 2022). The Downtown Fashion
District garment sector continues to deny its workers fair wages, safe working conditions, and
benefits despite the amount of money it brought in. To close the gaps in worker safeguards, new
municipal standards are demanded, along with the holding of retailers accountable for unsafe and
unhealthy work environments in addition to wage theft and pay hour infractions (Garcia, N.,
Shadduck-Hernández, J., and Valles, D., 2015; Shadduck-Hernández, J., Nuncio, M., Martinez,
M., & Pech, Z., 2016).
1.7. Environmental Harm
With fast fashion taking over the fashion industry by outstanding numbers, it is important to
evaluate the environmental impact it has on the world globally. The disturbing environmental
harm that fast fashion causes to the planet is often overlooked, as many people appear to only
believe the notion that it boosts our economy. However, fast fashion has had an adverse effect on
the environment in several ways, including increased plastic use, greenhouse gas emissions,
water consumption, hazardous chemicals and dyes, and landfill debris.
Given that mass merchants are creating apparel that is intended to be discarded after a
few wears, the fashion industry is now recognized as one of the world's leading sources of
pollution (Segran, 2021). Experts estimate that by 2030, the world's clothing consumption will
continue to increase by sixty three percent (Maratos, 2023). According to a 2019 study, 14
million tons of clothing waste are contributed by Americans to landfills, accounting for around
57% of all discarded clothes (Le, 2020). Along with the consistent buying habits of the
consumer, retailers also contribute to waste by disposing of their excess inventory in landfills
(Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022).
As a result of overflowing landfills, it is required to incinerate piles more frequently
which results in an increase in greenhouse gas emissions (Le 2020). A billion tons of greenhouse
gasses were released into the atmosphere in 2021 because of fast fashion exports made
internationally (Bastard, 2022). According to the World Economic Forum, the fashion business
contributes ten percent of greenhouse emissions annually worldwide, and during the next ten
years, that percentage is expected to rise to fifty percent (Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022). In
addition to its increased gas emissions, approximately 1.2 billion tons of carbon dioxide are
produced annually by the ready-made garment industry (RMG) (Le, 2020). As used clothes
break down in landfills, the fashion industry is also releasing strong methane into the
atmosphere, which is 28 times more powerful than carbon dioxide (Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M.,
2022). Even with technological attempts to filter harmful pollutants, these compounds continue
to be present and deadly, leading to air pollution.
As previously mentioned, fast fashion clothing is created from low-quality
materials that are utilized more frequently as an effort to reduce production cost. Fast fashion
clothing has been found to be extremely detrimental to the environment because it is constructed
of materials that mostly contain plastic and synthetic fibers (Ganz, 2020). About sixty-nine
percent of clothing is made of synthetic fibers including acrylic, polyester, and nylon (Maratos,
2023). It is discovered that, overall, microplastics are present in around thirty-five percent of
synthetic materials (Le, 2020). Due to its inexpensive cost of production, polyester is one textile
material that fast fashion stores regularly use. Compared to cotton, polyester is composed of
fibers and polymers, which releases more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (Le, 2020). It
should be highlighted that most customers discard polyester since it is low-quality after only a
couple of uses. Filtering and removing plastic microfibers from the ocean have become nearly
impossible when they enter the water (Ganz, 2020). Due to their focus solely on making money,
retailers overlook the fact that polyester takes hundreds of years to decompose fully and the
impact it has on the oceans (Ganz, 2020).
A major issue arising from the fashion business is the quantity of water used to meet the
demand for apparel at an accelerated pace. Water usage might come from the water required for
factory operations such as cleaning supplies, fabric materials, and textile growth.
About ten percent of the global water consumption is attributed to the fashion industry (Whalen,
V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022; Le, 2020). With cotton making up almost seventy-five percent of all
clothing, it accounts for the largest portion of water consumption (Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M.,
2022; Le, 2020). For comparison, almost 3,000 liters of water are needed to create one cotton
tshirt, which is equal to one human being's three years' worth of drinking water (Le, 2020; Ganz,
2020). The necessity to grow cotton requires the production of over 250 billion tons annually
worldwide (Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022). Due to the high cost and usage of water, large
retailers have moved their manufacturing to nations with less restrictive laws and regulations.
Mass merchants are to be held accountable for water loss in the oceans that those nations
depend on when laws and regulations are less restrictive. According to studies, one of Asia's
primary water supplies, the Aral Sea, is being affected by twenty percent from the European
Union's excessive demand for cotton (Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022). Studies indicate that
by 2030, the balance between water supply and demand will be disrupted by a 40% increase in
water consumption (Elrod, 2017). Furthermore, it is now a norm for fashion retailers to return
wastewater into major sources of water that nations rely on due to less restrictive water laws and
regulations. For instance, a 2011 study indicated that hazardous chemicals from the fashion
industry are present in China's two main water sources, the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl
River Delta (Ganz, 2020). Due to the dangerous chemicals and other materials, it contains,
wastewater is very toxic and endangers biodiversity and marine life (Ganz, 2020). It is nearly
impossible to ever make the water safe again in most wastewater incidents because the water is
so hazardous (Le, 2020).
2. Theory
2.1. Ecocriticism
Within the discipline of literary scholarship, ecocriticism examines the connection between
literature and the natural world. In literary studies, ecocriticism is a relatively recent paradigm
that has gained traction since the 1990s (Issit, 2022).The term ecocriticism was first coined as an,
“experiment with the application of ecology and ecological concepts to the study of literature,
because ecology (as a science, as a discipline, as the basis for a human vision) has the greatest
relevance to the present and future of the world we all live in" (Rueckert, 1978). In William
Rueckert’s 1978 essay, Literature and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism, he questions:
“How can we apply the energy, the creativity, the knowledge, the vision we know to be in
literature to the human-made problems ecology tells us are destroying the biosphere
which is our home?” (Rueckert, 86, 1978).
He contends that educators and environmental literature critics should focus on "the
discovery, training, and development of creative biospheric perceptions, attitudes, and actions"
under the heading of ecocriticism (Rueckert, 1978). The primary and most significant objective
of ecocriticism is to alter how humans interact with the natural world (Newman, 2002).
When ecocriticism first started to emerge in the 1990s, its main concerns were
environmental issues, advocating for ecologically sustainable practices and development, human
relationships with the natural world, and environmental activism (Issit, 2022). Modern
ecocriticism, however, is more of an interdisciplinary study that draws on ideas from practical
activism, social and physical sciences, and literary scholarship (Issit, 2022; Newman, 2002).
Evaluation of the human condition in connection to nature and the physical world,
environmentalism, nature philosophy, and nature writing are among the key tenets of
ecocriticism (Issit, 2022). Ecocritics assess the fashion business as fast fashion keeps expanding
and affects the environment through human interactions.
Ecocritics argue that the central strength of this theoretical framework is relevance and
applying their work to their training, attitudes, and actions (Newman, 2002). They argue that
emphasizing the relationship between humans and the environment is crucial. Ecocritics assess
the historical perspective in the field of fast fashion to identify the primary drivers of the
structure and its relationships to the environment (Newman, 2002).
In fast fashion, it is evident that pollution involves issues with ecology when it comes to
toxicological studies, ecological effect assessments, and technological advancement (Garrard,
2007). According to expert estimates, the global clothing consumption is expected to increase by
sixty-three percent by 2030, resulting in an extra twenty-three million tons of textile waste
(Maratos, 2023). Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses have continued to rise sharply to
nearly four times the current levels due to rising textile production waste (Le, 2020). In addition,
with fast fashion clothing being produced with low-quality materials to keep cost of production
low, many retailers utilize synthetic fabrics and plastic, which has been determined to be
extremely harmful to the oceans and rivers that developing countries and marine bio life depend
on (Ganz, 2020). Ecocritics begin to evaluate textile waste, pollution, such as carbon dioxide and
greenhouse gasses, and water consumption and harm, to determine where values can be shifted
and prioritize methods to minimize textile waste, emissions of toxic substances produced by fast
fashion retailers (Garrard, 2007).
To make an improvement and contribution to the environment, ecocriticism argues the
mitigation of the environmental catastrophe hinges on developing more effective conceptual
frameworks for nature and humankind's relationship with it (Newman, 2002). They want to raise
awareness of the effects fast fashion businesses have on the environment through appropriate
education (Newman, 2002). Through proper and adequate education on the topic, information
can reveal the true seriousness of the issue that is most often disregarded or overlooked (Phillips,
1999). Activism is heavily encouraged by ecocriticism as people grow more conscious of the
detrimental effects fast fashion has on human rights and the environment.
2.2. Marxism
The human condition in relation to nature and the physical world, environmentalism, nature
philosophy, and nature writing are all highlighted in ecocriticism. However, Marxism contends
that ecocriticism ignores the fact that the efficiency of capitalists in exploitation of workers
determines the fundamental rights and freedoms (Engle, 2008). Marxism is an ideology that
embodies the ideas and concepts of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, that highlights historical
and dialectical materialism as a fundamental component. Marxism maintains that the best way to
understand international relations is to start with how humans have used the land to shape
political institutions, such as the state and international organizations, and produced things on
land that have become dependent resources (Garrett, 2024). Marxists aim to understand how the
capitalist mode of production and the system of sovereign states came to be by mapping and
retracing those social relations and conditions.
In the present era, human rights are viewed as an unalienable, irreversible, and indivisible
phenomena, which the Preamble of the Universal Rights of Declaration states as:
“Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world” (REFUGEE, ASYLUM, and INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS
DIRECTORATE (RAIO) RAIO DIRECTORATE -OFFICER TRAINING RAIO
Combined Training Program INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW TRAINING
MODULE, 2019)
However, Marxism argues that capitalism systems disregard the fundamental rights and interests
of the oppressed in an effort of personal gain. Marxist foundation lies in the idea that an unbiased
understanding of how society is changing over time must emphasize the tangible aspects that are
derived from the economy (Akani, nd). As fast fashion continues to grow immensely, the human
rights of ready-made garment workers in outsourced nations continue to be violated by fashion
retailers. Under Marxism, fast fashion retailers demonstrate the capitalists desire for personal
profit and disregard of fundamental human rights of ready-made garment workers.
Textile workers in outsourcing countries continue to be subjected to human rights
violations at work because fashion retailers ignore their basic rights and interests. Under
Marxism, it is believed that there is a great priority in interpreting the world rather than methods
to change the world (for the better) (Esther, 2018; Pal, 2018). When examining the relationship
between fast fashion and human rights abuses, it's critical to examine the historical materialism
of human rights and expose the injustices committed by the fashion industry (Pal, 2018). Gaining
a better understanding of the historical materialism and background of the outsourced nations
and fashion industry will allow a framework to challenge the fashion industry’s capitalist
approach.
The economy in outsourced countries have deprived textile garment workers of basic
human rights and adequate working conditions. Textile garment workers are left with hazardous
working conditions, long work hours, insufficient breaks, and unlivable earnings while the fast
fashion sector continues to flourish. Marxism contends that under these circumstances, human
rights might be viewed as false or mythical as they were established through social constructs
and are currently sufficiently implemented globally by all countries (Akani, nd; Esther, 2018).
Therefore, if change is not made, the environment and human rights will suffer as capitalism
grows. It is one's responsibility to support and deepen the efforts of textile and apparel workers,
which calls for knowledge of class interests, historical materialism of economic forces, women's
and children's rights, and the environment to combat capitalism (Akani, nd).
3. Methodology
As I previously indicated, a gap in the literature on this subject was found during my preliminary
research. A large portion of the available literature concentrated on the causes of businesses
outsourcing to developing nations. Although there is less available literature examining the
impact of fast fashion on the environment and human rights, they still lack the development of
the effects of media coverage and retailer accountability. By analyzing the various literature, I
argue that fast fashion influenced environmental and labor policies in developing countries in the
last decade and change can occur through high levels of media coverage which leads to retail
company accountability. Therefore, fast fashion companies should consider human rights
implications in outsourcing decisions and whether there are any models these companies can use
to address human rights violations within their supply chain. This research will contribute to the
conversation on fast fashion and climate change, and human rights in developing countries such
as Bangladesh.
I demonstrate how fast fashion companies should take human rights implications into account
when deciding to outsource into developing countries and how heavily fast fashion affects the
environment. Based on literature regarding fast fashion, human rights violations, and
environmental degradation, I use case studies, articles, reports, and data analysis to demonstrate
current human rights violations and environmental areas of concern. I will analyze working
conditions, wages, gender pay, regulations, legal status, and protections in Bangladesh. With
that, I plan to compare the amount of media coverage and the outcomes following the Tazreen
Fashions and Rana Plaza incidents.
I will use three different types of methods to conduct my research. To create a framework, I plan
to use a non-structured qualitative analysis method. Human rights case studies will be reviewed
and analyzed from garment factories in Bangladesh. While using this method, I will go in depth
on already existing literature regarding fast fashion and climate change to better understand the
human rights and environmental impact that follows. I will also be conducting my own data
research to analyze data regarding media coverage of Tazreen Fashions and Rana Plaza. I will
limit my data research from media coverage to newspapers as it is the main source of
information for developing countries. With many newspaper articles being released, I will focus
on the years of when the incident occurred up until a full year after. Given that the United States
and the United Kingdom are some of the main contributors to outsourcing in developing
countries, it was expected that there would be coverage in American, United Kingdom, and
Bangladeshi newspapers. Considering this, newspapers for this study were selected by the
following criteria. Initially, the newspapers needed to be well-established and have substantial
readership (Peiser,
2018; Pew Research Center, 2018). Newspapers in the United States, United Kingdom, and
Bangladesh were also chosen by reading popularity.
The New York Times was included in this study to determine whether there were any regional
differences in coverage. The New York Times is the United States newspaper of record and its
dedication to helping people understand the world through on-the-ground, expert and deeply
reported independent journalism helped to determine whether intermedia agenda setting was an
important factor in the framing of garment workers abuses in the fast fashion industry (New
York Times, 2018). In similarity, The New York Times– International Edition was also included
due to its focus on issues that are occurring globally. In the case of United Kingdom newspapers,
The Independent and The Times were also chosen out of reader popularity. In the case of
Bangladesh newspapers, The Financial Express (Bangladesh) and The New Nation (Bangladesh)
were also included in this study out of reader popularity.
Second, newspapers were also determined by area of proximity. This means that the
newspapers were from the geographical location of the incidents and surrounding border state,
the United Kingdom. The newspapers of the United States include The New York Times and The
New
York Times– International Edition, while the United Kingdom newspapers include The
Independent and The Times. The United Kingdom news media was expected to have more
information and content about the human rights violations Bangladeshi garment workers face;
however distance would not be the only factor for heavy media coverage. Bangladesh
newspapers include The Financial Express (Bangladesh) and The New Nation.
Third, access to past information for some United States, United Kingdom, and
Bangladesh newspapers are very limited. All newspapers would be required to provide an
extensive database of their past issues to be included in this study. These six newspapers met the
criteria of high circulation, proximity, and access to past content.
3.1. Tazreen Fashions
In 2012, Bangladesh was home to more than 4,500 garment factories, employing over four
million people, most of them being women (Manik, Yardley, 2012). Garment industries have
become an essential component of Bangladesh due to their heavy reliance on them for their
economy and employment opportunities. As a result, it is anticipated that the clothing business
factories in Bangladesh will continue to expand throughout time. However, over the past few
decades, Bangladesh has emerged as one of the most sought-after places for fast-fashion
factories; consequently, it has been a frequent site of factory fires (Manik, Yardley, 2012; Case
Study: Tazreen Fashions (Bangladesh), 2024).
Tazreen Fashions' garment factory in Bangladesh's capital city of Dhaka was wellknown
for creating apparel for global mass retailers like Walmart and Sears (Neuman, 2014). The eight-
story Tazreen Fashions garment factory had numerous complaints about incorrect fire exits, a
deficiency of fire extinguishers, electrical issues, and improper emergency protocols (Manik,
Yardley, 2012). Approximately 1,100 garment workers were ordered to work overtime one night
to satisfy orders for international fashion brands (Manik, Yardley, 2012). During this time, a fire
broke out in the factory building, but managers reassured all garment workers that it was a
routine drill and to remain in their assigned locations to continue production (Manik, Yardley,
2012; Neuman, 2014).
As workers remained in their stations and continued production, managers went
throughout the factory building to lock the gates from the outside as the fire progressed
(Neuman, 2014). As the manufacturing building started to fill with smoke and flames, workers
had no choice but to utilize the inside stairway to escape due to the absence of fire exits, fire
extinguishers, fire alarms, and sprinkler systems. (Manik, Yardley, 2012). Many of the workers
on the higher levels had little time to flee after receiving orders to stay at their stations. Workers
tried furiously to smash windows in a desperate bid to flee but were unable to do so because iron
grilles were obstructing their view of the windows. (Manik, Yardley, 2012). In their final
attempts, managers and employees hurried to the roof and started jumping to a nearby building,
while others, in a desperate attempt, leaped off the building (Manik, Yardley, 2012; Neuman,
2014). The incident, which was one of the largest garment factory fires, claimed the lives of
nearly 110 garment workers and injured over 200 garment workers due to many safety violations
(Manik, Yardley, 2012; Case Study: Tazreen Fashions (Bangladesh), 2024).
The Tazreen Fashions garment factory emerged as one of the most fatal garment fires,
prompting media attention and generating numerous inquiries and apprehensions on the safety of
working conditions for garment workers. Due to extensive media coverage,
Bangladeshi officials faced both internal and international pressure to conduct a more thorough
investigation of the fire and hold accountable those who are considered responsible (Manik,
Yardley, 2012). A significant number of the families affected by the fire believed that it was
necessary to pursue legal recourse against the owner of the building, Delowar Hossain, as he was
aware of all the safety violations yet pursued no further action to provide safety for the workers
in the building (Neuman, 2014; Manik, Yardley, 2012).
On one hand, families desired to bring legal action against the managers who obstructed
the workers' ability to escape and resume production. (Neuman, 2014; Manik, Yardley, 2012).
On the other hand, others argued that the corporations and global brands whose clothing products
were manufactured in the Tazreen Fashions garment factory building should also be held
responsible. They were aware of the fire and building safety issues but did not make any steps to
improve the situation (Manik, Yardley, 2012). The ineffectiveness of corporate social
responsibility (CSR) in safeguarding workers globally is evident as many more garment workers
continue to get injured and lose their lives at the cost of mass clothing retailers revenue (Case
Study: Tazreen Fashions (Bangladesh), 2024). As more incidents involving inadequate safety
conditions occur, the need for garment workers' safety enforced through contracts and laws is
becoming more and more pressing.
3.2. Tazreen Fashions Media Analytics
For this research data, I selected the terms garment workers and violations in newspapers from
the United States (17 articles), The United Kingdom (7 articles), and Bangladesh (14 articles).
The terms garment workers and violations were chosen to highlight the human rights violations
garment workers faced during their time with Tazreen Fashions. Newspaper articles were chosen
within the timeframe of the incident date, November 24th, 2012, to December 31st, 2013.
Newspaper articles were found through the news, business, and legal sources database,
Nexis Uni, by searching for articles that mentioned garment workers and violations in the
headline or paragraphs. Thus, making the sample found relevant. Only articles that contained the
keywords of garment workers and violations were considered which narrowed down the sample
tremendously. These terms were utilized as limiting factors for articles that addressed the
Tazreen Fashions incident by local and international news media.
The total universe of articles before refining with the keywords of garment workers and
violations in November 2012 to December 2013 was found to be a total 409 articles in the United
States, United Kingdom, and Bangladesh together. After refining the search to include garment
workers and violations, it brought it down to only 38 articles. All 38 articles contained the terms
garment workers and violations in the headline or lead paragraph. The United States had a total
of seventeen articles with key terms, garment workers and violations, released under The New
York Times and The New York Times– International Edition between
November 2012 and December 2013. Similarly, Bangladeshi newspaper outlets, The Financial
Express (Bangladesh) and The New Nation, released fourteen articles regarding the Tazreen
Fashions factory fire with key terms garment workers and violations. Under the same time frame
and key terms, the United Kingdom, newspaper outlets, The Independent and The Times, only
had a total of seven articles released.
3.3. Rana Plaza
Women in Bangladesh are limited in employment opportunities because Bangladesh's economy
and cultural settings are shaped by patriarchal ideals. Consequently, most of the workforce in
Rana Plaza consisted of women and children. Approximately eighty percent of workers are
women who work in the garment industry because they are in dire need of income to support
their families (Bain, 2018). As factory textile workers, women continue to get low wages despite
their desperate need for income and the scarcity of available jobs. On average, the female factory
textile worker received about sixty-seven US dollars a month before the newly passed fixed
minimum wage in late 2023 (Le, 2022, Bangladesh garment workers ‘frustrated’ by gov’t wage
hike after protests, 2023). Without rent, an independent person in Bangladesh pays roughly $294
per month on average for their standard of life (Cost, 2022). In a desperate attempt to increase
their pay, female textile workers are forced to put in endless long hours under appalling working
conditions.
Located in Savar, Bangladesh, the Rana Plaza garment factory stood at eight stories high
and was utilized by many Italian and British retailers (Bossavie, Cho, Heath, 2013). For months,
the Rana Plaza garment workers had been expressing various concerns and complaints to higher
management about their safety in the workplace (Le, 2022). The concerns and complaints
expressed included several cracks in the walls, improper ventilation, leaks, low lighting, and
many more (Le, 2022). Despite their various concerns and complaints, management guaranteed
that all workers in the factory building were safe (BHRRC, 2022). Workers
continued to be forced to work in unsafe working conditions until the collapse of the building in
April of 2013 (BHRRC, 2022).
The collapse of the Rana Plaza has become to be known as one of the worst
garment factory accidents to have occurred. The collapse of the building had cost the lives of
primarily women and children workers as over 1,100 workers lost their lives and over 2,500
workers were left injured (ILO, 2022). In comparison to their male colleagues, female survivors
were significantly impacted by the collapse due to the strong patriarchal norms that pervaded
Bangladesh (Kabir, H.; Maple, M.; Islam, M.S.; Usher, K., 2021). Female survivors under
Bangladesh laws, are prohibited from working in other jobs that are available to them, such as
driving vans or pulling rickshaws (Kabir, H.; Maple, M.;Islam, M.S.; Usher, K., 2021). However,
all survivors were left with physical injuries, psychological stress, declination in mental health,
and increased suicide rates (Kabir, H.; Maple, M.;Islam, M.S.; Usher, K., 2021). Given how
severe and extensive this tragedy at the Rana Plaza garment factory was the effectiveness of
corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs in Bangladesh's ready-togarment (RMG) industry
has been questioned.
3.4. Rana Plaza Media Analytics
For this research data, I also selected the terms garment workers and violations in newspapers
from the United States (14 articles), The United Kingdom (22 articles), and Bangladesh (5
articles). The terms garment workers and violations were chosen to highlight the human rights
violations garment workers faced during their employment in the Rana Plaza building.
Newspaper articles were chosen within the timeframe of the incident date, April 24th, 2013, to a
year later, December 31st, 2014.
Newspaper articles were found through the news, business, and legal sources
database, Nexis Uni, by searching for articles that mentioned garment workers and violations in
the headline or paragraphs. Thus, making the sample found relevant. Only articles that contained
the keywords of garment workers and violations were considered which narrowed down the
sample tremendously. These terms were utilized as limiting factors for articles that addressed the
Tazreen Fashions incident by local and international news media.
The total universe of articles before refining with the keywords of garment workers and
violations in April 2013 to December 2013 was found to be a total 922 articles in the United
States, United Kingdom, and Bangladesh together. After refining the search to include garment
workers and violations, it brought it down to only 41 articles. All 41 articles contained the terms
garment workers and violations in the headline or lead paragraph. The United States had a total
of fourteen articles with key terms, garment workers and violations, released under The New
York Times and The New York Times– International Edition between April 2013 and December
2014. Similarly, Bangladeshi newspaper outlets, The Financial Express (Bangladesh) and The
New Nation, released twenty-two articles regarding the Tazreen Fashions factory fire with key
terms garment workers and violations. Under the same time frame and key terms, the United
Kingdom newspaper outlets, The Independent and Financial Times, only had a total of five
articles released,
4. Findings/Results
4.1. Media Analytics Results
While collecting data to compare the number of media (newspapers) released within the one-year
time frame of each garment factory incident, I was able to come to some conclusions. Before
evaluating the number of newspapers released, I expected to find that the Tazreen Fashions
incident would have a substantial amount of newspaper articles released. I expected an
abundance of articles due to the number of trials the owners of Tazreen Fashion faced and the
persistence of the family members of those injured had on holding those in charge accountable.
It was shocking to see the results drop from 409 articles to 38 when terms garment workers and
violations were used to refine the search. With my data specifications and terms highlighted, my
numbers showed that only 38 newspaper articles were released within the United States, the
United Kingdom, and Bangladesh. Out of all three nations, the ones with the most newspaper
articles were the United States with 17 published articles. Bangladesh newspaper articles
released were not much behind the United States newspaper articles at 14 articles. I found this
shocking because I expected more local coverage newspaper outlets in Bangladesh to have
published an outstanding number of articles on the Tazreen Fashions tragedy.
Similarly, when collecting data samples for the Rana Plaza tragedy to compare the
number of media (newspapers) released within the one-year time frame of each garment factory
incident, I was able to come to some conclusions. I expected to find less newspaper articles to be
released about Rana Plaza than the amount found in the Tazreen Fashions tragedy. However,
after the same specifications and terms garment workers and violations were used to refine the
search, I found that there were more newspaper articles released about Rana Plaza’s incident.
The Rana Plaza incident had a total of 922 newspaper articles released and 41 newspaper articles
released after terms were used for refinement. This was also shocking to discover because family
members of those involved in the Tazreen Fashions fire were persistent in holding the proper
people accountable. Whereas for the victims of Rana Plaza, there seem to be no trials against the
building owners or brands that ignored the reported safety issues which lead to fatalities. I was
also a little surprised to see that Bangladeshi newspaper outlets had released slightly more
newspaper articles on the Rana Plaza incident after discovering the results for Tazreen Fashions.
In this case, the United States followed Bangladesh in leading articles at 14 newspaper articles
released. With both data sets of Tazreen Fashions and Rana Plaza after terms garment workers
and violations and specifications for refinement, results demonstrated that there was a lack of
newspaper articles written within the time frame of the incidents indicating a need for discussion
by local and global actors.
4.2. Corporate Social Responsibility
“To be socially responsible means not only fully satisfying the legal obligations but going further
and investing more in human capital, in the environment, and in relations with the other
interested parties” (Green Book of the European Commission, July 2001).
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is an endeavor taken voluntarily by
businesses to incorporate environmental and social issues into their daily business operations
(Gazzola and Pellicelli, 2009). Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) encompasses a range of
social efforts, including community development, environmental protection, and socially
responsible company practices, driven by both economic viability and societal value addition
(Blowfield, M., Frynas, J.G., 2010; Du, S.; Bhattacharya, C.B., Sen, S., 2005). Traditionally with
CSR theories addressing social aspects, political demand, ethical values, and revenue, it fails to
take environmental impact into theoretical consideration (Saha, P.K., Akhter, S., Hassan, A.,
2021). However, CSR can still be used to assess the persistent violations of workers' rights, the
unsustainability of RMG industries, their inadequate infrastructure, their labor unrest, and gender
discrimination in the workplace.
Businesses, especially those in the industrial sector, have been under increasing pressure
over the past twenty years from many stakeholders to take the environment into account when
conducting their operations (Abbas, J., and Sagsan, M., 2019). The ready-made clothing industry
has been under criticism from ecocritics and other groups to evaluate the impact of human
interactions on the environment and the sector's growth (Issit, 2022). Change is possible because
to the main strengths of ecocriticism, which include relevance, applying their work to training,
attitudes, and actions, and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), which emphasizes addressing
social aspects, political demand, ethical ideals, and revenue (Newman, 2002; Saha, P.K., Akhter,
S., Hassan, A., 2021). The interaction between people and the environment is emphasized in both
CSR and ecocriticism to evaluate the unethical and unsustainable activities that the RMG
industry produces. However, with Bangladeshi ready-made garment sectors rapid expansion,
there is an increase of environmental pressures being placed by CSR though organizations and
the media (Sarkar, A., Qian, L. & Peau, A.K., 2020).
To connect stakeholders and organizations symmetrically, corporate social responsibility
(CSR) involves three areas of interaction: social, environmental, and economic (Gazzola and
Pellicelli, 2009). The environment area aims to efficiently manage the material and energy
resources to lower the amount of the environmental impact of the businesses' activities, while the
social area concentrates on enhancing public enterprise and maintaining influence in the
community and region (Gazzola and Pellicelli, 2009). The economic area seeks to create and
distribute value under corporate governance in tandem with the environmental and social
domains (Gazzola and Pellicelli, 2009). Sectors could lose business and be compelled to
withdraw from the market if RMG merchants continue to focus profit maximization without
adhering to necessary social compliance issues, even when they are aware of CSR
implementation (Saha, P.K., Akhter, S., Hassan, A., 2021). Therefore, organizations are
pressuring RMG sectors to hold sustainable practices and prioritize ethical treatment for
readmade garment workers globally, but especially in outsourced nations such as Bangladesh.
4.3. Organization and Government Efforts
4.3.1. Clean Clothes Campaign
In the 2013 case of Tazreen Fashions, we recall that the number of safety violations resulted in
the deaths of over 110 garment workers and the injuries of over 200 others (Manik, Yardley,
2012; Case Study: Tazreen Fashions (Bangladesh), 2024). In the same year, the collapse of the
Rana Plaza building resulted in the deaths of over 1,100 workers and the injuries of over 2,500
others (ILO, 2017). Since the two fatal occurrences happened over five months apart,
nongovernmental organizations, trade unions, and labor rights organizations took matters into
their own hands and brought attention to the human rights violations that fast fashion retailers
were committing (ILO, 2017).
“It's unbelievable that brands still refuse to sign a binding agreement with unions and
labor groups to stop these unsafe working conditions from existing. Tragedy after tragedy
shows that corporate-controlled monitoring is completely inadequate.” (Tessel
Pauli from Clean Clothes Campaign)
The campaign organization discovered many of the same brands that were
operating in Tazreen Fashions building were also manufacturing in Rana Plaza after conducting
investigations into the remains of Rana Plaza (CCC, n,d.). The Clean Clothes Campaign urges
companies outsourcing in Bangladesh to sign the Bangladesh Fire and Building Safety
Agreement right away because numerous companies continue to manufacture under hazardous
working conditions that violate human rights (CCC, n,d.). To promote a safe and healthy textile
and apparel sector in Bangladesh, trade unions and brands have come to an autonomous, legally
binding agreement known as the Bangladesh Fire and Building Safety Agreement (Accord on
Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh 2013). The agreement covers manufacturers of home
textiles, knit and fabric accessories, and ready-made garments (RMG), at the discretion of the
signatory enterprises (Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh 2013.).
In addition, Clean Clothes Campaign has partnered with local and global unions, and
labor rights organizations to develop a sector-wide program (CCC, n,d.). Regular building
inspections, labor rights training, public disclosure, and evaluations of safety standards are all
part of the implemented program (CCC, n,d.). Its objective was to maintain the support of the
major labor stakeholders in Bangladesh and throughout the world while remaining practical and
transparent (CCC, n,d.). The US corporation PVH Corporation, which owns Calvin Klein,
Tommy Hilfiger, and the German store Tchibo, already signed the agreement, but Clean Clothes
Campaign urges all major brands outsourcing in Bangladesh to sign the initiative to ensure rapid
implementation (CCC, n,d.). Through the agreement's program, hundreds of thousands of
workers' lives will be protected from the hazards that they currently suffer in unlawful and
dangerous garment factories (CCC, n,d.).
4.3.2. New York City’s Triangle Waist Company Trial
In 1911, over a century before the Tazreen Fashions disaster and the collapse of the Rana Plaza
building, a deadly fire broke out at New York City's Triangle Waist Company garment factory,
killing about 200 people, primarily who were immigrant women who worked in the garment
industry (Margolis, T., Keller, K., & Rones, J., 2011; OSHA, 2011). After so many people
suffered fatalities because of dangerous working conditions, poor fire protocol and procedures,
and managers preventing access to escape routes, people began protesting and demanding a trial
against the Triangle Waist Factory's owners and managers who deliberately locked doors during
the fire to prevent garment workers from fleeing (Greenwald, 2002).
With substantial pressure from organizations, unions, and society, a state government
trial against Triangle Waist Factory's owners, Harris and Blanck, and managers who deliberately
locked doors during the fire to prevent garment workers from fleeing, began nine months later in
December of 1911 (Greenwald, 2002; Sanchez, 2006). Their argument was based on the claim
that the Triangle's doors were deliberately shut during business hours, which could account for
the large number of fatalities in the incident (Sanchez, 2006). Unfortunately, the jury delivered a
verdict of not guilty against Harris and Blanck, but family of victims continued to pursue legal
actions by going to court again for the manslaughter death of another fire victim (Linder, 2019).
To bring prosecution against Harris and Blanck, they chose to settle the twentythree civil cases
that the victims' families had brought against them (Linder, 2019; Sanchez,
2006). Their settlement ultimately gave seventy-five dollars per victim which is equivalent to
$2,300.59 dollars today (Linder, 2019; Sanchez, 2006). Although their legal battles were not
highly successful, the United States garment sector underwent significant transformation. A nine-
member Factory Investigating Commission was established because of the Triangle Shirtwaist
Factory, with the primary objective of investigating the safety and working conditions in
factories located in New York (Linder, 2019). Within the time frame of the trials, the
Commission was able to enact thirty-six new laws reforming the state labor codes. Through
awareness and endless effort from organizations, trade unions, and the people of the nation, the
ready-made garment industry was put on the political agenda calling for changes to be made for
the rights of the people working in the United States.
“Out of that terrible episode came a self-examination of stricken conscience in which the
people of this state saw for the first time the individual worth and value of each of those
146 people who fell or were burned in that great fire...We all felt that we had been
wrong, that something was wrong with that building which we had accepted, or the
tragedy never would have happened. Moved by this sense of stricken guilt, we banded
ourselves together to find a way by law to prevent this kind of disaster.... It was the
beginning of a new and important drive to bring the humanities to the life of the brothers
and sisters we all had in the working groups of these United States.” (Frances Perkins,
Factory Investigating Commission; Linder, 2019).
4.4. Retail Accountability
Many environmental hazards and human rights issues are being brought to light through social
media platforms as the popularity of fast fashion continues to rise. Customers are starting to put
pressure on fast fashion firms to promote sustainable practices to limit or minimize climate
change as the effects of these environmental, social, and economic challenges become more
pressing (Khurana, 2011). Numerous manufacturers have pledged to implement sustainable
practices in response to pressure from organizations and society. These activities include creating
eco-friendly designs, reducing the use of microplastics in clothes, raw materials, transportation,
and correct disposal of used clothing (Khurana, 2011).
Affordable apparel is a major appeal for consumers, which enables fast fashion
companies implicated in labor and environmental issues to continue making profits. One
example is fast retailer, Fashion Nova which launched in 2006 (Michelle, 2022). Known for
being the viral fashion company that dominated social media by launching hundreds of new
clothes and accessories every day, and celebrity collaborations, Fashion Nova made an immense
impact in the apparel business in 2018 (Michelle, 2022). Fashion Nova made social media
presence a top priority to reach as many customers worldwide as possible, while having just five
physical clothing stores (Michelle, 2022).
The CEO of Fashion Nova prioritized having a strong social media presence and believed
that the best approach to market the brand was to work with well-known celebrities and social
media influencers who had large followings to help attract new customers (Michelle,
2022). In less than two years after starting its website, Fashion Nova was able to produce over
400 million dollars in revenue and rank among the top performing companies in 2018 primarily
to the sponsorships of well-known celebrities and influencers, and low-cost prices (Michelle,
2022). In addition, Fashion Nova became one of the most Googled fashion companies globally in
the same year that it outperformed luxury labels like Gucci, Louis Vuitton, Dolce & Gabbana,
and Dior in terms of revenue (Michelle, 2022). With 600 new items being released per week,
Fashion Nova has evolved from a fast fashion company to an ultra-fast fashion brand. With a
$906 million revenue, the business is still among the top fast fashion brands despite having little
to no commitment to sustainability (Michelle, 2022).
While many companies and retail establishments do not practice sustainable
fashion, some, like Uniqlo, have started implementing new strategies and tactics to produce
clothing that is more environmentally friendly (Nguyen, 2023). Using eco-friendly materials,
implementing a "repair and reuse" program, and establishing a policy that permits them to
manage forests in its supply chain to assist minimize water usage are just a few of the ways
Uniqlo has started to be sustainable (Hymann, 2022). Uniqlo asserts that it has improved
sustainability in its 2,300+ locations worldwide and its manufacturing by implementing
sustainable adjustments and practices (Hymann, 2022). Nevertheless, because remarks are often
vague, Uniqlo has not yet provided precise information about the new procedures and processes
that were put into place (Hymann, 2022). Without transparency, customers frequently wonder if
a company continues to adhere to its sustainability-related promises and practices or is just
releasing statements to preserve its reputation (Chan, 2022). This is commonly referred to as
"greenwashing" when a brand or business makes claims about having sustainable practices but is
unable to produce concrete facts (Chan, 2022; Marko, M., & Kusá, A., 2023). Greenwashing is
the practice of businesses pretending to be working towards sustainability when their efforts are
quite little which has become more in the fast fashion industry (Marko, M., & Kusá, A., 2023).
Nonetheless, several companies and retailers, including Boohoo and Uniqlo, assert
to engage in sustainable practices but are unable to offer specific data to support their claims.
Being unable to support their claims, but state they are making sustainable efforts is what is
known as greenwashing (Marko, M., & Kusá, A., 2023). The Concise Oxford English Dictionary
(10th edition) defines greenwashing as “disinformation disseminated by an organization so as to
present an environmentally responsible public image” (Lu, X.; Sheng, T.; Zhou, X.; Shen, C.;
Fang, B, 2022). In similar strategies as Fashion Nova, Boohoo has made partnerships with
celebrities and influencers to help boost the brand’s ethical and sustainability image (Chan,
2022). Boohoo and media personality, Kourtney Kardashian Barker, collaborated to develop and
release sustainability collections in 2022 (Dzhengiz, T., Haukkala, T., & Sahimaa, O., 2023).
However, many consumers accused Boohoo and Kourtney Kardashian Barker of
greenwashing as the fashion retailer does not practice ethical or sustainable methods as they
claim (Chan, 2022). For instance, Boohoo regularly claims to provide outstanding compensation
and benefits, access to training and development, and a higher payroll commitment to its
employees than the average (Chan, 2022; Press, 2023). However, a 2020 investigation found that
throughout the pandemic, Boohoo textile garment workers were subjected to hazardous working
conditions and were paid as little as $4.30 an hour (Chan, 2022). Additionally, the company and
Kourtney Kardashian Barker jointly made a statement in which they said that the collections
were created with sustainability in mind and that they aim to inspire customers to make more
environmentally friendly purchases (Chan, 2022; Press, 2023; Wheeler, 2022). However, the
clothing pieces in these collaborated collections still contain many harmful textile materials such
as cotton, polyester, and microplastics (Chan, 2022). Although brands and merchants will persist
in greenwashing consumers about the detrimental impact their clothing has on the environment
and human rights, it is incumbent upon consumers to hold them responsible for their conduct to
promote improved methods and procedures.
For instance, Levi Strauss & Co., a long-standing company well known for its denim,
started looking into and changing ways to help mitigate climate change as a brand in 2011. In
late 2011, Levi's introduced their "Water<Less" approach, which established more than twenty
distinct manufacturing procedures to minimize water usage and increase water efficiency
(Levi Strauss & Co, 2020). This manufacturing process and newly adopted procedures can
include tumbling jeans with golf balls and bottle caps instead of fabric softener (Levi Strauss &
Co, 2020). By utilizing these substitute methods for fabric softener, it has allowed the company
to save ninety-six percent of the water used before Water<Less (Levi Strauss & Co, 2020). As of
2020, Levi’s has saved over 3 billion liters of water and recycled an additional 5 billion liters
with the adopted Water<Less method (Levi Strauss & Co, 2020). As of 2021, about seventy-six
percent of Levi’s products are produced under their Water<Less approach (Levi Strauss & Co,
2021, April). Levi’s also recognizes that almost 470 million people worldwide will be
categorized as high stress by the year 2030, but with the Water<Less approach, the company is
adjusting their water usage in their manufacturing factories (Levi Strauss & Co, 2020). They will
be moving their factories to more local rather than global locations that might be facing high
levels of water scarcity (Levi Strauss & Co, 2020). Levi’s continues to express their
prioritization of sustainability and want their consumers to be aware of the changes and the brand
is taking towards it.
“Saving water is more important than profits. That’s why we invited other apparel
companies to our Eureka Innovation Lab - so they could learn how to implement our
Water<Less® practices in their own factories.” (Levi Strauss & Co, 2020)
During the same year, Levi's also unveiled their Recycle and Reuse Guidelines for their
production facilities, where guidelines “aim to minimize the environmental impact of freshwater
usage in water-scarce areas by encouraging the reduction of water consumption through water
reuse” (Levi Strauss & Co, n.d.). The program overall was designed to "provide standards to
encourage preservation of fresh water by reducing water consumption in the supply chain
through water recycling” (Levi Strauss & Co, n.d.). Under this new program and guidelines, the
brand focuses on intaking less water, reliability on a guaranteed volume of quality water, and
reducing their use of freshwater (Levi Strauss & Co, n.d.). The guidelines mandate that a
minimum of 20% of the water used during manufacture be recycled which allows pieces to
qualify as a Water<Less product (Levi Strauss & Co, 2020). Not only will it be meeting Recycle
and Reuse Guidelines, but also supporting their Water<Less campaign goal. By following these
guidelines, the company can avoid fines and the possibility of being shut down by the local
government because of water restrictions as most manufacturing facilities are now local rather
than global (Levi Strauss & Co, n.d.). Recycle and Reuse Guidelines continues to make efforts to
reduce their use of freshwater and replace it with recycled water to minimize their water footprint
(Levi Strauss & Co, n.d.).
In 2017, Levi’s also launched their new climate action strategy which includes setting
high goals to cut carbon emissions in our owned and operated facilities as well as throughout our
international supply chain (Levi Strauss & Co, 2018b, December 10). The new set targets under
this action strategy are aggressive in their aims and timeframes in order to reduce carbon
emissions in the apparel industry as quickly as possible (Levi Strauss & Co, 2018a, July 31). The
company is committed to obtaining all of their electricity from renewable sources by making
investments in renewable energy across all of our owned and operated facilities (Levi Strauss &
Co, 2018a, July 31). Through energy efficiency improvements and investments in renewable
energy, they are expected to reduce 90% of all owned-and-operated facilities' greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions (Levi Strauss & Co, 2018a, July 31). In addition, through an innovative public-
private partnership with the International Finance Corporation's Partnership (IFC) for Cleaner
Textiles (PaCT) to provide suppliers with technical expertise and access to low-cost financing to
support sustainable energy and water investments could result in a 40% reduction in GHG
emissions in the supply chain (Levi Strauss & Co, 2018a, July 31).
Levi's will be able to fulfill their obligation under the terms of the Paris Agreement to prevent
global temperatures from rising by more than 2 degrees Celsius by implementing such climate
action plans (Levi Strauss & Co, 2018b, December 10). As a result of the successful climate
action strategies just after five months and continuation of obligation to the Paris Agreement,
Levi’s felt confident that they could join the Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action (Levi
Strauss & Co, 2018b, December 10). Alongside the Paris Agreement, the Fashion Industry
Charter for Climate Action addresses the climate effect of fashion along its whole value chain by
bringing together top fashion businesses, retailers, supplier groups, and others (Levi Strauss &
Co, 2018b, December 10).
In addition, in 2021—roughly ten years after the first significant sustainability
approaches—Levi's introduced their Buy Better, Wear Longer campaign, pledging to produce
designs that will be in style all year long and composed of recyclable and renewable materials
(Levi Strauss & Co, 2023 September 12). Levi’s as a brand has always valued themselves on
quality and ensuring that their products are durable (Levi Strauss & Co, 2023 September 12).
With that, their Buy Better, Wear Longer campaign will allow them to encourage consumers to
participate in their campaign by purchasing from them as their clothing durability and materials
are meant to last generations (Levi Strauss & Co, 2023 September 12). With the first campaign
launching in 2021, it became extremely successful that they relaunched the campaign the
following year in 2022 (Levi Strauss & Co, 2023 September 12). Because the campaign featured
well-known media figures, it had an international impact and gained recognition as the initiative
that introduced sustainability into the global discourse (Levi Strauss & Co, 2023 September 12).
The United Nations Environment Programme and the UN Climate Change-convened Fashion
Charter even acknowledged the campaign in 2023 for its sustainability commitments (Levi
Strauss & Co, 2023 September 12).
In its next attempt to become a sustainable company, Levi's has joined the Fashion for
Good sustainable initiative foundation, which complies with certain rules and regulations
regarding the production of denim for a better environment (Levi Strauss & Co, 2021). Shredded
plastic bottles and wasted polyester fabric are processed into chips and used to create recycled
polyester, which is subsequently used to create the usable fiber materials used in our newest
designs (Levi Strauss & Co, 2021). Recycled polyester additionally lowers their reliance on
fossil fuels and requires less energy to produce than virgin polyester (Levi Strauss & Co, 2021).
Furthermore, Levi's also pledged in 2018 to cut emissions by 90% in owned and operated
facilities, convert those facilities to 100% renewable electricity, and cut emissions by 40%
throughout our supply chain by 2025 (Levi Strauss & Co, 2021).
Through such sustainable efforts, the cost of clothing does increase slightly. In the US,
the average price of a pair of Levi's jeans is roughly fifty-three dollars, but the cost can range
from as low as thirty-two dollars (Levi Strauss & Co, 2021; Numbeo, 2024). Due to their
newfound popularity and adoption of sustainable practices, Levi's now generates over 4.9 billion
dollars in revenue annually (Michelle, 2022). Despite the promises made by many fashion
businesses to embrace more sustainable processes and methodologies, fast fashion is still in high
demand because of its low cost. It's thought to be because fast fashion is so affordable that
people are willing to forgo sustainability, ethical practices, and quality in favor of affordable
apparel. Nonetheless, businesses like Levi's who have committed to implementing sustainable
practices and procedures have seen an increase in yearly revenue. By applying pressure from
consumers, organizations, and the government, retailers may be compelled to stop their
unsustainable practices and detrimental effects on the environment to provide a safe and
sustainable work environment for workers producing ready-to-wear globally.
4.5. Consumer Awareness
According to a report published in 2020, the years 2010 to 2019 were the hottest in the previous
140 years, and 2020 was the warmest year since record-keeping began (Nabi, M.H., Hasan M.,
Chowdhury, A.T., Naz, F., and Hossian, M., 2023). These findings have brought attention to the
fact that climate change is evidently happening globally and cannot be denied. Ecocritics,
Marxism, and Corporate Social Responsibility, heavily promote respect for employees, society
and the environment. As a society and consumer, it is our responsibility to learn about the causes
of climate change and the people it affects.
Fast fashion is still damaging to the environment in many ways, such as increasing usage
of plastic, greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption, the use of dangerous chemicals and
dyes, and landfill waste. By 2050, the World Bank projects that more than 140 million people in
Latin America, South Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa would be impacted by climate change
(Mundial, 2018). Bangladesh and other developing nations are observed to bear the brunt of
climate change's effects (Outlook, 2023). Workers in ready-to-wear industries are left to deal
with the detrimental effects of climate change at work as it affects developing nations like
Bangladesh.
Accountability can be started by raising customer knowledge of the common
problems that fast fashion retailers' outsourcing of their production to developing nations with
less strict laws and regulations causes for the ready-made clothing industry. In a 2023 study, 155
female consumers were interviewed and asked a series of questions regarding fast fashion and its
environmental impact (Hageman, E., Kumar, V., Duong, L., Kumari, A., & McAuliffe, E.,
2024). In this study, over seventy percent of respondents associated fast fashion with cheap, low
quality, and not sustainable (Hageman, E., Kumar, V., Duong, L., Kumari, A., & McAuliffe, E.,
2024). In another 2023 study, 97 consumers, primarily female, participated in interviews and also
asked a series of questions regarding fast fashion and its effect on the environment
(Papasolomou, I., Melanthiou, Y., and Tsakouridis, A., 2022). Like the study previously
mentioned, about seventy-five percent of respondents stated that they are aware and understand
the social and environmental impact that fast fashion practices which include child labor and
pollution (Papasolomou, I., Melanthiou, Y., and Tsakouridis, A., 2022). In both studies, it is
evident that most consumers are aware that the fast fashion industry negatively affects the
environment, however, it also demonstrates that consumers do not precisely know the knowledge
of the actual effects (Hageman, E., Kumar, V., Duong, L., Kumari, A., & McAuliffe, E., 2024;
Papasolomou, I., Melanthiou, Y., and Tsakouridis, A., 2022).
When consumers were asked, they were aware of the sustainable initiatives of fast
fashion companies, about forty percent presented that they were aware of the initiatives, but
when asked to name one initiative, over sixty percent of consumers were unable to (Hageman,
E., Kumar, V., Duong, L., Kumari, A., & McAuliffe, E., 2024). In the second research study,
when interviewees were asked if they feel disgusted when they learn how much waste and
pollution are generated by the fast fashion industry, about eighty percent of consumers had
strong negative views upon learning about the amount of trash and pollution produced by the fast
fashion business (Papasolomou, I., Melanthiou, Y., and Tsakouridis, A., 2022). In the same
study, more than eighty-five percent of interviewees had negative sentiments toward labor abuses
and violations in the ready-made garment industry after learning about them
(Papasolomou, I., Melanthiou, Y., and Tsakouridis, A., 2022). Consumers will be more inclined
to seek out fashion brands that uphold ethical standards for garment workers and sustainability as
they become more aware of these practices. In the 155-consumer study, only about forty-five
percent of respondents indicated that they would purchase clothing from sustainable brands and
companies (Hageman, E., Kumar, V., Duong, L., Kumari, A., & McAuliffe, E., 2024). But the
same study also showed that forty-five percent, almost sixty-six percent of consumers
interviewed were willing to pay extra to purchase from clothing brands and retailers that are
environmentally friendly (Hageman, E., Kumar, V., Duong, L., Kumari, A., & McAuliffe, E.,
2024).
Raising consumer awareness can be accomplished in several ways, such as by having
consumers do company research before making purchases. Fast fashion will continue to exploit
and capitalize on garment workers from outsourced countries and damage the environment if the
world continues to not hold retailers accountable. Consumers can hold retailers accountable for
their actions by researching their methods of sustainability by visiting retailers' websites directly.
There consumers can discover if their favorite brands and retailers are practicing sustainable
methods like Levi’s Water<Less program (Levi Strauss & Co, 2021). By purchasing from more
sustainable retailers and brands, companies who do not practice sustainable methods will see a
decline in sales and be pressured into practicing sustainability (Gazzola, P., Pelicelli, M., 2009).
With constant and effective pressure from consumers, retailers and brands will be forced to
become more sustainable and ethical in efforts to maintain a reputation, high consumer traffic,
and optimize profits.
5. Discussion and Implications
5.1. Human Rights
I conducted this mixed-method of research study to explore the impact of fast-fashion retailers
outsourcing textile workers in developing countries such as Bangladesh and the environmental
impact it has on the world. The results of my investigation and my research questions reveal that
the ready-made garment industry is exploiting garment workers for their own personal profit. My
results also demonstrate that retailers and governments need to acknowledge the human rights
violations textile workers are facing daily while working in the industry.
The data sets utilized in this study, found that textile workers in outsourced countries are
continuously facing human rights violations in factories. The human rights violations found
included unlivable wages and unsafe working conditions and hazards. Bangladesh has been the
preferred location for more than 180 fast fashion retailers because it provides low-cost labor,
innovative textile technology, and duty-free market access to the European Union (AQF, 2021).
With Bangladesh as one of the biggest exporters of clothing to the US, textile workers there are
increasingly vulnerable to poor pay, long workdays, and dangerous working conditions (Ahmed,
2004). Data demonstrated that Bangladesh textile workers roughly make about sixty-seven
dollars a month when the average cost is approximately $294 dollars per person, not including
housing or utilities (Le, 2020; Cost, 2022; Long, X., & Nasiry 2022). Consequently, even though
the textile business produces among the highest earnings, many workers—especially those with
families— are left impoverished due to low pay (Le, 2020).
My data sets revealed that many fast-fashion factories not only offer wages that are
unaffordable but also unsafe working conditions such as leaks, dim lighting, cracks in the walls,
and insufficient ventilation (Le, 2020). As Bangladesh case studies, Tazreen Fashions factory and
Rana Plaza, demonstrated retailers and supervisors ignored the many textile factory workers'
multiple reports of issues with the infrastructure of the building, unsanitary conditions, and
hazardous workstations (Le, 2020). As demonstrated by Tazreen Fashions and Rana Plaza,
factories in Bangladesh still fail to consider the potential risks associated with ignored or unfixed
reported issues, which could result in numerous catastrophic incidents (Manik, Yardley, 2012;
Case Study: Tazreen Fashions (Bangladesh), 2024). Ready-made clothing companies continue to
exploit their workers by profiting off their need for food and less strict labor rules and standards,
even though fatalities have occurred in fast fashion facilities because of poor working conditions
and pay. However, in the United States case of the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory, with much effort
and persistence to hold retailers and factory owners (and supervisors) accountable, twenty-three
trials were able to enact thirty-six new laws reforming the state labor codes. The textile industry
will face pressure to put workers' rights first because of awareness that it is abusing and violating
its employees' basic rights and interests.
This intersects with Marxism theory because Marxists argue that capitalism systems
disregard the fundamental rights and interests of the oppressed in an effort of personal gain
(Engle, 2008). Data demonstrated that the rapid expansion of fast fashion is accompanied by
ongoing violations of the human rights of workers producing ready-made garments in countries
where they are outsourced by fashion retailers. With fast fashion retailers continuing to disregard
the fundamental rights and interests of textile workers, subjecting them to human rights
violations at work in outsourcing countries, Marxism holds that fast fashion companies are
examples of capitalists who prioritize their own financial gain over the basic human rights of
those who produce ready-to-wear clothing. Marxists demonstrated that it is essential to look at
the historical materialism of human rights and highlight the injustices done by the fashion
industry while analyzing the connection between fast fashion and violations of human rights (Pal,
2018). For decades, textile garment workers in outsourced countries, such as Bangladesh, have
been deprived of basic human rights and adequate working conditions while the textile industry
continues to flourish.
In my data set of media coverage within a one-year time frame of the Tareen Fashions
building fire and the Rana Plaza building collapse, it was discovered that there is a dire need of
media coverage in regard to human rights violations textile workers face. The numbers in the
data set measured that only about 9% of newspaper articles released in the United States, the
United Kingdom, and Bangladesh newspaper outlets included the terms garment workers and
violations. Similarly, in the data set for Rana Plaza, it was measured that 4% of newspaper
articles released in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Bangladesh newspaper outlets
included the terms garment workers and violations. With such low documentation, under
Marxism, it is believed that textile garment workers in outsourced countries will continue to be
exploited by the fast fashion industry if there continues to be lack of documentation and media
coverage of the violations garment workers sustain. Marxism maintains that because human
rights were created by social conceptions and are not being adequately enforced worldwide, they
can be seen as fictitious or mythological (Akani, nd; Esther, 2018). However, with the data set
provided above of media coverage, Marxism believes that media outlets, such as journalists, need
to be more present in conducting qualitative data on the issues garment workers are facing.
Marxism also calls upon there to be community and government intervention to maintain and
minimize violations committed against garment workers. Marxists urge the media, society, and
consumers to recognize that the capitalist system prioritizes individual profit over the human
rights of textile workers (Akani, nd).
5.2. Environmental Degradation
The data in the environmental harm section showed that many fast fashion retailers are practicing
unsustainable methods in production and manufacturing. Data demonstrates that the global
clothing consumption will increase by sixty-three percent by 2030 if fast fashion continues to
design clothing to be discarded after a few wears (Claudio 2007; Maratos, 2023). Creating
millions of tons of clothing waste which lead to an increase of greenhouse gas emissions and
carbon dioxide which is expected to increase by fifty percent within the next few years (Le,
2020; Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022). Data also demonstrates that fast fashion clothing is
extremely detrimental to the environment because it is constructed of materials that mostly
contain plastic and synthetic fibers (Ganz, 2020). Where about sixty-nine percent of fast fashion
clothing is made of synthetic fibers which can take hundreds of years to decompose fully and
negatively impacts the oceans (Ganz, 2020; Maratos, 2023).
In addition to oceanic harm, fast fashion has also been accountable for ocean water loss
(Whalen, V., & Fellow, S. M., 2022). Research data predicts that by 2030, a forty percent rise in
water usage will upset the equilibrium between supply and demand for water (Elrod, 2017). With
water contamination and consumption, wastewater contains such dangerous materials that it is
almost hard to ever make the water safe again in most cases (Le, 2020). With such evident
detrimental effects fast fashion has on the environment, fast fashion retailers continue their
harmful methods, practices, and techniques. However, data did demonstrate that some retailers
are making efforts to minimize negative environmental effects through newly implemented
methods, practices, and programs.
This intersects with Ecocriticism theory because it asserts that the main advantage of this
theoretical framework is its applicability to training, attitudes, and behaviors (Newman, 2002). In
addition, they emphasize the importance it is to understand how humans and the environment
interact to pinpoint the main forces behind the structure and environmental impacts (Newman,
2002). Considering the continuing increase in fast fashion, it is critical to assess the relationship
of environmental impact and the ready-made clothing business. Globally, fast fashion continues
to create low quality clothing causing an insane increase in plastic use, greenhouse gas
emissions, water consumption, hazardous chemicals and dyes, and landfill debris. Because fast
fashion production is projected to grow on an upward trend, ecocriticism heavily urges to raise
awareness of the negative effects the ready-made garment industry has on the environment
(Newman, 2002).
It is essential to receive appropriate education on the subject to improve awareness of
these detrimental impacts, since knowledge can highlight the full gravity of the problem, which
is frequently ignored or overlooked (Phillips, 1999). The survey data aligns with the ideas of
ecocriticism since it creates social implications as it creates pressure on brands and companies to
modify their production and manufacturing processes in a sustainable way through activism,
proper education, and awareness. A successful example of ecocriticism is Levi’s Water<Less
method, Buy Better, Wear Longer campaign, and their Recycle and Reuse Guidelines. Enough
pressure from consumers was put on Levi’s that they developed new methods and guidelines to
meet consumers' demand for sustainability. Through activism and raising awareness, consumers
can force companies to adopt sustainable practices and procedures by becoming more aware of
the detrimental effects fast fashion has on the environment.
6. Limitations
This study did encounter limitations throughout the research process. The constraints and
difficulties that were faced are described in the limitations. A few of the research's limitations
include the limited information on abuses of human rights and the working conditions that real
textile workers in Bangladesh and other developing nations must report. Existing data on abuses
of human rights and the working conditions that real textile workers in Bangladesh and other
developing nations do not accurately portray the situation in nations as it is most often
generalized. The lack of number of data and statistics could greatly affect the accuracy of
numerical data provided, as well as cases. Lack of information could also be the lack of reporting
incidents by textile workers in fear of the consequences such as cut work hours, unemployment,
or cut pay. The data and statistics reported in the study were estimates as actual numbers are
significantly higher.
Limitations were also found while conducting my own data set of media coverage in the United
States, the United Kingdom, and Bangladesh. While examining the number of newspaper articles
released in all three nations' top newspapers, it was extremely limited when inputting key terms,
garment workers and violations. Numbers dropped drastically after refining with key words.
Therefore, making the data and statistics merely an estimate as it is believed that there was many
more unreleased coverages nationally and internationally.
Similarly, limitations were found in the selection process of case studies. When using the nation,
Bangladesh, to analyze human rights violations in the ready-made garment industry, data did not
specify the total statistical number of cases that have occurred and occur regularly. The case
studies on human rights violations in Bangladesh analyzed the violations of human rights when a
fatal disaster occurred. However, the data was limited on recent and updated numbers. The
Bangladesh government’s lack of laws surrounding the treatment of workers and their failure to
enact responses to illicit activities can be seen as the main contributing factor to these limitations.
In the case studies of human rights violations in the ready-made garment industry in the United
States, studies describing human rights violations were difficult. Case studies data were very
limited with existing data that was not recent and updated with no reported interviews or survey
data from textile workers in the United States facing human rights violations. The United States
upheld of enforcing laws and regulations can be seen as the main contributor to these limitations.
In addition, limitations were also found in the existing data on environmental impact. As there
are no global definitions for pollution, greenhouse gasses, and more, it is difficult to rely on the
numerical data provided. The lack of definitions creates a lack of accuracy in the numerical data
provided. The data and statistics reported in the studies were estimates as actual numbers are
significantly higher. Another limitation within the realm of environmental data was the
abundance of detrimental effects fast fashion causes to the environment. With an abundance, I
found it difficult to decide and divide data, but ultimately reported on the issues that were most
detrimental to the environment. Existing data on brands' efforts toward sustainability lead to the
limitations of results of enforcing newly adopted methods. Outcomes of newly implemented
methods were often generalized and not given newly updated numerical data. In the Levi’s
Water<Less method, Buy Better, Wear Longer campaign, and their Recycle and Reuse
Guidelines selection, it was difficult to achieve previous data of implementation. This limitation
can be attributed to brands and companies desire of maintaining a reputable name by not
displaying accurate or updated numerical data.
7. Conclusion
Textile workers’ human rights violations in Bangladesh and detrimental environmental effects
are not being effectively addressed. Often, ready-made garment industry factories and retailers in
outsourced nations can commit acts of human rights violations against textile workers with few
consequences. This is especially true for women and children as they make up the majority of the
ready-made garment workers in outsourced countries like Bangladesh (Khurana, 2011; Manik,
Yardley, 2012). However, it is important to understand that all ready-made garment workers
deserve the right to a safe working environment. One way to mitigate human rights violations
manufacturing buildings in outsourced nations is through consumer awareness and retailer
accountability.
Marxism and Ecocriticism urges education and activism to hold retailers and the industry
accountable for their exploitation of workers and deprivation of fundamental rights and
freedoms. As the data set of media coverage measured a lack of coverage of violations garment
workers face as only 9% of newspaper articles regarding the Tazreen Fashions fire included the
terms garment workers and violations. In the same data set, it also measured a lack of media
coverage including the terms garment workers and violations for the Rana Plaza building fire as
only 4% of newspapers articles included the criteria. In efforts to increase media coverage, it is
recommended that journalists conduct substantial qualitative research and conduct interviews of
garment workers in Bangladesh. To gain awareness and hold retailers accountable, consumers
are called upon to educate themselves in the clothing brands, retailers, and companies that they
are shopping at. It is also important to consider the catastrophes that have occurred due to
improper work standards and regulations such as the Tazreen Fashions factory fire and the Rana
Plaza building collapse.
Becoming educated on the current human rights violations and the history of human rights in the
ready-made garment industry, will allow consumers to actively pressure retailers and brands to
provide ethical work standards and regulations. As fast fashion continues to grow tremendously,
it is essential that consumers be cautious about where their items are being made and who is
making their items.
Understanding the working conditions and inadequate income can drive consumers to
purchase from retailers and brands who treat their workers respectfully. Ready-made garment
workers face unlivable wages due to less restrictive laws and regulations in outsourced countries,
which worsen as Bangladesh has become the home to over 180 fast-fashion retailers.
In addition to unethical practices towards ready-made garment workers in outsourced
countries, fast fashion also heavily contributes to the detrimental effects of the environment. Fast
fashion has become ranked third among global polluters as it continues to produce thousands of
new products on a weekly basis. Fast fashion also contributes to negatively affecting the
environment through increased plastic use, greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption,
hazardous chemicals and dyes, and landfill debris. Similarly to human rights violations, Marxism
and Ecocriticism urges education and activism to hold retailers accountable for their lack of
sustainable practices, methods, and strategies. Through education and activism, retailers and
brands will be pressured into changing their practices, methods, and strategies to more
sustainable ways like Levi’s have done throughout the past decade.
Ultimately, it is imperative for consumers to understand the complexity of the concerns
surrounding human rights and sustainability in the fast fashion sector. Both problems entail a
variety of players and methods. To effectively address this situation, consumers, retailers, local
government actors, international government players, and international organizations must work
together to find a solution that works for both problems.
