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Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Many individuals experience traumatic events in childhood or adolescence.
Traumatic events can seriously impact an individual’s physical and psychological health
(Marin & Shkreli, 2019; May & Wise, 2016; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020).
Although some researchers have investigated the relationship between trauma and
identity development (see Marin & Shkreli, 2019; Raemen et al., 2021), much remains
unknown. There is a gap in understanding experiences of identity formation due to
traumatic events.
Traumatic events significantly impact physical and psychological development
(Marin & Shkreli, 2019; May & Wise, 2016; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020), so
it makes sense that experiencing trauma as a child may influence one’s identity
development. Individuals might wonder who they are or find themselves more resilient to
unexpected trauma. Due to this gap in the literature, there is a lack of understanding of
supporting adolescents with their identity in response to trauma. Additionally, few
researchers have examined identity development as it relates to experiences of trauma,
mainly using quantitative methods. In this study, I explored the lived experiences of
individuals who experienced trauma as a child or adolescent and how this trauma
impacted their identity formation.
In Chapter 1, I present a brief overview of the background literature. This
information is influential to the present study. The problem statement is introduced, and I
explain how the relationships of the variables lead to the problem statement.
Additionally, the theoretical framework, the nature of the study, definition, scope and
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delimitations, significance, and conclusion will be described. Subsequently, the literature
review with a thorough discussion of theories will be presented in Chapter 2. Chapter 3
includes a review of the methodology I used for this study. Chapter 4 includes a
presentation of the study’s results, and Chapter 5 includes a discussion of the results of
the current study.
Background of the Study
Traumatic events have been studied in multiple ways, with many researchers
discussing how exposure to traumatic experiences can impact individuals’ well-being
(Marin & Shkreli, 2019; May & Wise, 2016; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020).
Historical data have shown how unexpected traumatic events are detrimental to
individuals and how often individuals are impacted. For example, the National Survey of
Children’s Health (NSCH) stated that 82% of children and youth experienced at least one
traumatic event before entering services (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration [SAMHSA], n.d.). However, traumatic events often have long-term
negative consequences as some other cases ended up taking their lives, and more never
achieved a full recovery (Marin & Shkreli, 2019; May & Wise, 2016; Perry & Cuellar,
2022; Raeman et al., 2021; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020).
Trauma is physically, mentally, and emotionally detrimental to a child or
adolescent (Marin & Shkreli, 2019; May & Wise, 2016; Perry & Cuellar, 2022; Raeman
et al., 2021; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020). Some individuals who suffer from
trauma experience long-lasting effects during their adolescence and adulthood (Marin &
Shkreli, 2019; May & Wise, 2016; Perry & Cuellar, 2022; Raeman et al., 2021;
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Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020). Trauma is mainly linked to adverse physical and
mental health issues, as these events often lead to further victimization and health
disparities due to a lack of support or coping strategies (Perry et al., 2021). Traumatic
events in children or adolescents can cause low self-esteem, identity distress, and
confusion about who they are or who they should be after a trauma (Marin & Shkreli,
2019; May & Wise, 2016; Perry & Cuellar, 2022; Raeman et al., 2021; Truskauskaite-
Kuneviciene et al., 2020).
A traumatic event can alter identity. Traumatic events can cause individuals to
question and re-evaluate their commitments to those roles associated with their identity
formation (Marin & Shkreli, 2019; May & Wise, 2016; Perry & Cuellar, 2022; Raeman
et al., 2021; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020). Researchers have suggested that
identity can affect how trauma is perceived (Marin & Shkreli, 2019). There is a
relationship between identity formation and trauma. How identity formation may
influence individuals dealing with a traumatic event must be evaluated. It is unknown
how identity development is influenced by past experiences of trauma. By exploring the
gap in the literature regarding how trauma impacts who someone is or who they will
become, more can be done to assist individuals through the identity development process.
The information from this study can be used to support adolescent identity development
for those dealing with trauma, with the ultimate goal of achieving resilience.
Problem Statement
The specific problem that I addressed through this research study was
understanding the lived experiences of young adults who experienced traumatic events
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and how those events contributed to their identity development. Understanding how
trauma is experienced in an individual can improve understanding regarding identity
change or stasis after trauma. The American Psychiatric Association’s DSM-5 (2013)
estimated that 8.3% of the general population experienced severe consequences after a
traumatic event (Blaauwendraat et al., 2017; Kilpatrick et al., 2013; Ursano et al., 2004).
Understanding how traumatic events could influence young adults’ identity formation is
crucial. My goal for this study was to explore the lived experiences that individuals had
of childhood and adolescent trauma to understand how participants describe their identity
development.
Purpose of the Study
In this descriptive phenomenological study, I had participants describe their
experiences of identity formation after experiencing trauma. I contributed to
understanding how to support individuals who experienced trauma and questioned their
identity. A deeper understanding of how trauma can impact identity formation may
improve treatment for individuals through and after trauma, especially when there is a
risk of identity confusion. I addressed the gap in the literature related to understanding if
identity formation affects healing positively or negatively after a trauma.
Research Question
I designed the research question for this study to capture participant perspectives
of traumatic experiences and identity formation. Many individuals have experienced
trauma during their development (Berman et al., 2020; Raemen et al., 2021;
Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020), and as children get older, traumatic experiences
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are processed differently, and the degree to which a child can cope changes (Raemen et
al., 2021). The research question for this study was: How do young adults describe their
experiences of identity after experiencing trauma as a child or adolescent?
My goal was to expand understanding of how young adults experience trauma as
a child or adolescent and how it impacts their identity formation. What variable makes a
person more robust or weaker than others because of trauma is unknown. Society can
benefit from knowledge about how trauma and identity are related, which can be a way to
promote positive social change. Understanding how identity formation impacts an
individual who has experienced a traumatic event can be beneficial in providing support
and finding ways to respond. There is reason to be concerned about individuals who
suffered trauma and the potential challenges of self and identity development.
Trauma confuses individuals (Marin & Shkreli, 2019), and it is uncertain how
identity formation can influence recovery from trauma. The results of this study can be
beneficial by helping to identify strategies to reduce suffering and questions related to
identity that occur after childhood or adolescent trauma.
In this study, I identified variables and other experiences that can benefit
individuals struggling with finding or making sense of their identity due to trauma.
Traumatic events can be challenging, and helping individuals achieve a positive recovery
and supporting them through the process is crucial, particularly for identity development.
For some individuals, after a trauma, searching for who they are now or who they were
before can save their life or keep them from years of pain.
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Theoretical Framework
The conceptual framework that I used in this study was Erikson’s psychosocial
theory of development (Erikson, 1968). This framework describes identity development.
Erikson (1968) stated the fifth psychosocial stage occurs during the often turbulent
teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal
identity, which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a
person’s life (Erikson, 1968). According to Erikson (1968), an adolescent successfully
integrates identity and works through an identity crisis through exploration and
questioning. However, if someone does not resolve this crisis, they experience identity
diffusion. Identity diffusion is the status where an adolescent does not have a sense of
having choices they have not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment
(Marcia, 1966). Identity diffusion essentially inhibits development in later psychosocial
stages.
There are studies on identity diffusion and trauma. Studies found that trauma
causes identity diffusion due to intense worry or stress (Marin & Shkreli., 2019). There is
more to uncover how the significance of the experiences is adaptive and reflects positive
identity formation. Marin and Shkreli (2019) stated that identity formation involves
integrating what one has experienced in the past with present and future selves.
Individuals who experienced trauma find themselves doubting who they were or who
they would be after a trauma. Marin and Shkreli (2019) stated that achieved identity is
when an adolescent has explored and committed to finding how identity development’s
foundation played a positive or negative role in a traumatic event. Some individuals are
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more resilient due to their identity formation, meaning they do not experience self-doubt
or confusion about who they are or who they should be. Hopefully, this study can be used
to promote resilience after trauma.
When an individual has negative experiences, such as trauma, it can disrupt the
normative identity process. Trauma impacts identity formation by calling into question
previously held beliefs and assumptions about the self and the world (Marin & Shkreli,
2019). If the individual was not influenced and developed their identity, how did the
trauma affect them? As individuals narrate their traumatic events and experienced stories,
connections form between their past identity formation and between self and experiences.
A more detailed explanation and examination of the theoretical framework of Erikson’s
theory will be explored in Chapter 2.
Nature of the Study
I chose phenomenology as the design for this qualitative research study because
the phenomenological perspective allows for an opportunity to understand the
experiences of participants (Giorgi, 2009). I used this approach and semistructured
interviews to explore the lived experiences of young adults. Participants in this research
study were young adults ages 18 to 25 years old. I used snowball sampling in selecting
the participants for the interviews. Participants were recruited through posts on Facebook
groups. Each participant was interviewed through Zoom, and the interviews lasted from
17 to 50 minutes. Each interview was recorded and transcribed immediately after
completion of the interviews. The phenomenological research method is used to focus on
how a specific experience impacts an individual’s life by seeking to understand how
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human beings engage with life (Moustakas, 1994). In this case, I focused on how young
adults described their experiences of identity formation after an unexpected traumatic
event. I used Giorgi’s (2009) six steps to analyze interviews.
Definitions
Several terms in the research study may be interpreted differently depending on
the context in which they are used. For this research study, the following words are
defined to emphasize their meaning in the context of this research study.
Childhood trauma: Physical, emotional, sexual, physical, and emotional abuse are
associated with adverse outcomes, including disturbances in emotion regulation,, social
cognition, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Doba et al., 2022). Cumulative trauma
(Khan, 1963) and complex trauma are frequently used to define individuals, particularly
minors, who experience multiple, chronic, prolonged traumatic events early in life and of
a predominantly interpersonal nature (Ranieri, 2021).
Coping: This term involves using cognitive and behavioral strategies to manage
the demands of a situation when these are appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s
resources or to reduce the negative emotions and conflict caused by stress (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013; Overbeek et al., 2021).
Identity. Identity includes all the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape and
guide a person’s behavior (Erikson, 1963).
Identity diffusion. This term refers to the ego psychology of Erik Erikson. It is a
possible outcome of the identity versus identity confusion stage, whereby the individual
emerges with an uncertain sense of identity and confusion about their wishes, attitudes,
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and goals (Erikson, 1963). An example of identity diffusion includes individuals who
may engage in self-harming behaviors to escape from negative feelings and thoughts
related to experiencing identity diffusion (Raemen et al., 2021).
Identity formation. This technique involves integrating what one has experienced
in the past with both present and future selves (Marin & Shkreli, 2019).
Trauma. In a broad sense, trauma is exposure to an experience that poses a
psychological or physical threat to oneself or others (Lucas et al., 2020).
Assumptions
There were a few assumptions associated with the current study. I assumed that
young adults who participated in this study would be aged 18 to 25. I believed that
participants had comparable experiences during their traumatic experience, such as
managing any problems, supports, and types of disorders. For example, some young
adults may experience more difficulties with traumatic events during their identity
formation than other participants, but this researcher assumes equitable experiences for
this study. I also assumed that participants would respond honestly and with integrity
when answering the questions in this study. These assumptions were necessary to
conduct this study.
Scope and Delimitations
The scope of this research study related to understanding the lived experiences of
individuals who experienced traumatic events in childhood or adolescence and how this
trauma may have impacted their identity formation. Study delimitations reflect what is
not included in a research study so that the focus of the study may be narrowed
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(Burkholder et al., 2020). First, in this research study, participants were individuals ages
18 to 25 years who experienced trauma during childhood or as an adolescence from 12 to
17 years old. The reason for the age delimitations was that I concentrated on the age
when identity forms, according to Erikson’s (1968) theory. Second, participants must
have experienced a traumatic experience during childhood and adolescence. When
recruiting participants, I ensured that they meet the age criteria and have experienced a
traumatic experience during childhood and adolescence.
Limitations
Generalizability is a limitation of this research study because the experiences
recounted through interviews may have only reflected part of the target population. While
the findings may be helpful to other populations and may have transferability to similar
populations, the information gained may not be directly transferable because, in
qualitative research, people’s constructions of reality are being investigated. I studied
how individuals see and understand the world, and these subjective experiences are
unique to these individuals.
Additional limitations existed in this research study that I had to manage. Time
management was a significant limitation. Scheduling the interviews took more time than
expected, as it was difficult to find the best times to conduct the interviews. I managed
this limitation by offering some options to participants when scheduling interviews. The
topics discussed were traumatic events in childhood or adolescence that might have
impacted or changed the participants as young adults, which may have made it difficult
for participants to discuss, given the subject’s sensitive nature. Participants were
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reassured that I was an ally and I provided a list of mental health services for those who
might needed. Participants was told that they could skip questions with no penalty.
Additionally, confidentiality of information and data was pledged to all participants.
Significance
In this study, my goal was to understand the experiences of trauma that occur
during childhood and adolescence and how this trauma impacts identity development.
This study is significant because it can contribute to supporting adolescents who
experience identity formation complications due to a traumatic event. Results from this
study can be used by professionals to learn how trauma can change a person’s identity or
how identity formation might influence the outcomes of a traumatic event. The results
can support understanding how some individuals cope positively or negatively with
identity due to a traumatic event. Young adults could benefit from sharing their stories to
encourage positive outcomes for others who may also experience trauma, particularly
how trauma relates to identity formation. The community can learn more about how to
guide or support young adults who have experienced or are going through a traumatic
event and dealing with identity development, which can be a way to promote positive
social change. More specifically, the results of this study could be used to acknowledge
how identity formation might influence trauma, and this information may help people
who have experienced a traumatic event.
Conclusion
My goal in this study was to understand the lived experiences of participants who
had traumatic events in childhood or adolescence and how those events impacted their
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identity formation. Blaauwendraat et al. (2017) stated that traumatic events are highly
stressful situations threatening one’s life, health, or personal integrity, or witnessing
violent events or unexpected or violent deaths of close family or friends due to the need
for more research concerning how identity formation impacts young adults after a
traumatic event during childhood or teenagerhood.
This study is significant because I addressed the gap in the research about the
lived experiences of young adults who experienced traumatic events during childhood or
adolescence and how those events impacted their identity formation. I used Erikson’s
theory of identity formation to answer the research question: How do young adults
describe their experiences of identity after experiencing trauma as a child or adolescent?
I used the phenomenological approach in this research study because it is a
tradition that suitable for exploring deep concerns and giving individual voices a platform
on which they can be heard (see Greening, 2019). These participants were young adults
who experienced a traumatic event during childhood or adolescence.
Chapter 2 includes the literature search strategy that I used to create this research
study. An explanation of the gaps in the research follows the search strategy discussion.
Chapter 2 ends with an in-depth exploration of the theoretical framework that I used to
guide this study and a literature review of the key concepts that I used to support this
study.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
Traumatic events and identity development are highly stressful for teenagers and
young adults. When trauma coincides with identity formation, mental health issues may
result. Blaauwendraat et al. (2017) stated that traumatic events are highly stressful
situations threatening one’s life, health, or personal integrity; witnessing violent events;
or unexpected or violent deaths of close family or friends. In this study, I sought to
understand how trauma may impact young adults’ identity development, which has
implications for mental well-being. Young adults have varying experiences of trauma,
which can have different consequences on identity development. Learning how trauma
impacts an emerging adult can improve understanding regarding potential identity
changes.
Young adults experience similar pathways to forming their identities. Erikson
(1985) argued that identity development begins in adolescence when individuals
experience a normative crisis where they work to answer the question: Who am I? One
critical form of identity work is making sense of one’s experiences and understanding
how one might relate to the self meaningfully. According to Erikson (1985), an
adolescent successfully integrates identity and works through an identity crisis through
exploration and questioning. Despite this theoretical foundation, there is a deficit in
understanding how adolescent trauma can positively or negatively impact identity
development. In this study, I explored how trauma affects identity development.
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To achieve the goal of this study, it is crucial to understand how an adolescent’s
identity initially develops and how traumatic events play a role in this individual’s
identity formation. Researchers have studied other trauma-related barriers and
consequences (Marin & Shkreli, 2019; May et al., 2016; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et
al., 2020). Some traumas that young adults may suffer include (a) loss of identity, (b)
confusion, (c) regrets, (d) blame, and (e) withdrawal of not understanding who they are
and who they became (Marin & Shkreli, 2019). According to the literature, some young
adults choose to abuse drugs and alcohol, some have PTSD, and others search for an
understanding of who they are as a means of dealing with trauma (Marin & Shkreli,
2019; May et al., 2016; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020). Despite all this
information, how trauma impacts identity formation is still unknown. To address this
issue, I explored the lived experiences of individuals who experienced trauma as a
teenager and how it impacted their identity formation.
This chapter is organized into multiple sections. First, I will address the literature
search strategy that I used for this study. Second, I will discuss the literature gaps I
discovered. Third, I will present the theoretical foundation of this study, which revolves
around identity formation. Fourth, I will discuss the literature review. Finally, I will
present the conclusion.
Literature Search Strategy
I used Walden University’s library to access different databases of peer-reviewed
articles and other scholarly literature. The databases that I used included American
Psychological Association PsycArticles (formerly PsycArticles), ERIC, SAGE Journals,
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ProQuest, and Google Scholar. The topic of the study was how traumatic events impact
identity formation. To find peer-reviewed journal articles related to the topic, the
keywords that I searched included trauma, youth development, adolescent, and identity
formation.
Research Gaps
Though there has been a lot of research regarding trauma, little research has been
conducted covering how trauma impacts identity formation (Jenkins et al., 2021; Kearns
et al., 2021; Lucas et al., 2020). Although trauma has many adverse effects, it is unclear
how trauma impacts young adults’ identity formation. Jenkins et al. (2021) stated that
young adults who suffered from traumatic events had negative social experiences, which
hinder social identity development. Young adults identified that traumatic events resulted
in psychological distress, anger, anxiety, and increased abuse of drugs (Planellas et al.,
2020). Empirical evidence shows a negative relationship between trauma and physical
and mental health (Planellas et al., 2020). Traumatic events can cause young adults to
suffer changes as they process their experiences. Young adults’ experiences vary
depending on the circumstances and how they deal with the trauma. Yet, how young
adult trauma impacts identity formation is unclear.
Addressing this gap in understanding is essential, particularly for young adult
development. Because many young adults experience trauma, it is essential to understand
how this trauma plays a role in who they are and who they will become. Many young
adults who suffer trauma and struggle with identity could suffer long-term or negative
recovery. Some individuals’ identity development could be hindered because of their
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trauma. It is also possible that trauma plays a role in identity development, resulting in
changes in identity formation. Research is needed to address this gap, particularly given
the positive relationship between trauma and mental health (Marin & Shkreli, 2019;
Planellas et al., 2020; Shalka, 2020). It is crucial to understand this gap to improve
mental health care.
Literature Review
Trauma is exposure to an experience that poses a psychological or physical threat
to oneself or others (Lucas et al., 2020). The prevalence of trauma varies in age from
childhood to young adulthood. Although trauma can negatively impact individuals, little
research covers how trauma affects identity formation in adolescents and young adults.
Trauma and identity development literature will be reviewed to address this deficit. First,
I will discuss the theoretical foundation of this study. Next, I will discuss trauma in
adolescence, the long-term and short-term consequences of trauma, emotional and
physical reactions to trauma, and sources of help with identity formation, such as friends
and family. The literature review will conclude by connecting trauma and identity
development.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development
In this study, I used Erikson’s (1985) psychosocial theory to investigate the
potential impact of trauma on identity development during adolescence. Erikson’s (1985)
theory of psychosocial development states that personality develops in stages, and at each
step, a psychosocial crisis unfolds in a way that determines personality development.
Erikson’s theory states that conflicts are centered on resolving or failing to resolve a
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conflict. According to Erikson (1985), the potential for personal growth is high during
these times, but so is the potential for failure. If individuals successfully deal with the
conflict, they gain psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their
lives (Erickson, 1985). If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not
develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self (Erikson, 1985).
Erikson said development occurs by addressing eight different psychosocial
conflicts, with the fifth conflict being identity versus role confusion. This conflict
commonly occurs between the ages of 12–18. During this conflict, adolescents search for
a sense of self and personal identity through an intense exploration of personal values,
beliefs, and goals (Erikson, 1985). The strengthened identity can affect how a young
adult deals with future stressors and trauma. Erikson (1968) defined identity as a
“fundamental organizing principle which develops constantly throughout the lifespan” (p.
98). Role confusion or identity crisis involves the individual being unsure about
themselves (McLeod, 2023). It is crucial to establish a solid identity to avoid
consequences in the role of confusion that could reverberate in later stages of
development (Erikson, 1968).
This theory, specifically the concept of identity conflict, relates to the present
study. My goal in this study was to understand how trauma impacts young adults’
identity development. Trauma may influence how individuals develop their identity.
During a traumatic event, young adults may get confused and experience doubts as to
who they are and who they will become. Trauma may expedite identity formation due to
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psychosocial crisis. Without more research, it is unclear how trauma plays a role in
identity development.
It is unknown in what ways could trauma can impact the development of
individuals’ identity. One variable could be how an individual resolves a traumatic event.
Arguably, adolescents who successfully address trauma may experience healthy identity
development and can work through an identity crisis through further exploration and
questioning (Erickson, 1985). If young adults successfully deal with this identity conflict,
they emerge with psychological strengths that will serve them well throughout their lives
(Erikson, 1985). Going through trauma can strengthen an individual’s identity.
On the other hand, when young adults deal with or struggle with identity issues, it
can create distress or impede their ability to cope with trauma (Erikson, 1985). Erikson
(1968) argued that identity development begins in adolescence when an individual
experiences a normative crisis demanding identity work to answer the question: Who am
I? One critical form of identity work is making sense of one’s experiences and
understanding how one might relate to the self meaningfully (McLean, 2005). It is crucial
to understand how distress can cause young adults to suffer the loss of identity or
provoke them to experience changes in their identity.
In Erikson’s (1985) theory, there are negative consequences when adolescents do
not deal with conflict or trauma. Berman et al. (2004) found that identity distress,
characterized by intense worry or a long-term concern about identity issues, disrupts
normal identity development. A considerable amount of distress has warranted the
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) classification of either
an identity disorder or an identity problem (Berman et al., 2004).
Trauma is likely to impede identity development, mainly if the trauma is
unresolved. Traumatic events can cause confusion and distress, limiting one’s ability to
learn about their self-concept. According to Erikson (1985), when an individual
successfully resolves a conflict, they can experience healthier personality development
and acquire basic virtues; if they do not resolve the conflict, possibly because of trauma,
their development is negatively impacted. For example, young adults who suffer trauma
may have trouble with self-confidence, insecurity, and self-blame. Gameon et al. (2021)
stated that when individuals talk about their experiences with others, they experience less
self-blame and post-traumatic distress. Reciprocally, trauma can impede or potentially
support identity development. More research is needed to determine identity development
experiences because of trauma.
Branje (2022) stated that identity development occurs in real-time interactions
with others, such as parents or peers. Branje (2022) suggested that life transitions and life
events can contribute to identity changes. Branje (2022) indicated that more studies
should be conducted to examine whether the role of life events in identity formation
depends on how adolescents integrate them into their identity.
Current studies have also used Erikson’s theory as a theoretical foundation for
their research. For instance, Ergün (2020) used empirical data to show that an
individual’s interaction with the environment depends on and determines self and
identity. Ergün (2020) stated that identity plays a key role in self-identification and
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positive interactions with others and affects psychological well-being. Ergün (2020) also
noted that childhood and infancy stories play a key role in narrative identity development.
Trauma
First, it is essential to define and discuss trauma and the outcomes of traumatic
events for adolescents and young adults. Shalka (2020) stated that trauma can be
conceptualized as a reaction to an overwhelming experience and may be event-based or
more pervasive. Trauma often stems from a particular event, situation, or sense of
circumstances, including (a) abuse, (b) sexual violence, (c) war, (d) natural or artificial
disasters, (e) accidents, and (f) life-threatening or illness (Planellas et al., 2020).
Traumatic experiences can also compound over time, resulting in cumulative trauma.
According to Ranieri (2021), cumulative trauma (Khan, 1963) and complex trauma are
used frequently to refer to experiences with multiple, chronic, and prolonged traumatic
events. Some examples of traumatic experiences during childhood include (a) physical
and mental abuse, (b) mental illness, (c) exposure to violence, (d) interpersonal violence,
(d) death in the family, and (e) illness. Some traumatic events in young adults are
associated with peer physical abuse, drugs, relationship conflict and abuse, social
identification, environmental stressors, and cultural stressors (Albarello et al., 2021;
Planellas et al., 2020; Ranieri, 2020). Although the definitions and experiences of trauma
vary slightly, there are still many similarities, particularly given the literature’s
consistency of information on this topic.
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Prevalence of Trauma
Next, it is essential to review the prevalence of trauma, particularly during
childhood and adolescence. Kilpatrick et al. (2013) found that among a sample of
approximately 3,000 individuals, 89.7% were exposed to trauma across their lifetime, and
exposure to multiple traumatic events was common. The National Council Survey (2016)
reported results that over 90% of children experience sexual abuse, 77% of children are
exposed to a school incident, and 35% of urban youth are exposed to community
violence, consistent with findings in the National Council for Behavior Health Survey
(2018) report that 15–43% of girls and 14–45% of boys experienced at least one trauma
during childhood (Veterans Affairs, 2018). The National Council Survey (2018) reported
that 70% of adults in the United States have experienced a traumatic event at least once.
Other data sources have illustrated similar results, like the National Survey of Children’s
Health [NSCH; SAMHSA], n.d.). Trauma is an experience that is more common than it
should be, and this dissertation aimed to use this information to contextualize the effect
of trauma on identity formation.
Childhood Trauma
Although traumatic events can be experienced throughout one’s life, they may be
more common during childhood. The King’s College London (2019) found that 31% of
young people experienced a traumatic experience during childhood. A traumatic
experience in childhood can include witnessing experiences or experiencing physical,
sexual, or emotional abuse, bullying, terrorism, loss of aroused one, family and
community violence, refuge, and war experience, and living with a family member whose
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caregiving ability is impaired (Mętel et al., 2019). Traumatic events are not only
experienced directly, but trauma can occur second-hand by witnessing another traumatic
event. The Health Resources and Services Administration (2016) provided data from the
2016 NSCH, which addresses the prevalence of exposure to traumatic experiences among
children, youth, and adults in the United States. According to this data, 46% of the
nation’s youth aged 17 and under reported experiencing at least one trauma during
childhood and adolescence (SAMHSA, n.d.). Some data from NSCH show that 37% of
youth experienced physical abuse, and 15% of children and youth experienced
maltreatment by a caregiver (SAMHSA, n.d.). This survey depicted statistics on who
experienced trauma, including children with divorced parents (25%), living with anyone
who had a problem with alcohol or drugs (9%), parents who spent time in jail (8%),
living with anyone who has a mental illness (8%); witnessing parents or other adults slap,
hit, kick, or punch (6%); being a victim of violence or witness violence in the
neighborhood (4%); treating or being judge unfairly because race or ethnic group (4%);
and having a parent or guardian die (3%; SAMHSA, n.d.). Trauma in early childhood can
be changed into positive outcomes as they grow into young adults. There are many
factors to the results, like support or treatments. The data in this survey demonstrated that
traumatic events could occur in various ways but can strongly impact children.
Trauma is difficult for young children. Doba et al. (2022) found that early
childhood trauma, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse and physical and
emotional neglect, can have significant indirect effects. In other words, trauma-impacted
emotional regulation, which resulted in maladaptive adjustment. The indirect influence of
23
PTSD contributed to high emotional reactivity and a tendency to avoid emotional
connections in interpersonal relationships (Doba et al., 2022). Children who experience
traumatic events are at a higher risk of adverse outcomes experiences (Mętel et al., 2020;
Yohannan et al., 2018). The effects of early childhood traumatic experiences include a
higher risk for low self-esteem, educational delays, depression, substance abuse, issues
with peer relationships, and lower trust in others (Doba et al., 2022). There were
limitations to how trauma and identity formation affect young adults.
Researchers suggested that exposure to childhood trauma impacts developmental
processes related to functioning and may alter the development of mentalizing abilities,
which can contribute to even more severe consequences (Doba et al., 2022). For example,
Doba et al. (2022) found evidence suggesting that childhood trauma potentially
contributes to adulthood consequences like self-blame and rumination, leading to PTSD
symptoms, which is consistent with Mętel et al. (2019, 2020). Doba et al. (2022) also
found that the relationship between early childhood exposure to trauma and the risk of
depressive symptoms is explained better by cognitive biases and resilient pathways.
These researchers found that psychological intervention can help reduce maladaptive
cognitions and promote interpersonal emotional regulation strategies. Although
researchers have an advanced understanding of early childhood trauma, more research is
needed to understand how early childhood trauma exposure can relate to identity
formation in young adults. Information on the consequences of trauma informs the
current dissertation by revealing the varied ways trauma impacts development; this
24
information can inform the present study regarding the impacts of trauma on identity
development.
Prevalence of Trauma with Teenagers
The exposure configuration changes in adolescence. As children get older, trauma
experiences are processed differently, and the degree to which a child can cope changes
(Raemen et al., 2021). Examples of traumatic experiences with young adults include (a)
school shootings, (b) parental homicide, (c) community acts of violence, (d) cultural
witnessing of violence, (e) grief and loss, (f) accident and natural disaster, and (g) war.
Raemen et al. (2021) explained that adolescence is an essential period of development in
the context of trauma, as traumatic events can increase risks of self-harm, low self-
esteem, destructive actions, and emotionally charged thoughts. Essentially, identity
formation can be interrupted in adolescents when trauma occurs. In addition, Raemen et
al. (2021) stated the need to target these adolescent risk factors to create prevention and
intervention programs that target identity diffusion that coincides with suffering from a
traumatic event. The reviewed literature has provided some indication of a relationship
between adolescent trauma and mental well-being, which implies some aspect of identity
development.
Adolescents and young adults are at an essential stage for developing emotions,
which have implications for trauma experiences. Traumatic events from childhood that
have not been dealt with can persist into adolescence (Mętel et al., 2019). The exposure
varies in the amount of trauma suffered in childhood. Continuing exposure to childhood
trauma (i.e., neglect, physical, psychological, or sexual abuse) hinders the developmental
25
process related to emotional regulation, which can persist in adolescence and adulthood
(Mętel et al., 2019). Resilience mediates the relationship between early trauma and
subjective mood disturbance (Mętel et al., 2019). Positive self-perceptions can modify
and lower the impact of childhood trauma on depression symptoms. During childhood,
children learn to regulate their own emotions and the ability to understand identity; when
it is disturbed, it can have different effects on the outcomes (Doba et al., 2022). Empirical
studies show that potential traumatic life events in childhood and adolescence have
detrimental impacts on physical and mental health, including anxiety, depression, anger,
self-esteem problems, and post-traumatic stress symptoms.
Age and Trauma
Researchers have also examined trauma across the lifespan. Planellas et al. (2020)
provided an empirical report on lifetime trauma rates ranging from 51–90%, depending
on age. Traumatic events can be highly stressful at any age, but young adults can become
confused about who they are because of trauma. According to Planellas et al. (2022),
teenagers may experience potentially traumatic interpersonal and non-interpersonal
events in everyday life that could cause discomfort. Planellas et al. (2022) also found that
teenagers generally demonstrated an excellent ability to recover from trauma but also
noted that teenagers who experience increased distress over time are an at-risk
population. Many ways young adults cope with trauma are emotion-focused or avoidant,
meaning they manage by seeking diversions, venting feelings, escaping, or using
cognitive avoidance. Yet, many of these approaches can cause increased psychological
problems (Planellas et al., 2020). Developmentally, there is an increased risk of bodily
26
arousal in drinking alcohol in young adults due to trauma, indicating that body arousal is
a fundamental attribute of trauma exposure (Kearns et al., 2021). Body arousal might
serve as an indirect trauma-relevant interoceptive cue that increases the desire to drink
alcohol due to the exposed traumatic event (Kearns et al., 2021). Overall, the literature
expands understanding of the short-term effects of trauma, which informs how trauma
may impact identity development.
Gender and Trauma
It is crucial to understand that different traumatic events also vary by gender.
Rates of PTSD are estimated to be one and a half to five times higher in women than in
men, with the average risk of PTSD being about two times higher for women (Søegaard
et al., 2021). Researchers explored that boys and girls process trauma differently, as girls
communicate their emotions more effectively than boys (Mętel et al., 2020). Women are
more resilient in self-blame cognitions, which typically leads to feeling guilty;
researchers used mediation models and concluded that both men and women reacted
similarly with resilience in self-blame cognitions (Mętel et al., 2019). Other researchers
stated that women express more than men, and women internalize pain. However, men
externalized pain (Søegaard et al., 2021). This information is helpful because trauma may
impact identity development differently depending on gender.
Culture and Trauma
Additionally, different cultures influence how a traumatic event is perceived
based on personal or family beliefs and community (Boykin et al., 2020). For example,
parents may reinforce their own gender beliefs when parenting children. If a parent views
27
women as weak and that men should not express their feelings, those parents may pass on
those beliefs to their children; however, other families might believe that no matter your
gender role, individuals should be able to behave how they want, which they could also
pass to their children (Mętel et al., 2019). The frequency of trauma is evident in a
percentage of the population experiencing a traumatic event; this data shows that boys
and girls have similar prevalence rates, and trauma tends to be a somewhat universal
experience. Other researchers stated that a connection between gender and coping is
controversial (Planellas et al., 2020). For example, some researchers found no gender
differences in PTSD, mental health, or substance abuse (Søegaard et al., 2021). Thus,
Planellas et al. (2020) stated that more studies need to be conducted on how men and
women react to trauma. This research has implications for the current study, as culture
may also contribute to identity development in addition to trauma.
Short-term Consequences of Trauma
Empirical studies stated that trauma has short-term effects on well-being,
including a medium level of distress and anxiety. For example, Planellas et al. (2020)
expanded the understanding of short and long-term trauma. The researchers stated that
while trauma can be unavoidable for some individuals, it poses short-term risks to mental
health (Planellas et al., 2020). Yet, long-term or short-term traumatic events affect young
adults differently, and early trauma addresses the best chance of recovery. Young adults
might experience different symptoms or methods of dealing with traumatic stress.
Raemen et al. (2021) echoed that similar themes explain how experiences and meaning
are mediated. Children, adolescents, and young adults experience different types of
28
traumas, which have differing consequences for development. More explicitly, children
exposed to negligence and abuse often experience instability in an attachment (Raemen et
al., 2021). A child who suffered a traumatic event and grew up without any help could
suffer a PTSD event that potentially could lead to a higher risk for subsequent trauma
(Albarello et al., 2021; Planellas et al., 2020). Albarello et al. (2021) studied how
adolescent identification with proximal and distant groups and social well-being plays a
role in positively increasing their social well-being. Albarello et al. (2021) found that
combining a developmental approach with a social-psychological one helps to
comprehend how individuals and social factors interact to assist coping.
Long-term Effects of Trauma
Researchers have identified the long-term effects of trauma and how it can
confuse the thinking of young adults. Some of the long-term results include anxiety,
depression, and anger (Planellas et al., 2020). A history of childhood exposure to a
traumatic event is associated with higher rates of chronic diseases, suicide attempts,
mortality, and psychiatric disorders in adulthood, and interpersonal violence-related
trauma is strongly associated with PTSD (Planellas et al., 2020). Yazdani et al. (2016)
stated that adolescents increase their vulnerability to various impairments as they mature
into adults. Yazdani et al. (2016) found that trauma can be associated indirectly with a
family-shared environment, where the traumatic experiences have been transferred or
reenacted in scary ways. Yazdani et al. (2016) stated that threats to personal safety can
increase the consequences of fear, helplessness, or horror. These results are consistent
with Yohanna et al. (2016), who found that young adults exposed to traumatic events are
29
at high risk for adverse developmental outcomes, prompting low academic performances,
poor social skills, and mental health concerns. Kearns et al. (2021) argued that a
traumatic event increases the risk of using alcohol as a coping strategy among young
adults. Trauma also impacts cravings for alcohol with teenagers or young adults who may
desire to drink to manage trauma, and this behavior becomes part of their identity
(Kearns et al., 2021). The effects of trauma vary from one individual to another.
In some cases, traumatic events can have a physical effect, and some young adults
or adolescents react differently to pain or fear (Shalka, 2020). Some physical symptoms
caused by traumatic events include hypervigilance, sleep disturbances, and flashbacks,
which individuals feel they have reexperienced the trauma or psychological reactions to
triggers of the trauma (Shalka, 2020). Other consequences of trauma can be poor
academic performance, poor social skills, and mental health concerns (Mętel et al., 2019).
Trauma reactions can be unpredictable for some young adults or adolescents to pass, and
others may continue to experience trauma in their bodies; in some cases, a traumatic
event can lead to permanent developmental trauma (Ranieri, 2021). Ranieri (2021) found
that trauma can result in stress that can affect the entire part of psychological growth.
Another consequence of trauma is to develop a dissociated defense mechanism to avoid
that feeling of mental health (Ranieri, 2020).
Trauma can also lead to alcohol abuse, drugs, suicide, depression, body
movement, and breathing issues. For instance, Kearns et al. (2021) stated that the
literature emphasized a risk factor for problematic alcohol use after a traumatic event.
Kearns et al. (2021) suggested that the body’s arousal stimuli during interpersonal
30
traumatic events can produce conditioned cues to trigger post-traumatic stress.
Subsequently, this can lead to increased symptoms of drugs, drinking alcohol, using
drugs, suicide, depression, and anxiety. Some researchers stated that traumatic events
depend on when the trauma occurs, the situation, and whether the individuals received
help (Kearns et al., 2021).
Blaauwendraat et al. (2017) suggested that trauma can manifest in many forms,
and how teenagers or young adults deal with trauma depends on many elements,
including physical or emotional circumstances and background. These researchers found
that trauma can decrease body movement quality and body awareness, impacting the
ability to manage psychological arousal, thus increasing pain; other health issues include
increased rapid breathing (Blaauwendraat et al., 2017). These findings indicated that
psychotherapists could contribute to decreasing pain and helping individuals resume their
lives after receiving treatment. However, Shalka (2020) stated that a different approach
embodied how the body responded to trauma. Shalka (2020) found that an individual’s
trauma can be felt through aches or pains in the body. Shalka (2020) also noted that the
effects of increasing body awareness by implementing activities incorporate the body and
role play. Some researchers found that trauma can be affected differently; however, pain
can be managed with body awareness activities (Blaauwendraat et al., 2017; Shalka,
2020).
Traumatic exposure in childhood creates a higher risk of chronic diseases or
increased psychiatric disorders in adulthood unless the trauma is addressed early. Yasdani
et al. (2016) reported the need to understand the role of proximity when understanding
31
trauma with young adults by revealing that having a safe environment is more likely to
support recovering from a traumatic event. Yazdani et al. (2016) stated that when a
traumatic effect is addressed early, the long-term consequences of trauma can be reduced.
Essentially, children and adolescents exposed to a traumatic event could recover if the
trauma was identified early, interventions were implemented, and support was provided.
Otherwise, the traumatic event can leave a child or young adult scared or injured, which
may have consequences for future vulnerability. Trauma is related to a problem of the
mind, but it can create negative physical reactions in the body.
Impairments Caused by Trauma
Empirical studies regarding early traumatic events reveal that trauma can lead to
impairments in the neuronal system and emotional regulation, which can also have
behavioral consequences (Doba et al., 2022; Mętel et al., 2019). Exposure to traumatic
events during childhood is associated with multiple symptoms, including PTSD,
depression, anxiety, or emotional regulation (Doba et al., 2022; Mętel et al., 2019, 2020)
in young adulthood. Doba et al. (2022) found that childhood trauma is sometimes
associated with emotional dysregulation, depending on how the trauma has been coped
with. Doba et al. (2022) concluded that adolescents exposed to different types of
childhood trauma could contribute to self-blame, rumination, and PTSD or depression,
which can lead to a lack of concentration and avoidance of stimuli associated with the
trauma. Researchers concluded that trauma could lead to maladaptive and emotional
consequences with short-term and long-term cognitive effects.
32
Some researchers found that early traumatic events can impact mood via
cognitive biases. Mętel et al. (2019, 2020) studied how early trauma influences attention,
behavior, and attribution. Mętel et al. (2019) found that cognitive biases and resilience
are essential factors in the relationship between childhood struggles and subjective
depression mood. Interpersonal violence, including sexual abuse, can increase levels of
depression, which can be the result of exposure to trauma and increase the risk of
depressive symptoms in young adults (Mętel et al., 2019, 2020). Researchers concluded
that trauma related to peer rejection could have severe consequences if it is not addressed
immediately. This information informs the current dissertation by revealing how the
impacts of trauma are related in many ways, meaning that the other consequences of
trauma may also impact identity development.
Evidenced Based Interventions for Trauma
There are many ways to assist in coping with trauma. Planellas et al. (2020) stated
that adolescents generally can recover from trauma; however, distressed teens might need
psychological help. The National Council for Behavioral Health (2016) provided some
strategies for young adults coping with trauma, including:
1. Acknowledge that you have been through a traumatic event,
2. Connect with others,
3. Exercise,
4. Relax,
5. Take music or art,
6. Maintain a balanced diet and sleep cycle,
33
7. Avoid over-using stimulants like caffeine and sugar,
8. Commit to something personally meaningful and essential every day, and
9. Write or draw about your experience for yourself or share it with others (National
Council for Behavioral Health, 2016).
Mętel et al. (2019) stated that children who experience traumatic events process
or cope differently than young adults. If they get help, they have more time and
opportunities to overcome the trauma. The literature identified a recovery rate exceeding
50% for most events, reaching 72% in some cases, revealing consistent recovery and
resilience in adolescents (Planellas et al., 2020). Identifying the stressor in a traumatic
event is crucial for potential recovery, as adolescents’ recovery should be catered toward
the identified stressor (Planellas et al., 2020). Seeking friendships might be considered an
emotional discharge rather than a way to resolve interpersonal problems, which can lead
to mental problems (Planellas et al., 2020). Coping strategies are cognitive and
behavioral efforts to deal with life events that are discerning to potentially minimize harm
and promote psychological adjustments, such as family support, positive reappraisal, and
problem-solving (Planellas et al., 2020).
Early Intervention
Research revealed that coping with traumatic events depends on when symptoms
from trauma manifest. For example, Yohannan et al. (2018) stated that an early
intervention could minimize the short-term risks of a traumatic event. Identifying the
stressor with the most significant and most minor potential for recovery promotes
understanding regarding how adolescents react to the specific stressor; more personalized
34
and stress-focused therapy survivors of trauma can benefit from connecting with others in
different ways (Planellas et al., 2020; Shalka, 2020). Traumatic events with positive
outcomes demonstrate that social support reduces the likelihood of PTSD (Shalka, 2020).
Some examples of positive results are seeking help, overcoming the trauma, and
understanding the stressor and ways to survive (Planellas et al., 2020; Shalka, 2020).
Although some children, teenagers, and young adults with traumatic experiences do not
show distress, and some experience symptoms (Planellas et al., 2020). Researchers
concluded that events could cause individuals who showed no distress to experience low
stress, react insensitively to the stressor, or respond using resilience. Other individuals
who show some symptoms after trauma can recover but experience low signs of distress
after seeking or going through therapy to overcome some obstacles as consequences of
trauma (Planellas et al., 2020). This research is essential for this study, as intervention
strategies also affect identity development.
Music Therapy
Wiess et al. (2019) explained that group music therapy, which involves playing
musical instruments together in a group setting, helps because the sessions are safe,
improving one’s emotional state by promoting interpersonal relationships. Essentially,
this technique begins with expressing emotions and feelings by ’choosing their feelings
“here and now” and proceeding with singing and playing soothing music (Wiess et al.,
2019). Therapeutic rituals, which are part of music therapy, were found to help children
or young adults manage their feelings of distress and emotions caused by trauma (Wiess
et al., 2019). Music therapy techniques appear to serve as a nonverbal communication
35
tool that can help individuals express and release issues related to traumatic feelings and
memories. The literature showed that music therapy could be a positive way to treat
traumatic experiences.
Focused Therapy
Identifying the stressors of trauma leads to personalized and focused therapies.
These types of treatments involve gathering information like age and gender to help focus
on what kind of therapy individuals might need (Albarello et al., 2021; Planellas et al.,
2020). When the stressor is identified and personalized, it can be focused on determining
the therapy needed to help with the traumatic event. The stressor in a traumatic event can
be correlated to anxiety, depression, anger, self-esteem problems, and post-traumatic
stress symptoms (Planellas et al., 2020). Planellas et al. (2020) stated that understanding
the stressor’s symptoms can help focus therapies or coping strategies. Focused therapy is
designed to help individuals with their traumatic events. This includes group therapy,
music therapy, medicine, counseling, or support groups. The main consequence of trauma
is how the child or adolescent reacts to it. This therapeutic technique is another way
trauma can be mitigated when considering identity development.
Coping Strategies
Individuals not seeking appropriate support can lead to victimization and
maladaptive coping methods; when individuals do not use coping strategies, long-term
effects of trauma often result (Perry et al., 2021). For example, Perry et al. (2021) found
that coping mechanisms, including therapy, talking, and seeking guidance from family,
friends, or school personnel, can reduce stress and the psychological effects of their
36
adversary and trauma. Individuals who use proactive and positive emotions-focused
coping methods are more likely to increase a positive recovery.
Researchers have shown that individuals who had attachment insecurity before a
traumatic experience would have more severe consequences from a traumatic event
(Shaw et al., 2022). For example, Shaw et al. (2022) found that instrumental social
support or seeking emotional and social support may contribute to helping weaken a link
to PTSD. Many individuals who experienced trauma may have sought instrumental
support or dealt with their trauma at a young age, which could help improve coping with
a traumatic event. Shaw et al. (2022) concluded that individuals who struggle with
insecurity and have sought help and support can positively support recovery. This
research shows how people deal with and cope with trauma may affect identity
development.
Personal and Social Resources for Coping
Another way to recover is to provide personal and social resources for adolescents
and have a healthy family and supportive social environment (Planellas et al., 2020). The
level of distress that results from a traumatic event varies depending on how the
individual reacts because of the stressors. Trauma can aid in creating a coping method to
build problem-solving skills and emotional management. For example, Perry et al. (2021)
examined trauma-focused therapy, which uses psychoeducation, imaginal exposure, and
cognition processing to help promote coping. Perry et al. (2021) stated that this approach
uses social and emotional learning to promote resiliency for children and teenagers.
Therapy was used to help solve individual experiences and manage emotions and actions
37
as consequences of trauma. Interventions can help promote coping with trauma. Maroney
(2020) found that children, teenagers, or adults who can talk about their traumatic
experiences experienced positive results, such as being more comfortable talking about
the trauma and understanding one’s emotions (Maroney, 2020). Children, teenagers, or
adults with trauma can experience coping by writing in journals and drawing pictures,
which can evolve their traumatic experiences into positive ones (Maroney, 2020). This
study provided ways for children, teenagers, and adults to cope with trauma by writing a
journal, reflecting on their thoughts, or elaborating, whether in written form or drawing
on their traumatic experiences (Maroney, 2020).
Adolescent development is a sensitive period consisting of many stressors.
Adding any traumatic event during this time may cause increased emotional stress and
interrupt mental functioning (Maroney, 2020). Trauma can negatively impact social,
emotional, and physical development (Weiss et al., 2019). The differences in short or
long-term consequences depend on additional variables, like the time or length of the
trauma, age, and after the trauma when the individual seeks help or receives support; all
these variables determine the short or long-term consequence of a traumatic event. Weiss
et al. (2019) stated that social support can play a small role in protecting against PTSD.
Weiss et al. (2019) found a slight correlation between social support and PTSD following
trauma. Social support provided by close caregivers or teachers benefits children and
young adults with trauma. However, it is unclear how trauma may impact adolescent
identity development. Thus, it is essential to review the literature on identity.
38
Summary of Research on Trauma
The present study aims to learn how identity formation can affect trauma. The
literature explored different topics: child, adolescent, and young adult trauma. There were
many empirical topics like the effects of trauma, coping, therapies, short and long-term
consequences, instrumental support, early intervention, and personal and social resources.
The present study will aim to address some of the limitations identified. Trauma has
impacted many children, adolescents, and young adults’ lives in various ways, and many
individuals may be experiencing barriers that are impacting their ability to understand
how or why they are surviving or changing who they are. Some individuals might wonder
many questions like how they survived positively or negatively. What change or what
gives them the resilience to survive?
Identity
Most of the research on identity development is theoretical. The most
predominant theory on identity development is Erikson’s (1963) psychosocial theory,
which states that conflicts are centered on developing a psychological quality or failing to
develop one. According to Erikson (1963), the potential for personal growth is high
during these times, but so is the potential for failure. Erikson stated that individuals go
through eight different psychosocial conflicts during development, with the fifth stage
being identity versus role confusion. The fifth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial
development theory is identity versus role confusion, which happens during adolescence
when individuals are 12–18 years old. Adolescents look for a sense of self and identity by
deeply exploring personal values, beliefs, and goals. According to Erikson’s (1963)
39
psychosocial theory, the consequences can be harmful when adolescents do not deal with
the conflict or trauma. It is possible that trauma could interfere with resolving the identity
conflict that Erikson (1963) described. According to Erikson (1963), if individuals
successfully deal with conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths
that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with
these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self
(Erikson, 1985). Trauma may be a barrier that inhibits identity development, preventing
teenagers from developing their identity. Teenagers must form a strong identity and
create a sense of direction in life to support short and long-term growth.
According to this theory, the adolescent mind experiences a moratorium, a
psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood involving identity exploration
(Erikson, 1963). This is a significant stage of development where the individual has to
learn roles they will occupy as an adult, what parents expect of the child or a profession
or activity that an individual believes they can achieve (Erikson, 1963). During this stage,
Erikson (1963) stated that the adolescent will continually re-examine their identity and
try to discover who they are or what they want to do or be. By the end of this stage,
teenagers should have a strong self of self through periods of moratorium.
Marcia’s Theory Experienced Crisis and Commitment in Identity Statutes of
Psychological Identity Development
Many other theorists expanded on identity development. Marcia (1966) extended
Erikson’s work by identifying four identity statuses of psychological identity. Marcia
(1966) said that one’s identity is defined by the choices and commitments one makes
40
regarding certain personal and social traits. Marcia’s theory of identity connects different
domains of identity development, including vocation, religion, relational achievement,
and gender roles. Marcia’s (1980) theory of identity achievements argues that crisis and
commitment exist. Marcia (1966) described the crisis as a time to disrupt how old values
or choices are being reexamined and expressed the commitment as the result of a crisis
that leads to a specific role or importance. A crisis is an experience that triggers
exploration, whereas commitment shows a dedication to an aspect of identity.
According to Marcia (1966), the age to achieve an identity is 18–22. Marcia
argued that crisis and commitment contribute to an individual’s identity. Marcia’s theory
states it is through whether individuals choose to explore and commit that determines
which of four identity statuses an individual will develop:
o Identity achievement
o Identity foreclosure
o Identity moratorium
o Identity diffusion
First, identify diffusion is where an adolescent has no sense of choices and has not
made or is unwilling to commit. Diffused teenagers also do not take the time to explore
different identities. Identity diffusion is represented by a teenager who does not realize
they can decide what to do in any situation and cannot choose one thing or another. An
example includes a teenager who cannot choose what to wear or whether they want to
attend college. Second, identity foreclosure is when an adolescent is willing to commit to
some roles, values, or goals for the future but does not explore other identities. An
41
example of identity foreclosure is when a teenager chooses a college because their
parents went there, but they did not examine any other choices for themselves. Third,
identity moratorium is when an adolescent is in crisis and exploring different
commitments to form a sense of identity—some role or value they have not yet chosen.
In other words, they continue to explore, changing elements of their identity without
committing. This identity is exemplified by a teenager who cannot commit to something,
such as whether or not to go to college (and if they do choose to go to college, they
remain confused about what to major in or what classes to take). Last, identity
achievement is when an adolescent has gone through an identity crisis and has committed
to a sense of identity. An example of this identity status is when a teenager visits multiple
colleges and then chooses the best one for them, even if they get rejected for some of
their college preferences (Marcia, 1966, 1980). A healthy identity is an achievement
identity with a clear identity and strong commitment. A moratorium identity begins to
commit to identity. However, it is still developing, and an unhealthy level is diffusion
because there is no clear identity, no commitment, and little or no search. Foreclosure
identity means unquestioningly accepting the identity given from childhood by family
and others and no search or crisis. Marcia (1980) argued that teenagers could change
statuses throughout their development.
42
Figure 1
Marcia’s Theory Experienced Crisis and Commitment in Identity Statutes of
Psychological Identity Development
Jung’s Theory of the Psyche
Another theologian who examined identity was Carl Jung. According to Jung
(1953), the collective unconscious comprises a collection of knowledge and imagery that
every individual is born with and is shared by all human beings due to ancestral
experience. According to Jung’s theory (1953), humans may not know what thoughts and
images are in their collective unconscious; it is thought that in moments of crisis, the
psyche can tap into it. Jung’s theory states that the ego forces the personality to develop
to support identity development. Jung (1933) outlined an essential feature of the personal
unconscious called complexes. A complex is a collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes,
and memories that focus on a single concept (Jung, 1933), influencing identity
development. Jung’s theory of the psyche has three aspects. (See Figure 2).
43
Figure 2
Jung’s Theory of the Psyche
Adler’s Theory of Individual Personality Types
Another identity theory was proposed by Adler (2013), who claimed that once a
psychologist knows an individual’s style of life, “it is possible to predict his future
sometimes just based on talking to him and having him answer questions” (p. 100).
Adler’s theory of individual personality involves the belief in the desire to overcome
challenges and the interactions with family members, peers, and adults who influence the
inferiority and superiority in life. Adler’s theory explains that if individuals cannot
compensate for normal feelings of inferiority, they will develop an inferiority complex.
This theory states that individuals are responsible for who they are, and the future shapes
that present behavior. Adler’s theory states that behavior is motivated by social influence
and striving for superiority, which impacts identity development.
Through this theory, Adler defined four personality types or psychological types:
the ruling type, an individual who is aggressive or pushes others out of their way to gain
T
t
EGO ( )
P
U
( )
C
U (
)
44
superiority. Second, the learning type builds a shelf on themselves, depends on others to
help them in difficult times, and is sensitive. The third type, avoiding, is best exhibited by
individuals who survive by avoiding their and others’ lives. The last personality type is
the socially helpful type; they have equal interests in themselves and do not push others;
they are typically socially adept (Alder, 2013). Adler’s theory concludes that courage is
the willingness to engage in risk-taking regardless of whether the consequences are
unknown or if there are possible adversaries. His theory is that an individual can be
courageous, provided we are willing to engage in it (Adler, 2013). This courageousness
supports identity development.
Figure 3
Adler’s Theory of Individual Personality Types
Horney (1937) believed that environment and social upbringing impacted identity
development rather than other factors. Horney believed individuals need a warm,
supportive environment and strong relationships to realize their selves. Horney believed
when individuals do not have those factors, they change the patterns that affect them and
their relationships with others. Horney stated that primary anxiety causes individuals to
T
R
L
S
U
A
45
feel helpless or lost in the world. Horney believed that three coping styles are ways
individuals cope with daily life problems that support identity development. The three
coping styles move toward individuals, reflected by affiliation and dependence. The
second coping style is moving against individuals, which causes aggression and
manipulation. The last coping style involves moving away from individuals, best
represented by detachment and isolation (Horney, 1937). The first coping style tends to
be the best when supporting identity development (Horney, 1937). See Table 1.
Table 1
Horney’s Theory Coping Styles and Description
Coping style
Description
Example
Moving toward people
Affiliation and dependence
A child seeking positive
attention and affection
from a parent; an adult
needing love
Moving against people
Aggression and
manipulation
Child fighting or bullying
other children; an adult
who is abrasive and
verbally hurtful or who
exploits others
Moving away from people
Detachment and isolation
Child withdrawn from the
world and isolated; adult
loner
Empirical Information on Identity Formation
Erikson (1993) stated that identity formation is a crucial period of adolescent
development. According to Erikson (1993), an adolescent successfully integrates identity
and works through an identity crisis through exploration and questioning. Identity
formation complicates integrating what one experienced in the past with one’s present
and future selves. Some empirical studies revealed that trauma can disrupt identity
46
development (Marin & Shkreli, 201; Rabiau, 2019). Marin and Shkreli (2019) examined
reflective and ruminative narrative processes in 32 trauma narratives written by a sample
of young adults. They concluded that narrative patterns vary across identity statuses. This
research suggested that young adults build their adaptive self-reflective ways. Rabiau
(2019) focused on adolescent refugees struggling with cultural identity. The research
found that support and coping help individuals’ growth and identity formation toward a
path of resilience and adaptation (Rabiau, 2019).
Other empirical studies have found evidence that family, community,
interpersonal experiences, and intimate relationships play a crucial strategy in identity
development (Akgül et al., 2023; De Moor et al., 2023; Jackson & Mumma, 2023). De
Moor et al. (2023) study was conducted with adolescents in their first or second year of
high school. The researchers found that educational identity changes around the transition
and firm expectations of how adolescents should change (De Moor et al., 2023). Erikson
(1968) conceptualized identity formation as a process located “in the core of the
individual and yet also in the core of his community culture” (p.22). Akgül et al. (2023)
studied adolescent non-immigrants and immigrants whose risk factors were coping
strategies, resilience, and identity development. The research found that the identity
development of immigrant or non-immigrant adolescents was essential to have social
support in identity processing in the friendship domain, which might be related to the
collectivistic characteristics of both cultures (Akgül et al., 2023). Jackson and Mumma
(2023) used visual grounded theory to extend existing multiracial identity relationships
between ecological factors, internal and interpersonal processes, and developmental age
47
for persons lining multiracial. The researchers found that traumatic events influence
multiracial identity development and can change milestones and shape a sense of self
(Jackson & Mumma, 2023). No study has yet concurrently tested the relationship
between childhood experiences and adolescent identity differences.
Other empirical investigations have helped describe the consequences of identity
diffusion. Isenhardt et al. (2021) used cross-sectional data to study individuals between
16 and 21 years old. They found that identity diffusion was related to an aggressive
deficiency in dealing with feelings of grief or sadness. Essentially, individuals with
identity diffusion can increasingly lead to impulsive actions, leading to aggression.
Additionally, Jørgensen et al. (2023) studied patients diagnosed with personality
disorders, and data was analyzed using multiple regression (Jørgensen et al., 2023). They
found that identity diffusion relates to subjective experiences, lack of self-coherences and
self-continuity over time across different contents, and confusion about boundaries
(Jørgensen et al., 2023). These studies show that identity diffusion can lead to an
individual acting impulsively and, thus, to aggressiveness. Young adults who are insecure
about their identity are at risk of suffering identity diffusion. Identity diffusion is a shared
experience with negative implications for development, directly correlating to this
study’s goal. Next, the limited research on trauma and identity will be discussed.
Trauma and Identity
Adolescence is a crucial period of development in identity formation, and any
trauma is likely to change a teenager’s experiences with learning about who they are.
Marin and Shkreli (2019) studied concentrated young adults who had 32 trauma
48
narratives. The study was qualitative and used the Ego Identity Process Questionnaire.
The research concluded that a combination of identity commitment produced low identity
distress—the limitation where clinical implications of the finding were discussed. Rabiau
(2019) studied identity formation in adolescent refugees. The researcher concluded that
family plays a role in cultural identity. The study was conducted on refugee adolescents
(Rabiau, 2019). As a result, trauma and relationships played a role in identity.
Other studies have examined trauma in the adolescent or identity context. For
example, Raemen et al. (2019) stated that traumatic experiences are related to identity
diffusion, which was connected to more self-harming behavior. Previous researchers
linked the mediating role of identity formation and self-harming behavior as
consequences of traumatic events (Raemen et al., 2019). Raemen et al. (2019) stated that
identity diffusion was positively associated with health concerns and concluded that it is
essential to identify trauma and identity diffusion as risks for self-harming behavior.
Berman et al. (2020) stated that trauma can alter or change identity formation and vice
versa; a traumatic event can impact how individual feels about themselves or how they
should deal with their trauma. Berman et al. (2020) revealed that severe traumatic
experiences could have adverse effects and suggested further studies to understand better
how trauma impacts’ identity development. As a result, traumatic events may promote
identity diffusion, which can have health complications.
Previous researchers stated that, to their knowledge, the connection between
exposure to traumatic life events and identity statuses had not been studied in qualitative
research (Berman et al., 2020; Raemen et al., 2019; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al.,
49
2020). Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al. (2020) stated that finding a relation to sexual
abuse trauma may increase the risk of developing a diffused identity. No evidence of a
connection was found between trauma and identity formation (Truskauskaite-
Kuneviciene et al., 2020). However, these studies emphasize that more studies on trauma
and identity formation must be conducted. It is unknown how trauma and identity
influence each other or how they change as consequences of a traumatic event.
Problem Statement
Traumatic events are highly stressful situations threatening one’s life, health,
personal integrity, or character. (Blaauwendraat et al., 2017; Kilpatrick et al., 2013;
Ursano et al., 2004). These events can cause young adults to be confused about who they
are and find themselves wondering who they are. It is crucial to find ways to understand
how trauma and distress can change a young adult. Young adults might experience
different symptoms or methods of dealing with traumatic stress. Learning how trauma is
exhibited in an individual can help describe how significantly their identity changed or
did not cause any change in who they were and who they are after the trauma. Many
young adults might not experience the same traumatic event but could have felt the same
impact on their identity. The lifetime prevalence of PTSD, defined according to the
American Psychiatric Association’s DSM-5 (2013), is estimated to be 8.3% in the general
population (Blaauwendraat et al., 2017; Kilpatrick et al., 2013; Ursano et al., 2004). Not
everyone suffers or expresses distress the same way. One critical form of identity work is
making sense of one’s experiences and understanding how one might relate to the self
meaningfully (McLeod, 2007). It is essential to understand how distress, as examined
50
through trauma, can cause young adults to lose their identity. The goal of this study is to
explore the experiences of adolescent trauma to understand its relationship with identity
development better. By examining the problem of trauma and identity development, more
can be done to support adolescent development.
Summary
This dissertation aims to understand better how trauma may impact young adults’
identity development, which has implications for mental well-being. Children, teenagers,
and young adults may experience trauma, affecting their identity development differently.
The effects of early childhood traumatic experiences include a higher risk for low self-
esteem, educational delays, depression, substance abuse, issues with peer relationships,
and lower trust in others (Doba et al., 2022; Mętel et al., 2019). Learning how trauma
impacts an emerging adult can help describe potential identity changes.
The goal of this chapter was to provide the theoretical grounding for this
dissertation and review the literature on trauma and identity development. Adolescent
trauma negatively affects teenagers; however, it is unclear why it can adversely impact
them. There is a gap in how identity may explain the relationship between adolescent
trauma and these negative consequences. However, no researchers have examined
adolescent experiences of trauma and identity to address the social problem of teenage
trauma. Exploring the effects of adolescent traumatic experiences may offer a clearer
understanding of how traumatic experiences influence identity development (Marin et al.,
2019; May et al., 2016; Trukauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020). Adolescents look for a
sense of self and identity by deeply exploring personal values, beliefs, and goals,
51
supported by the study’s theoretical framework, which is Erikson’s (1963) psychosocial
theory of development. Erikson (1963) stated that individuals go through eight different
psychosocial conflicts as they develop, with the fifth stage being identity versus role
confusion. According to this theory, the consequences can be harmful when adolescents
do not deal with conflict or trauma.
The review of the literature explained different topics, including children,
adolescents, and young adults who experience traumatic events. Children who experience
a traumatic event are at a higher risk of adverse outcomes and experiences (Mętel et al.,
2020; Planellas et al., 2022). Berman et al. (2020) stated trauma can alter or change
identity formation and vice versa; a traumatic event can affect how the individual feels
about themselves or how they should deal with their trauma. The consequences of trauma
are vast, and young adults might experience different symptoms and prolonged effects.
The present may address some of the gaps identified. A traumatic event can
hinder development regardless of the stage, age, or gender of the individual. It is
unknown how identity formation may change as a result of trauma. A qualitative
phenomenological methodology will be used to achieve this study’s goals.
Conducting interviews to get additional insight from a young adult who suffered a
traumatic event should allow for a better understanding of trauma’s impact on identity
formation, which can be used to design effective strategies to support adolescent and
emerging adult development and coping strategies for dealing with trauma. The results of
this study may identify ways to acknowledge how trauma might influence identity and
how this information can be applied to support development. Many studies have been
52
conducted to better understand trauma, including the risks of, consequences of, and
recovery from trauma (Marin & Shkreli, 2019; Planellas et al., 2020; Shalka, 2020). It is
still not understood how traumatic experiences impact identity. The next chapter will
overview the methodology of this study.
53
Chapter 3: Research Method
Introduction
Traumatic events can be detrimental to children, teenagers, and young adults.
However, it was unclear how trauma impacts young adults’ identity development. The
purpose of this study was to understand how some children, adolescents, or young adults
experience trauma and how this trauma experience impacts identity formation. Although
research studies have been conducted to study how traumatic events affect individuals
and how identity formation might cause self-harming or identity confusion (Berman et
al., 2020; Raemen et al., 2019; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020), there was limited
research on how trauma and identity formation may be related, specifically how trauma
may impact adolescent identity development.
Adolescent trauma adversely affects teenagers; however, it was unclear how it can
affect young adults. There was a gap in the literature about how identity may be impacted
due to trauma. No studies to date had examined adolescent experiences of trauma and
identity to address the social problem of adolescent trauma. Exploring the consequences
of adolescent traumatic experiences may offer a clearer understanding of how traumatic
experiences influence identity (Marin & Shkreli; May et al., 2016; Truskauskaite-
Kuneviciene et al., 2020). Blaauwendraat et al. (2017) defined traumatic events as highly
stressful situations that threaten one’s life, health, or personal integrity, such as
witnessing violent events or unexpected or violent deaths of close family or friends. I
explored the lived experiences of young adults who experienced trauma as a child or
teenager and how it impacted their identity formation.
54
In this chapter, I discuss the methodology, the research design, the rationale for
the research, and the role of the researcher. I also present the collection method, how
participants were selected, the instruments that I used to collect data, and the ethics
associated with the implementation of this study. The chapter concludes with a summary
of the main ideas that I presented in this chapter.
Research Design and Rationale
I conducted this qualitative, phenomenological study to gain a better
understanding of how some young adults who experienced a traumatic event experience
change their identity formation or development. The participants were individuals, 18-25
years old, who suffered a traumatic event as a child, teenager, and young adult. I used
semistructured interviews about how the trauma influenced their identity development to
gather data for this study to better understand the consequences of trauma and identity
formation.
I used a qualitative, phenomenological method to understand participants’ lived
experiences. The analysis was deductive, meaning results were gained from specific
participants who had experienced traumatic events. I examined how those events
impacted their identity formation.
A quantitative approach was not appropriate for this study. In quantitative studies,
researchers measure phenomena and generate hypotheses. Qualitative research is
conducted to analyze phenomena from a human perspective (Creswell, 2007; Giorgi,
2012). There are different qualitative research designs, but phenomenology was the best
approach compared to case studies, ground theory, or ethnography. A case study was
55
inappropriate because multiple participants are needed to understand lived experiences,
and case studies usually involve the focus and/or observation of a single or small group
of participants; ground theory does not apply to this study as this approach focuses on
constructing a new theory (Giorgi, 2012). Phenomenology was the best approach for this
study because I could use it to understand participants lived experiences of trauma.
Lived experiences are challenging to quantify, and by using a phenomenological
approach, the data were rich and lacked any preconceived ideas. I conducted interviews
to ask initial and follow-up questions about participants’ lived experiences to understand
their identity formation. I approached the participants’ lived experiences with a mixture
of curiosity, openness, and genuineness (see Bartholomew et al., 2021) that was allowed
the narratives of the participants to come together in a way that can be understood by
those who have not lived their experiences. Throughout the interviews and research
process, I kept a journal documenting any thoughts or ideas for the research.
This research was essential to developmental psychology and the educational
track within Walden University. Developmental psychology is used to understand the
changes a person experiences throughout the lifespan. A traumatic event is detrimental to
individuals’ development and likely their identity formation (Mari & Shkreli, 2019; May
et al., 2016; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020). Traumatic events can harm a young
adult’s life and may impact their identity formation. Moreover, understanding an
individual’s experiences with trauma during childhood or adolescence can provide
information to support identity development.
56
Research Question
I designed the research question in this study to address traumatic experiences and
identity formation. Many individuals have experienced trauma during identity
development (Berman et al., 2020; Raemen et al., 2019; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et
al., 2020). As children get older, traumatic experiences are processed differently, and the
degree to which a child can cope changes (Raemen et al., 2021). The research question
was: How do young adults describe their experiences of identity after experiencing
trauma as a child or teenager?
I designed the research question to expand understanding of how young adults
experience trauma as a child or adolescents change or influence their identity formation.
What variable made a person more robust than others to overcome trauma is unknown.
Society can benefit from knowing how trauma and identity are affected, which can be a
way to promote positive social change.
The Role of the Researcher
The role of the researcher in a qualitative study is complex. In this study, my role
was to understand how traumatic experiences can change a person’s identity formation
and which variables make a person more robust than others in overcoming trauma. My
role in this study was to observe and participate. I directly participated by interviewing
participants and observing how they responded verbally, emotionally, and physically.
As a researcher, it was necessary to be conscientious of the present dual
relationships or biases that may was present. The relationship that I had with the
57
participants was strictly professional. I did not have power or a supervisory role over the
participants.
Researchers must know of any biases they may have. One bias is knowing what
the research questions are before conducting the interviews. Another bias in this study
was that I might have analyzed the responses from participants when hearing them, and I
had to refrain from doing so until after the interview’s conclusion. Biases were managed
by respecting participant confidentiality and letting them know the interview procedures,
which they could review ahead of time through the informed consent form. Last, a bias
that may have existed was the perception of individuals with a traumatic event as a child
did not change their identity formation because the researcher might be expecting a
different answer from a teenager who might experience trauma after identity formation.
During the process, keeping a field journal and reviewing the videos meant there was
documentation of everything I was experiencing or thinking to ensure content validity
and credibility.
An additional concern in research is ethics. Ethics is a critical component of
research and includes the researcher’s rights, responsibilities, and moral decisions
(Koocher & Keith-Spiegel, 2008). Following the American Psychological Association’s
code of ethics was essential, especially under Section 8: Research and Publication
(American Psychological Association, 2017). Researchers needed to ensure that informed
consent was received, there was institutional approval, there was no lack of deception,
there was an accurate representation of the results, there is integrity work, and debriefing
(American Psychological Association, 2017). I was neutral, showed empathy, respected
58
any emotions, and disclosed information. Minors were not interviewed. Additionally, the
participants’ identities were kept confidential.
Methodology
Participant Selection
The participants selected for this study were 18 and 25 year olds who experienced
trauma as adolescents. My plan was to collect information from a few participants. There
was no exact number of participants to collect data for qualitative research. Vasileiou et
al. (2018) stated that the sample size should be numerous enough to allow for a new and
rich understanding of the phenomenon being studied while small enough that the most
usable data possible may be gathered from each participant. For the current research
study, the 12 participants completed interviews.
Purposive Sampling
I used purposive sampling in this study. Purposive sampling is used to discover,
understand, and gain insight into a specific, identified phenomenon (Merriam & Tisdell,
2016). Interested participants completed a screening questionnaire (Appendix B) for this
study. A relatively small, purposively selected sample increases the depth of information
and understanding instead of the breadth of the knowledge (Campbell et al., 2020).
The participants were sampled due to their unique and specific experience with
the phenomenon and the in-depth understanding derived from the information-rich
narratives they provided. Participants were chosen using criterion-based selection
(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016); specifically, they were individuals who had experienced a
traumatic event and could speak to the consequences of identity formation.
59
Recruitment of Participants
I used a variety of methods to recruit participants for this study. The research
participants were individuals who had experienced traumatic events in childhood or
teenagerhood that impacted their identity formation. For this research study, the only
demographic restriction was defined by individuals aged 18 to 25 years who experienced
trauma during childhood or as a teenager from 12 to 17 years old.
Initial recruitment was done by posting in Facebook groups to recruit participants.
These Facebook groups included Walden University, Walden University Doctoral Peer
Mentoring Group, and Walden University Online Psychology Degree Programs. A
sample post to the online group was: “I am a developmental psychology doctoral student
working on a dissertation.” I was looking for participants who had experienced a minor
traumatic childhood or teenagerhood event that might have impacted their identity
formation. If they were interested and met the criteria, they could email me for further
information.
Another way to recruit participants was by posting on my personal Facebook
page, which was snowball sampling. The definition of snowball sampling is a non-
probability sampling method where other units recruit new units to form part of the
sample (Malilay et al., 1996). I shared the following on my personal Facebook page: “I
am a doctorate student in the developmental psychology program at Walden University.”
I stated that I was completing the dissertation and needed participants 18 years or older
who had experienced a minor traumatic event during childhood or adolescence and have
60
experienced identity foundation. I asked others to share the study on their Facebook
pages.
When potential participants contacted me, I sent them a screening questionnaire
(see Appendix B) to ensure they met the criteria for becoming a participant in this
research study. Once it was determined that the individual met the research study criteria,
I emailed the consent form to ensure the participants knew the information used for this
study. The potential participants emailed me the consent form. From those who
responded to the email, a selection of seven individuals who had a traumatic experience
growing up and are 18-25 were recruited to participate, representing snowball sampling.
For the current study, trauma was self-defined. The delimitations for this study
were that participants were between the ages of 18 and 25 and experienced minor trauma
during childhood or as an adolescent 8 to 17 years old.
Procedures
After recruiting participants, the next step was to communicate with them. The
main form of communication was email. The informed consent was ensured that the
participant knew how their information was used for this study. First, the participants
completed a screening questionnaire (see Appendix B). Next, an email was sent with the
consent form. Once the consent form was received, an email was sent to set up a time for
the interview, and this researcher scheduled a Zoom interview with the participant.
Through this approach, the participants can download a copy of the consent form
(recommended in the informed consent form), which they can review before the
interview. The email that serves to schedule the interview also lets the participants know
61
that any questions they had about the informed consent were answered during the Zoom
call before the interview was recorded. The participant and interviewer met once the
interview was scheduled. Before recording the interview, the participant repeated the
consent statement. In other words, before the Zoom interview can begin, participants
must say, “I agree to participate in this study, and I consent to be recorded.”
The interview was audio-recorded, and each interview lasted about 45-60
minutes. After the end of the interview, the participants were debriefed, thanked, and
reminded that if they had any questions or concerns, to let me know. More details about
the questions were asked and discussed in the next section. Next, copies and transcripts
were made available to participants upon request. To organize the data after the
interviews, the interviews were transcribed. However, to have data transcribed, I used
Zoom transcribing services. Then, this researcher watched the video to ensure everything
was transcribed appropriately. By transcribing the data, information can be organized for
data analysis. This study used a phenomenological research design, and the analytic
technique was thematic analysis (described later in this chapter). To analyze the data
from phenomenological interviews, there was a sequence of steps to identify common
themes and categories. This study was manually coded; however, if the data was
provisional, Quirkos software wasn’t used. Giorgi (2009) provided six steps to analyze
responsive interviews. This organization was done through a Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet.
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Instrumentation
For this study, semistructured interviews was used, which are open-ended
questions geared to address the research question of this study. A semistructured
interview was done when the researcher seeks specific information about a topic and had
predetermined questions to ask participants (Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Subsequently, the
researcher used follow-up questions to gain any other necessary information (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). Six questions were curated for this study. Some of the questions included
the following:
1. Describe your childhood and adolescence.
2. Describe a traumatic event or events you experienced during childhood and
adolescence.
The main questions will focus on the prompt interview protocols, which will be
included in Appendix C.
Though these are the structures to be asked, the ability to ask follow-up questions
depends on the participants’ answers to deepen the dialogue. Through the video
interview, verbal cues, facial expressions, and partial body language, additional probing
can be done to gather further information about what they are experiencing or have
encountered. These was some of the follow-up questions:
1. Can you tell me more about that?
2. Can you elaborate further in your response?
The interviews were conducted where both parties were comfortable (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). Having a comfortable space was not the only important consideration but
63
also privacy. This environment was essential for the interview and establishing rapport
with the participants, as rapport is a significant aspect of the interview process (Rubin &
Rubin, 2012). About five to seven interviews were needed for this study. Interviews and
surveys should take about 45-60 minutes to complete. Considering the targeted sample
was homogenous, five to seven interviews would be an adequate number of participants.
The sample size was determined by saturation, and many researchers debated on an
appropriate number of interviews for qualitative research (Marshall et al., 2015). Data
saturation was achieved through repeated codes and themes throughout the interviews
and when no new information presented itself (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Data Analysis
The type of research used was a phenomenological research design. The informal
phenomenological interviews encouraged participants to add their experiences to
elaborate, in a less naïve fashion, about what they’ve lived (Giorgi., 2009). To analyze
the data from phenomenological interviews, a sequence of steps was followed to identify
common themes and categories.
Giorgi (2009) provides six steps to analyze responsive interviews. The first step
was collected and described phenomenological data (Giorgi, 2012). Through Zoom, there
was a feature that allowed for the transcription of audio. This step was conducted when
the video was watched again to ensure no errors within the audio transcripts. If errors
were found, they were corrected. Secondly, transcripts were read multiple times to be
able to code the data. This was to find “excerpts from the transcript with specific
64
concepts, them, events, examples, places, or dates” (Rubin & Rubin, 2012, p. 190). These
passages contain meaning that relates to the concepts being studied.
Third, the next step was to break down the description into meaningful units
(Giorgi., 2012). There were many codes identified within each transcript. Sorting the
codes from each transcript related to one another was done to organize the data. Each
similar code was then grouped. From the codes, they were sorted into different files or
groups and then summarized. Fourth, for each transforming meaning unit, those
subgroups were used to compare the other codes within the group. After comparison and
assortment, a file summary was completed (Giorgi, 2012).
Figure 4
Meaning Analysis Using Giorgi’s Phenomenological Method
65
Table 2
Example of the Application of the Method of Giorgi
Describe statement
Formulating meaning
Generalized meaning
PQ1
PQ1
PQ1
The fifth step was identifying the essential structure of the phenomenon (Giorgi,
2012). The codes from every file were then integrated to understand the different
interview descriptions better. The sixth step integrates features into the phenomenon’s
essential structure, including combining themes to deduce what has happened with the
participant’s experiences (Giorgi, 2012). This step was critical as it allowed a better
understanding of how the concepts answer the research questions (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).
Last, concepts can be understood to understand generalizability to the larger population.
To do this, reflections on what was found in this study and observed can be further
speculated to see how these findings can be applied in other situations or conditions
(Rubin & Rubin., 2012).
Issues of Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness in qualitative research measures how other researchers should
view the value of the study and was the foundation of high-quality qualitative research
(Birth et al., 2016). Trustworthiness was achieved by following a systematic approach
throughout the study. Reliability was established by building trust and understanding with
study participants (Ataro, 2020). This study built trust with participants by providing
clear details of the research, responding to participant responses with empathy, and
66
maintaining eye contact during the interview. The consent form also contributes to
establishing trust. The consent form was emailed to participants with precise details about
the study. Before the interview, the consent form was reviewed to ensure participants felt
comfortable with the study procedures. The researcher explained clear steps to proceed
with this study’s credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability, and ethical
procedures.
Credibility
Credibility was achieved through prolonged contact throughout this study. During
the interview process, and in order to ensure credibility, the following questions were
asked: “Give me an example” or “Elaborate a little more,” engaging promptly after a
question during the collection itself. Asking the participants during the interview
potentially enhances the accuracy of the data. Next, allowing participants to review the
interview transcript to ensure accuracy and trust in the information provided, the
researcher focuses on confirming, modifying, and verifying the transcript (Birt et al.,
2016). Member-checking was also used to validate participants’ responses. The purpose
of member checking was to validate, verify, and assess the trustworthiness of the results
(Chang, 2014; Doyle, 2007). The reason for using member-checking was to aid in
interpreting the data and provide additional context. Member-checking during the
interview took skill and practice. Therefore, this researcher conducted three practice
interviews, focusing on building skills and member-checking habits to prepare for the
data collection.
67
Participants were allowed to add, remove, or clarify their statements after each
interview by asking them, “So what this researcher hearing you say is…”. This helped to
validate participant responses in order to establish credibility. After the interview,
participants could review their transcripts and were invited to check the accuracy of the
raw data. This method built trust with the participants if the researcher needed to return
with more questions for future data. Member-checking can support participant
confidentiality, allowing them to review how the researcher has used the information.
This topic was sensitive, and it was crucial to connect with the participant to earn their
trust.
Interviewers ensured they had extended time with participants to allow for a
complete discussion of their topic. Prolonged contact refers to the ability to have
adequate time spent with participants (Krefting, 1991). The benefits of protracted contact
included the closeness of the relationship between the researcher and participants to
increase trust. It was possible through prolonged contact that the fellowship of the
relationship could cause difficulty in the interpretation of results. Therefore, reflexive
analysis or reflexivity was used (Krefting, 1991). Reflexivity refers to the researcher’s
background and biases and how they influence qualitative research (Krefting, 1991). To
have reflexivity, there were multiple times that self-inventory was done to analyze
oneself and the context of the research (Krefting, 1991). Additionally, no personal biases
were used to increase credibility, and a filed journal helped record preferences.
Another strategy to confirm credibility was through saturation. Fusch and Ness
(2015) explain data saturation as the ability of other researchers to replicate the study
68
based on the amount of data collected. This study had at least five interviews to achieve
data saturation. This number of interviews allowed rich data to identify common themes
and codes of the selected population; however, it was essential to note that some studies
may only need a few participants (Fusch & Ness, 2015).
Transferability
This phenomenological, qualitative design aims to understand how trauma may
impact young adults’ identity development. The information gathered was hoped to be
applicable, which was the ability to generalize findings to a larger population (Krefting,
1991). Additionally, transferability was an important concept, as well. Transferability
refers to how much information was shared to make it possible to transfer the findings to
a different setting. For the researcher, describing exactly how the interviews were
planned, how the participants were recruited and screened, how the interviews were
conducted, and how the findings were generated through data analysis helps to determine
if the results can be helpful in a different setting. Keeping clear and complete notes along
the way helped to determine transferability.
Dependability
Dependability was how much readers depended on the research findings of a
well-designed and executed study. Having detailed notes from the researcher’s decisions
and choices for each process step was the best way to document the study for
dependability. To have dependability in this research study, the exact research methods
are described, and the data is analyzed and interpreted. Krefting (1991) described this as
essential to qualitative research, allowing the study to be replicable by other researchers.
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Having the steps of this research study listed and explained enhances dependability due
to the decrease in the interpretation of meaning. An audio/video trail includes records that
include raw data, documentation of processes, and products of data.
Confirmability
Confirmability was proceeded by following the participants with honesty and
clarity, reassuring participants of confidentiality. There was neutrality in the
interpretation of data to allow for confirmability within this research study (Krefting,
1991). Personal biases and pre-conceived judgments were identified before researching to
be able to interpret data. The field notes helped identify any ideas or thoughts during the
research process and can be audited. Additionally, step-by-step procedures let other
researchers understand how conclusions and decisions were deduced (Krefting, 1991).
Again, complete descriptions of the research steps, including the interviews with the
selected participants, helped confirm the study findings.
Ethical Procedures
To ensure the research was ethical, a post on a Facebook group was used stating
the purpose of the study and asking for participants who had traumatic events in
childhood or adolescence. To maintain confidentiality, interviews were conducted in a
private Zoom setting. It was reiterated to participants that their confidentiality could only
be maintained if both parties were in a private location without any interruptions. The
video files are kept in a locked file on a password-protected computer. Throughout the
research and after, participants were treated with respect. All participants were given
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informed consent before the research study and told that if they chose not to participate,
they could stop at any point without any repercussions.
More than anything else, each participant was treated as an autonomous agent
who voluntarily gave informed consent to participate in the research study with the
promise of privacy and confidentiality and the right to withdraw from participation in the
research study without any penalty (Stadtlander, 2018). Participants read and agreed to
the consent form (see Appendix A) before participating in the research study. The
consent form included background information describing the research study, how the
interviews were conducted, the voluntary nature of the research study, the risks and
benefits of the research study, confidentiality protections, contact information for the
researcher and the University in case a participant has questions or concerns; and low-
cost mental health resources (see Appendix A). Before each interview began, this
researcher asked each participant if they had any questions or concerns, including any
questions about the informed consent form. After the participant said, “I agree,” The
Zoom interview proceeded with the interview questions. Follow-up interviews were
scheduled to go over the transcription of interviews. A copy was provided to the
participants.
Summary
The purpose of Chapter 3 was to cover this study’s methodology and procedures.
A qualitative phenomenological design was used to understand the lived experiences of
individuals with traumatic events and the consequences of identity formation.
Semistructured interviews were used to capture the experiences of the interviewees.
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Interviews were transcribed, coded, and analyzed to identify common themes. This
information was essential to promote social change as it allowed a better understanding to
help professionals learn how trauma can change a person’s identity and what makes some
individuals cope positively or negatively. More specifically, the results of this study c
identified ways to overcome trauma by assisting identity development.
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Chapter 4: Results
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the lived experiences of
young adults who experienced traumatic events as children or adolescents and how their
traumatic experiences played a role in their identity formation. The research question for
my dissertation was: How do young adults describe their experiences of identity after
experiencing trauma as a child or adolescent? I addressed how people describe changes in
their identity as a result of trauma. My aim with this study was to understand how young
adult’s experiences of trauma as a child or adolescent contribute to their identity
formation.
I analyzed the qualitative data using thematic analysis. The data analysis process
used to process interview responses was the six steps proposed by Giorgi (2009). These
steps included reading data, breaking down the data, organizing data, synthesizing the
data, identifying the essential structure of the phenomenon, and the last step, integrating
features into the phenomenon’s essential structure, including combining themes to
deduce what has happened with the participant’s experiences (Giorgi, 2009). Through
data analysis, I established the descriptive statements, meaning, and themes. The themes
and participant responses are provided in this chapter to explore the experiences of
trauma for changes in identity formation. This chapter includes discussion of the study’s
setting, participant demographics, evidence of trustworthiness, data analysis, and results.
Setting
An Institutional Review Board (IRB) application was completed and submitted
through Walden University. The Walden University IRB provided approval (#01-11-24-
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0485592) with authorization to commence research. In order to receive approval, I
changed the operationalization of traumatic event to minor trauma, as major trauma could
be triggering to participants. Minor traumas included things like hazing, moving, or a
parent’s divorce; I removed the counseling requirement, and another change was to
remove recruiting participants from the Walden participant pool. Participant recruitment
was completed according to Walden’s IRB guidelines. Recruitment was conducted via
social media platforms, such as Facebook groups and posts on LinkedIn. I clarified to the
IRB that I would not have a pre-existing relationship with the participants.
I had a total of 16 participants who emailed me to notify me that they were
interested in participating and that they met the requirements. Three of the 16 participants
were sent to me via email from their relatives who had participated, representing
snowball sampling. After receiving potential participant emails, I emailed them the
consent form and verified eligibility. After I emailed them the consent form, 15
participants replied, “I consent” (one person never responded once I sent the consent
form). I followed up with another email asking if they had a day and time that I could
schedule a Zoom interview. I scheduled their Zoom meeting after they emailed me the
day/time. Two participants did not respond to this follow-up email. Two participants set
up the interview time but however, failed to show up for the scheduled Zoom interview.
Another participant rescheduled a second time but did not show up then either. Therefore,
I did not try to reschedule the participant again. As a result of this recruitment, I ended up
with 12 interviews.
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Interviews occurred over Zoom. Most participants chose a camera-on option
while they could see my camera on. I let participants know they could choose whether to
have the camera on or off. Participants were aware that it was going to be audio recorded.
I chose a quiet, safe, and confidential setting. Likewise, all participants were in a quiet
place setting, and other than the odd connection issues, which may have resulted in some
statements being repeated or clarified, there were no distractions.
Data Collection
When going through the IRB approval process, the IRB initially required that I
modify my study to only interview participants who had experienced minor trauma.
Examples of minor traumas were parents’ divorce, health issues, or parents’ deaths. The
interview questions were revised to comply with the IRB requirements and align with the
research question. The informed consent form was revised to remove the signature and
replace it with “I consent.” This was done to maintain anonymity. The consent forms also
had a few other changes after going through the IRB process, like changing “traumatic
events” to “minor traumas.” The recruitment post also had a minor adjustment to change
“traumatic events” to “minor trauma.” I removed therapy or counseling from the flyer as
an inclusion criterion per IRB. I developed open-ended semistructured interview
questions for data collection (see Appendix C). The target number of interviews was 10
to 15; my study had 12 participants. All interviews were conducted as planned. All
interviews were recorded using the Zoom application and lasted 30 to 50 minutes. The
interviews took place over approximately two months, from January 2024 to February
2024.
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The social media posts used for recruitment clearly explained the study and how
to participate in the study. The participants were informed of the confidentiality involved
in the research study and provided a consent form via email, which outlined the research
study’s purpose (Giorgi 2009). Participants contacted me via Facebook Messenger and
LinkedIn. After they contacted me, I replied with the consent form via email. Participants
were required to reply with “I consent” via email. After I received the reply, I followed
up by setting up the interview day/time. All interviews were conducted through Zoom.
Before I began the interview, I thanked each participant for taking the time to
participate in my research study. I followed up by asking each participant if they had any
questions regarding the consent form. I told them that it was acceptable if they needed to
pause or stop. I explained that I would not use their names to protect their privacy.
I completed all interviews at home on my secure laptop. I audio-recorded the interviews
through Zoom and downloaded them securely on my laptop. The audio-recorded
interviews and email consent form responses were secured as a password-protected file
on a computer that I own. The participants’ real names were not stated or acknowledged
in the audio-recorded interview process. The only identifying information for participants
was via personalized email names sent through the informed consent process via Walden
University email. Data saturation was achieved once I interviewed my 10th participant,
but I included two more interviews to ensure that a comprehensive amount of data was
collected for this study.
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Demographics
In this qualitative study, participants began to email me to let me know they
wanted to participate and to confirm that they met the requirements for this study (that
they were 18 and older and experienced some form of mild trauma). Minors and other
vulnerable populations were not included in the recruitment process. I notified them I
would not use names to protect their privacy; I would identify participants by numbers.
Participants were identified as P1 (for Participant 1) through P12 (for Participant 12),
which corresponded with when each interview occurred (see Table 3).
Table 3
Participants Interviews
Participants
Date interview
Interview
duration
Gender
Mild trauma
P1
01/25/2024
32.33 minutes
Female
Parent’s Divorce
P2
01/27/2024
34.29 minutes
Female
Parent’s Death
P3
01/28/2024
35.55 minutes
Female
Parent’s Death
P4
01/30/2024
26.09 minutes
Female
Health’s Diagnosis
P5
01/31/2024
29.06 minutes
Female
Health’s Diagnosis
P6
02/01/2024
31.37 minutes
Female
Parent’s Divorce
P7
02/02/2024
33.19 minutes
Female
Family Tragedy
P8
02/03/2024
50.66 minutes
Male
Parent’s Divorce
P9
02/03/2024
31.40 minutes
Female
Bullying School
P10
02/06/2024
17.41 minutes
Female
Health’s Diagnosis
P11
02/12/2024
27.55 minutes
Female
Parental Conflict
P12
02/20/2024
21.40 minutes
Male
Parent’s Divorce
Further demographic information was not collected for privacy reasons so that I
could maintain the confidentiality of participants. In terms of responses, some
participants replied at first via Facebook Messenger, and a few other participants sent me
a message through LinkedIn. Then, as part of the snowball sampling method, some
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participants invited others to participate in the study through their social media posts with
their families or spouses. The 12 interviews were conducted between January 25, 2024, to
February 20, 2024. Two male participants participated in the study, and the rest were
female. The 12 participants met via Zoom, while only Participant 2 (P2) met via Zoom
phone with the camera off and I had the camera on. Participants had the opportunity to
engage in member checking by me summarizing their responses after each question in
order to confirm their answers. Member checking is used to validate, verify, and assess
the trustworthiness of results (Chang, 2014; Doyle 2007). At the end of the interview, I
summarized the main points shared during the interview and read it to them, and I asked
them if it was correct.
Data Analysis
I used a phenomenological research design for this qualitative study. Informal
phenomenology interviews are a way for participants to share their experiences
authentically and naturally (Giorgi, 2009). The Zoom platform provided audio, video,
and written transcripts of each interview. Due to the study's nature as semistructured
interviews, all participants were asked the same 11 questions (see Appendix D). I used
semistructured interviews with open-ended questions, and responses were used as the
primary data for this study to address the research question.
However, follow-up questions were asked to better understand the participant’s
experiences based on the participant's answers. Some participants were eager to share
their experiences and would start telling stories at the beginning of the interview when
asked the first question. To avoid disrupting the rapport-building process, I would let
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them tell me the story, then go back and ask the semistructured questions, even if they
had already been answered in their stories. As I interviewed, I took notes of how they
were reacting and documented any behavior I noticed throughout the process in a journal.
At the end of the interview, the participants were debriefed for member checking, and all
were sent copies of the transcripts for their review. All participants responded and offered
no objections or amendments.
According to Giorgi (2012), the researcher is responsible for reading the data with
the goal of comprehending the fundamental sense of described events. The first step in
this process was to read the transcript several times. I analyzed the transcriptions and
listened to the recordings multiple times. The second step in the process was to print the
interviews and highlight them to begin bracketing all my assumptions during the
interview process to help develop the meaning unit. By reading the transcribed data a few
times, unique meanings were marked appropriately. I created meaning within
participants’ lived experiences descriptions and saved them. I stored, organized, and
manually organized the data using Microsoft Excel (see Table 3). The information was
reviewed for possible relationships once the meaning units were developed using the
hand coding approach. I found that participants who experienced similar trauma had
some similarities in the context of the data. For example, an example of a meaning unit I
found in several interviews was “fake emotions” (P1, P2, P3, P7). One participant
expressed, “I would have to put a happy face” (P2); P7 said, “Act like it didn’t affect me
and didn’t tell anybody what happened.” While interviewing P10, no new meaning units
were coming up, providing an indication of data saturation. Because I had already had
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two more interviews scheduled, I conducted them to ensure that rich data was collected.
The 12 participants produced thick data, which I imported into an Excel sheet and
divided into meaning units and description meaning units, with examples quotes of
different participants (see Table 4).
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Table 4
Descriptions and examples of thematic code
Meaning Unit
Description of Meaning Units
Example Quote
Loss
Confidence
People felt less confident when dealing
through difficult situations.
"Am I good enough"(P4)
Fear
Feeling anxious and scared as a result
of family experiences.
"The fear of that sense of
Failure" (P1)
Academic
Motivation
Feeling motivated to succeed
academically in school.
"Outlet was going to school and
staying" (P3)
Self-Determine
Participants were determined to
improve their identity.
"As I got older, I changed
because religious and
maturity"(P6)
Early Marriage
Some people choose to get married
young when experiencing family
distress.
"I got married very early and
that had to do with it because I
wanted to be accepted and
loved" (P3)
Loss Identity
When people go through a family
situation suffered loss of identity
"My whole world just came
down" (P11)
Change in Peers
Relationships
Peer relationships can change when
dealing with difficulties.
"I didn't really fit in with anyone
at that time" (P8)
“I was more in a caregiver role
than necessarily a daughter"(P4)
Religious
Support
People practice religious to find
healing or support.
"My relationship with Christ, it
is important to me" (P12)
Parental
Pressure
Parents expectations can add pressure
and distress.
"I wouldn't want to let me
parents down" (P8)
Fake Emotions
People pretended to be someone to
hide pain. Feeling anxious and scared
as a result of family experiences.
"I would have like deep sadness.
That I would try to cover up. I
would have to put a happy
face"(P2)
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Meaning Unit
Description of Meaning Units
Example Quote
Coping through
school
School can be a a place where
emotional reactions to stress might
have a positive or negative impact.
"I do better, maybe then that
might help changes things”
(P12)
Coping through
Work
Work is an outlet to forget worries or
find self-worth
"I was allowed to start working
part-time and that was a big
change in my life because I felt
self-worth" (P3)
Change in
Personality
People describe how they see
themselves or others when they
experience difficulties
"What I had to live through,
what made me hard, why I
decide to be the person I was"
(P3)
Marriage in
Distress
Participants reported stress and conflict
in their marriages
"I devaluated myself and I never
self-worth. That affected my
relationship with my husband”
(P2)
Anger
People feel angry when dealing with
difficult situations.
"As a teenager, I was very
angry" (P3)
Program
Support
People look for guidance and support
when they go through difficult
situations.
" I helped in the organization
"Big brother, Big sister" (P7)
Diagnoses
People who go through health
diagnosed can altered everyday life
activities
"It was hard. I missed a lot key
stages and social development"
(P5)
Coping through
school
School is affected when dealing with
situations and expectations.
" I just literally go and just focus
on what I supposed to do, go to
class, and learn" (P11)
Counseling/
Professional
Program
People look for counseling to help
them when difficult situations.
"What change for me was, like
they say counseling" (P10)
The meaning units reflect the descriptive information compiled from the
interviews during the study research. The third step was organizing related units of
meaning into sub-themes. In addition to these lived experiences, each participant had
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their own childhood experiences or adolescent trauma, and some of their experiences had
similarities that overlapped the sub-themes. I began to develop a clearer sense of how
participants made sense of the phenomenon. I sorted through meaning units by grouping
similar sub-themes in the Excel document. For instance, P1 and P3 had similarities in
potential sub-themes, including academic motivation and self-determination. The fourth
step was to organize related sub-themes into main themes. I reread the transcripts to
reevaluate the relevance of the experiential themes developed (see Table 5).
Table 5
Thematic Analysis
Themes
Sub-themes
Meaning Units
They describe intense changes in emotions.
Fear
Fake emotions
Loss Confidence
Anger
Fear
Self-determined
Academic Motivation
Self-Determine
They describe their identity as changing as a
result of external support.
Counseling/Professional
support
Early Marriage
Religious support
Loss Identity
Program support
Change in Peers
Relationships
Religious Support
Coping in Context
Work as coping
Parental Pressure
Academic motivation
Fake emotions
School as coping
School Difficulties
Early Marriage
Coping through Work
Change in Personality
Negative Consequences
Loss Confidence
Marriage in Distress
Loss of Identity
Anger
Parental Pressure
Program Support
Marital Distress
Health Issues
Health Issues
Change in Family roles
School Difficulties
Coping through school
Counseling/ Professional
Program
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Interpersonal Changes
Change in Peers
Relationships
Change in Personality
Change in Family roles
The fifth step and final step was to synthesize this information. I integrated
features into the phenomenon’s essential structure, including combining themes to
deduce what has happened with the participant’s experiences (Giorgi, 2009). These units
were completed by organizing a data analysis table, which I interpreted. I drew together
the statements to identify interesting and significant components of each participant. The
meaning units were grouped based on their similar nature into broader theme patterns.
The sub-themes were taken from the meaning units and grouped into specific themes.
The total was 20 sub-themes and five major themes.
Evidence of Trustworthiness
Credibility
To ensure credibility, there was a conversation before the interviews in which the
participants shared their age and the trauma that occurred in childhood or adolescence to
be checked for credibility. Also, it was an opportunity to gain their trust. I thanked them
and asked if they had any questions regarding the consent form. Another way credibility
was established was by paying attention to participants’ responses and, if needed, asking
additional follow-up questions. I asked a follow-up question if I felt that an answer
needed more clarity to the question response. Member checking was also done. I used
member checking to validate the accuracy of the interview. To do member checking,
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during the interviews, after each question, I summarized their responses to ensure that
they matched my interpretation of what they said (see below for an example).
18:10:36 Participant 2: “I started college. And, in my college years, I didn't have
any direction.”
18:10:44 Participant 2: “I never knew or believed in myself. That I was as good as
everybody else that was in college. I just, I kind of felt like I was like a little bird with a
broken wing.”
18:11:03 Researcher: “Okay”
18:11:06 Researcher: “So going back to the question, you will say the trauma
impacted your confidence, your ability, directions, and loss of belief in yourself,
correct?”
18:11:25 Participant 2: “Yes”
Reflexivity was also used to achieve credibility and prevent personal biases. I
used a field journal during the interviews. This journal was used to ensure that saturation
was meant and to address the meaning-making process of analysis better.
Transferability
Transferability is used to apply data to outside sources (Krefting, 1991). In this
research, I established transferability by collecting all the data possible regarding the
research related to the demographics. I promoted transferability by using quotes from
each participant. Their vivid descriptions of their experiences offered deep insight into
the lives of those who experienced a traumatic event in their childhood or adolescence.
The stories of each participant provided evidence of the consequences of identity
formation after a traumatic event.
Dependability
The dependability and reliability of the data obtained and analyzed in this study
were rigorously conducted (Amankwaa, 2016). The dependability of this research is
based on the accuracy of the interview responses collected and coded (Amankwaa, 2016).
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I promoted the dependability of my findings by reviewing the audio recording collected
via the media platform Zoom. I also printed and reviewed every interview transcript.
During the interview, dependability was accomplished in this study by clearly describing
each step and process. I used population selection, data collection, data analysis,
interpretation of the data, and the research findings. I summarized the interview to the
participants to confirm that the data collected was accurate through member checking. I
manually kept an audit trail on each printed transcript where I kept descriptive and
conceptual experiential notes. Throughout my research, all digital and physical copies of
relevant materials were kept confidential by being in my possessions, locked, or
password protected. Backups of transcripts and analysis were retained on password-
protected cloud drives.
Results
The purpose of my qualitative study was to understand how some children or
adolescents experience trauma and how this trauma experience contributes to identity
formation. The study showed that five themes and 20 sub-themes emerged from the 20
meaning units using Giorgi’s phenomenological analysis by examining the lived
experiences of participants’ responses. Emerging themes and statements from each
interview were then entered into the Excel documents (see Table 6).
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Table 6
Themes and Sub-themes Answering the Research Questions
Themes
Sub-themes
Participants experienced intense changes in
emotions.
Fear
Fake emotions
Anger
Self-determined
Participants experienced their identity as
changing as a result of external support.
Counseling/Professional support
Religious support
Program support
Participants experienced their coping in
context as they were going through the
trauma.
Work as coping
Academic motivation
School as coping
Early Marriage
Participants experienced negative
interpersonal consequences as a result of
their traumatic event.
Loss Confidence
Loss of Identity
Parental Pressure
Marital Distress
Health Issues
School Difficulties
Participants experienced interpersonal
changes as they were dealing with the
trauma.
Change in Peers Relationships
Change in Personality
Change in Family roles
Theme 1: Participants Experienced Intense Changes in Emotions
Many participants experienced changes in emotions after a traumatic event. Some
participant’s emotions were found in fear, fake emotions, anger, and self-determination.
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Fear
Some participants, like P1, P2, P6, P7, and P8, felt anxious and scared due to
family experiences. P1 said she was afraid to fail because of what happened in her
family. Her mom left her family without notice, and they were a Christian family. She did
not want her marriage to fail like her family.
P1 shared her traumatic event referring to his dad:
In his controlling way. What she would do, she couldn't do anything, including
you know, she didn't want her even controlling any of the funds or the money or
anything like that. And then, in his opinion, If she didn't work out or she didn't
even deserve a hug or anything else or any attention. And, and… that was a major
blow. To go along with everything else that had just happened to her. And…
Those kinds of things just continued until finally. It just broke her down. And…
she started having panic attacks. The fear of that, a sense of failure. Cause now
she thought that She had lost her self-worth. And then, that caused trouble with
her at school, where she was always at the very top of her class. You know, now
she can't even focus on her work. And, and… that just led to, you know,
depression and anxiety. She did not understand how to deal with it. The fear of
being a failure. And… now she's afraid that her marriage is falling apart. And… it
was it was one too many blows for her to take. You know…
When I asked about the impact of trauma, P6 stated,
Hmm… It's different now as an adult than it was as a kid. As a kid, it made me
fear men. It made me really afraid of authority figures I had to be I felt like I had
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to be very respectful of them and not always, always… stay. Quiet and kind of out
of the way so that I would not.
I asked the participants how the trauma impacted their family relationships during
adolescence. P8 stated, “I was always… I think… I was always fearful of letting people
down again….”. Participants shared how their trauma impacted their emotions, with
some participants mentioning how they tried to protect themselves from the fear as a
consequence of the trauma.
Fake Emotions
Some participants, like P2, P3, and P7, felt that after a trauma, they hid their
emotions. When I asked about how trauma impacted their personality development,
P2 stated,
Yeah. Well, I think that… I think that just having alcoholic parents in general,
you know since I was a very young child. I always… I had to put on a happy face
when I went to school and, you know, pretend like I wasn't.
Participant 3 shared the same emotions as others:
But I had a lot of stuff going on inside…. I did not have the resources to expel it,
and I don't know if I did. That's why I think it is a personality trait, not a
chameleon, where you can be one person and be another person.
Participant 7 shared the impact of trauma and how they acted:
He, he… did a school shooting. But nobody, nobody… passed away or anything
like that. He tried to do something bad. So, it affected our whole family. My dad
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ended up actually seeing a psychiatrist. Me, I just kind of… Act like it did not
affect me and did not tell anybody what happened.
Participants said they pretended to be someone or acted differently to hide their
emotions. The three participants shared ways in which the trauma impacted their feelings
and hid their emotions.
Anger
Anger was a common emotion expressed by the participants after a traumatic
event. Participants shared how they felt and acted after a trauma. When I asked about
how they identify themselves as a teenager, P3 stated,
Due to the to that event… Yes, as a teenager. I was very angry. I might say very.
Guarded has been my feelings as a person; I withheld them from a lot of people
by not showing emotion.
Participants felt angry when dealing with difficult situations. For example, P4 shared,
I love my dad, but because of his choice to have an affair and the effects that that
had on our family. I was very angry with him and struggled with that relationship
and trying to understand. The decisions that he made.
When I asked about how the trauma impacted who they are, P5 stated,
At first... in my younger years, my teenage and young adult life, I was very angry
and sad. It took a long time to move past that. Even as a Christian, I was still very
angry and sad even with God in my life and trying to ask him, you know.
Participants shared how frustrated they felt after they experienced a trauma. P8 stated,
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I was put on the stand…. I was in a judge's office, I am… I should say…I was
put in a judge's office and asked by the judge who I wanted to live with when I
was 12 years old, and each of the attorneys was on either side. We are trying to
convince them that I hated the other parent, and that broke me. I do not know if I
have ever recovered from that.
Some participants described how trauma impacted them, with some feeling
anxious and scared as a result of family experiences. Other participants pretended and hid
their feelings.
Self-determined
Some participants, like P3, P6, and P11, shared what helped them to be self-
determined. P3 mentioned what motivated her after the trauma:
The personality trait was motivation, you know, because I knew one thing, I did
know is that I had to keep going. I could not stay behind. I know I need it because
of my dad. I needed to finish school, which always motivated me to do my best in
school.
Participants described who they are or who they see themselves before or after a difficult
situation. For example, P6 stated,
Gosh, I do not know I just think I was…I would say average, but I do not know. I
was…really into school. It was important to me that I achieved success in school.
So that I could make something of myself. So, I was really studious. Being
friendly was important to me, as well as being kind to people.
Some participants mentioned who impacted their lives. P11 stated,
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I will say, my son, yes. It is my son because I would not want him to see me the
way I saw my mom that night. I wanted him to trust me to know that it is okay to
trust his mom. And, I am always going to be there no matter what. So, I'm trying
to be a better person for him to show him the good and bad things about this
world. Yeah, it is him. He's the reason why I want to keep my goals so that he can
know that through struggles, better things are coming.
Some participants expressed having difficulty in their emotions like fear,
Fake emotions, and anger after the trauma. Others mentioned how, after the trauma,
someone or something encouraged them to be self-determined.
Theme 2: Participants Experienced Their Identity as Changing Due To External
Support
Some participants described their identity as changing due to external support.
The external support was from programs like counseling/professional support, religious
support, and program support.
Counseling/Professional Support
Some participants look for counseling or professional support for help after the
traumatic event. Some participants shared how counseling or support programs helped
them after a trauma. P4 stated,
When we were going through the divorce, my mom did have a counselor working
with us—the same counselor who worked with my mom, me, and my brother. My
brother is five years younger than me. And so again, along with the divorce and
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then her health changes, we went through a lot as a family… and I think the time I
most benefited from the counseling was probably in high school.
Participant 10 mentioned that counseling helped her cope with her situation. She did not
want to go through life being anxious:
I think what impacted me the most to change was…I think, like…trying to control
everything I like. I did not want to go through life like... Being always anxious
and stuff. That is when I reached out to a counselor to help me. Manage through
my anxiety.
Some participants mentioned how counseling or support groups
helped them deal with difficult situations after a traumatic event. Some participants
mentioned how having family support made a difference.
Religious Support
Some participants found support in religion, or they might have had high
expectations in their family. Other ones were involved in their church. Some participant’s
religion helped them after a trauma. For instance, P5 stated,
What keeps me going now is just the fact that …I just need to keep going. I just. It
is God’s plan. It is me… it is God's plan for me to keep going. You know, until he
says it is not for me to keep going. It is that I am here for a purpose. And I, you
know. I cannot explain it. That is it. Hold on, let me find the words. I keep going
because God has a plan for me to inspire others around me.
Some participants shared how religion and maturity impacted their lives after a trauma.
For instance, P6 stated,
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Am I different now? Yes, but not because of the trauma because… the trauma
made me who I was. I think I am different now because I … met Jesus; through
his grace, he showed me that I do not have to live like that. So, the trauma made
me who I was, but God and then maturity and just age and kind of maybe
hopefully a little wisdom in there.
Some participants mentioned what helped them to overcome a trauma. P7 stated:
I have my mom on the phone. I called her and said, I need help, and we need help.
So, I got with…actually, a Christian counselor. And I was not going to church at
that time at all. I got with a Christian counselor and then also a regular counselor
because I wanted to get healthy. I started listening to forgiveness tapes, which
friends and many friends helped me with. I moved down from my house.
Some participants mentioned how religion plays a role after the trauma. P12 stated,
Who was I without… this without this governing how, how… did I act? And then
the second part of it was my relationship with Christ, which, again, because of
what I went through because of that key point. Because I struggled to trust my
parents because I struggled to feel emotionally safe with my parents. I struggled
even after I became a Christian after I accepted Christ. I struggled with the state to
put 100% trust and faith in him. Over the last couple of years, like I said, my wife
and I went through a little bit of counseling last year. Through that, I am really
starting to try and, and… okay. This is a relationship with Christ that I say is
important to me. I need to start acting like it. It really kind of helped me, too. I
realize it is no longer okay to let that event dominate my life.
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Some participants expressed that religion affected them when their parents
divorced. Other participants found religion as a way to forgive and deal with the
difficulties caused by the trauma.
Program Support
Some participants expressed how support programs impacted them positively
after the trauma. Participants mentioned different programs to help them after
experiencing a trauma. P5 stated,
I believe God brought a survivorship program into my life as well, and it, it…
brought a new light on why I was brought to this path, and now it has changed.
P7 said, "I helped in the organization Big Brother, Big Sister," she said that maybe
because of her pain, she felt good trying to help children. Some participants shared how
family support impacted them after the trauma. For example, P11 stated,
What helped me the most was… I will say.1. Just the fact that… I had my dad
with me. He was there for me through all of it. And and…he was the only person
I talked to about my situation when I felt sad because he is the only one who has
shown me support ever since that day.
Some participants said they chose to get help counseling because they did not
want to feel anxious. Other participants felt that participating in support programs and
helping others felt good. Some participants expressed that having family support was
essential for them.
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Theme 3: Participants Describe Their Coping In Context as They Were Going
Through the Trauma
Some participants discussed how they managed to cope with their circumstances
as they were going through the trauma. Participants shared how they deal with coping at
work or school. Some participants expressed how academic motivation helped with the
trauma, and others sought relationships like early marriage to fill the hole caused by the
trauma.
Work Coping
Some participants found work as a guiding force was helpful as they were trying
to cope with their traumatic events; for others, it was a survival or fake emotions method
to cope with trauma. Some participants described what work meant to them after a
trauma. For example, P2 stated,
My work? I worked at a little Christian daycare, and I actually had many different
jobs. So, I would have to say that was my outlet. My jobs were really my outlet. I
felt like I could go, and I did not know it. It was a lot of me pretending.
Participant 3 shared that when she was at work, she felt self-worth. She stated, “I
was allowed to start working part-time, and that was a big change in my life because I felt
self-worth.” Participant 4 shared, “As a teenager. I had a lot of responsibility because my
mom became a single parent working full time.” As she grew up, P4 said her job helped
her to help others, and it was healing to help other families. She said it affected her
professionally and personally. She worked in a profession that help children and families.
She tried to provide a safe place. P5 said she likes to get to work and inspire others. She
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said, “I wanted to share my story and tell them, and there is a light at the end of the
tunnel.”
Some participants’ work was vital to dealing with their trauma. P6 stated that they
needed money. At work, she did not want to make anyone mad and shared, “I just never
wanted anyone to get mad or angry, and I just did not know” and “I usually had male
bosses, and I just I … was always afraid of them, because I was afraid of the men.” P7
said she worked, was overly compliant, and tried to make everything perfect.
Some participants used work to cope with the trauma. P8 said she had a good job
in high school and made pretty good money for a high school. P8 mentioned that as an
adult, he immersed himself in work. P8 stated, “I do not like to deal with things, and I
will put my head in the sand or immerse myself in work if I have to.” Some participants'
work stayed the same; they did not have to cope and followed their parent's examples.
P12 shared his trauma work impact: “I have always believed them working hard. So that
really did not affect it. At least one comes to a job; I believe in working hard. I have not
necessarily done that school.”
Some participants found work as a place where they could help others as they
were dealing with trauma experiences. Others saw an identity for their future, and many
other participants were immersed in a job to avoid dealing with their trauma difficulties.
Academic Motivation
Some participants, like P1, P3, P8, P9, and P10, described school as a motivation.
P1 dad shared, “It had to be an A and the highest “A” that She could have,” which was
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what she expected of herself. Some participants mentioned that the trauma impacted their
school. P3 stated:
It was back in the sixties and seventies, when maybe it was a cultural thing, or
you know, where you go to school, you come home, you do chores, you … know.
You do your homework and go to school, which is the only kind of interaction
you have. I mean, that was me. The outlet was going to school and staying there.
P6 said the school was essential to her. School was easy for her, and she excelled
because she liked the recognition there. P6 stated, “I was really into school. It was
important to me that I achieved success in school. So that I could make something of
myself, I was really studious.”
Some participants shared how the school did not make any impact after
the trauma. For instance, P8 stated,
The trauma did not really impact my school that much because when my parents
were going through a divorce, it was in my seventh-grade year, and…I maintained
great, you know, as far as, throughout school, no matter the trauma. I
maintained… the ability to focus on the job at hand and get things done. And… I
have that.
P9 said she was an “A" student. She was involved in extracurriculars like band
and theater. After the trauma, her grades went down, and she quit band and theater. Some
of her classmates were not nice to her. P9 stated:
And then, because I became so doubtful about myself, and ever since my grades
started dropping, I stuck to being an “A,” just an average student. Because you
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know, before, I would always get A's, all A's, B's. But as I got older, I kind of just
settled for the bare minimum, and I feel like that stopped me from getting a lot
more opportunities.
Participant 10 was affected, too; however, the support from teachers was helpful.
P10 said she volunteered during high school. Volunteering helped her to keep herself
active and kept her busy. She stated, “It affected my school because I felt behind on a lot
of homework and stuff, and sometimes in my test and final.”
Some participants used academics as motivation to get positive attention. Others
found school to be the place where support was received or to avoid dealing with trauma.
School as Coping
Some participants dealt with school coping positively or negatively. P7 said she
went with the flow, but maybe too much. She said she was a class clown. She stated,
“Yeah…you know, maybe it did affect the school as well. I have just almost the
perfectionist”. P10 said it affected her school because she missed a lot due to her illness.
She said her teachers were very understanding. She volunteered at school for a lot of
hours because she was missing school. She was nervous about not being able to graduate.
P10 stated, “Most of my teachers were understanding, too.”
Some participants shared how, after trauma, they were affected negatively. P11
shared,
My classmates. I have never really talked to anyone. I was very isolated. I would
just literally go and focus on what I was supposed to do, go to class, and learn,
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then move to the next class. And I, like I said, I didn't. I was not. I was really not
great at socializing with others. It was just me and my own little mind.
Participants discussed the impact of grades and behavior issues at school after the
trauma. P12 shared,
I would love to say it did, but my problem is all right. The problem I have with
the current way we do education is that it does not; it needs to be designed to meet
an individual, and so on. For me, I was always, and…I was struggling because I
was bored, not because I did not understand the material or what the teacher was
saying. I was just bored, and they reflected in my grades; you know, C's and B's
were common for me. Hey, I just never put in the effort because I was bored. And
so, when all this came down. There was a time when I thought, well, maybe if I
do better, maybe that might help change things. And for a little bit, I did for about
a year. I did better and went from B's and C's days to B's, but it did not change
anything. And so, I went back to the old way since I figured I was putting in a
little extra effort to get no results. Yeah. It is not the way I want it. Let me
rephrase that. I decided just one more, then back to doing things I always had.
Okay, so. So, I got a short improvement for about a year and then back to things.
Some participants expressed how school affected them positively through their
trauma because it was a place where they had support. Others felt that because of their
health issues, they found it hard to relate to others at school. Other participants found
school as a place where they went in/out without being noticed.
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Early Marriage
Some participants shared about the impact of trauma on relationships. P1 shared
that his daughter married at a young age, and she felt that he was a great man, except he
was controlling toward her. Her dad mentioned how the trauma impacted her choices. P1
stated:
But back to the divorce. It happened whenever her mother decided to leave, and
that caused some issues for her… She was a perfectionist. She was always the
best at everything she did, so failing was not an option for her. She got married to
a guy who was in the Air Force.
P3, she said she married young. She wanted to be accepted and loved. P3 said, “I
got married very early, and that had to do with it because I wanted to be accepted and
loved.” Some participants cope through work, academic motivation, or school as an
outlet to forget worries and find themselves worthy. Other participants were impacted at
school due to having missed because of health issues or other trauma-related issues.
Theme 4: Participants Experienced Negative Consequences Because of Their
Traumatic Event
Participants discussed the negative consequences of their traumatic event. The
final codes regrouped with the themes of loss of confidence, loss of identity, parental
pressure, marital distress, health issues, and school difficulties.
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Loss of Confidence
Some participants mentioned how they lost confidence after the trauma.
Participant 1 shared that after her mom left, she was confused about what happened in her
safe home, Christian environment, and she began to have self-doubt. P1 dad shared,
When her mother decided to leave, that caused questions, doubts, and… worries
because that was not supposed to happen. And… I am sure now that cost her a
worry in her life. And then she found out that the person she married was not
quite what she thought it was going to be.
Participant 4 described that she felt that she missed out. She could not do things
like a teenager. P4 said, “am I good enough?” and the following:
Yeah, I think my confidence I am not very competent. And... It affected me
physically, but even academically; when I was going through the surgeries, I was
in a homebound program, and I struggled in school. And I think that because I
had at that time, I would have been a child with disabilities.
Participants described how their emotions changed after the trauma. Participant 7
said she was a people pleaser over safety concerns. P7 said she did not realize she was
smart and pretty but overly shy. P7 stated, “I would say very insecure, not realizing how
smart, pretty, and that I was a good person. I did not realize that at that age.”
Participants lose confidence when they experience a change in their life. Some
participants were affected by their parent's divorces, and others because of health issues
that changed their lives.
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Parental Pressure
Participants felt their parents' expectations added pressure and distress. P1 did not
have to work. Her parents expected her to achieve a scholarship to pay for her college.
Her parents expected her to be an "A" student. P1 dad shared what was expected from
her:
I told her her… job was to, you know, get the scholarships. That was her job, and
she earned 32 different scholarships. And… I mean, the closest one to her was at
the school where we were you know, I had probably ten scholarships. So, for her
to have 32 was huge. And that was her; that was her work. That is what she did.
She went through trying to make sure that she had enough money for college, and
she did. She had a lot. And… So she did not have to work. She focused more on
getting the scholarships and then on her schoolwork. And then, by the time she
got into college. Any, you know, these are not acceptable. It had to be an “A” and
the highest “A” she could have. And that was what she expected of herself. And
she probably knew that is what I expected of her. And, and… so she was always
achieving at the very top. She was even the president of her little fraternity at the
school. And, and… there was another club that was there that was just for the
people that were in the psychology department, and she was the president of that.
So that was, to me, that was her job. Those were the things she was doing to try to
get an education. Okay. And just be the best that she could be. And, and… she
earned enough money with those that while she was in college, she did not have
to work.
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P8 said he needed to help his mother because she did not handle things well.
P8 stated,
Yeah. It makes me more of a people-pleaser, and I discussed this with my wife.
And, and… I do not want to let anyone down, you know? And that is what I kept
trying to do. As a teenager, I would not want to let my parents down. Because I
felt in the back of my mind, I was thinking that had something to do with them
breaking up, and logically, I know that is not. That's not it. And I have had long
talks with both my parents about that in the past. And they reassured me that that
was not the case. But I always had this and, carried this till today. I have to please
whoever I am with. You know, I cannot. It is like I carry the weight of the world
on my shoulders with relationships.
Some participants felt that their parent's conflicts affected them. Participant 10
said that it affected her when her parents were fighting. They were a supportive family,
and they sought counseling to help them. P10 stated:
When my parents were fighting. It affected me because I heard them fighting
them. It got to me like I was like… I hope they don't get divorced and move out.
And I would have to be going back and forth like, and… I cried a lot when they
were fighting.
Some participants mentioned were impacted by difficulties caused by parent's
pressure after the trauma. A loss of confidence impacted other participants. When dealing
with trauma.
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Marital Distress
Some participants had conflicts in relationships that affected their marriages when
they got married years later after the trauma. Participant 2 shared that she realized it
affected her first marriage. She devalued herself and affected her relationships. She felt
not authentic, not happy, and sad. She said she could not deal with a relationship. It
affected how she handled conflict. Her second marriage was the same; she said she was
very susceptible. P2 said, “I devaluated myself, and I never self-worth. That affected my
relationship with my husband”. P2 also stated:
But, I was not able to deal with relationships. Very well. It, it… affected. It
affected the way I handled conflict. I would…You know, I would bottle it. And
just. I would end up just exploding. Probably every three months because I would
put on a happy face, and… instead of expressing my emotions daily and saying,
you know. You know, when you do… when you… when you do this, it hurts my
feelings. I, I…would bottle it and just go, oh, you know, I am like Teflon.
Nothing, and that's just not. That's not true for anybody. And… I would say that
with my second marriage. It was… it was the same, and I would have to say that I
am very susceptible to just jumping into someone else's life because I could not
handle my own. And… I am like, oh, you know, I'm going to subscribe to what
you do. You go to casinos; you drink alcohol, and that sounds like fun to me. Let's
and instead of me really focusing on. Who I am what I like—my passions. I
would… I would just subscribe to whoever I was with.
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Some participants shared how trauma caused marital distress and not being able to
feel valued. Other participants seek relationships to deal with their pain through the
trauma.
Health Issues
Two participants, P5 and P10, have these health issues that caused them to miss a
lot of school. P5 said that was hard, and she missed a lot. She said that after the leukemia
diagnosis, she felt that her life was spinning. P5 said her interaction with children in
childhood was good; the children got along, and they were children with health issues
like her. P5 said, “It was hard. I missed a lot of key stages and social development.” P5
also stated:
Yes, at the age of six, I was diagnosed with childhood leukemia. Well, I was
always a little bit different from everyone else. I had a different view on life
compared to my peers. I was always treated like a little more precious than they
did. And for this, I was kind of persecuting it for this, I guess, if you want to see
it, I was even, even… going back younger. I was kind of just cheated differently.
For that reason, I saw so much when I was a child. You know, so much. Sickness
and, and… death that, that…my life was different compared to other children.
Participant 10 shared about how she described herself as a teenager:
Yeah, I, like, I suffer from a condition called CVS; every time that kicked in, I
was hospitalized, and I missed a lot of schools, like elementary school and
throughout middle school and high school. It went on…as a teenager. I think that
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was more playback, quiet, and antisocial like antisocial because I think my
condition like affected me with anxiety, too.
Both participants expressed how certain conditions, like a leukemia diagnosis,
changed their lives. Both participants felt that missing school created setbacks in social
interactions with their peers and family, and they felt that it was hard to miss special
events that were important in their development and school.
School Difficulties
Four participants discuss how the school can be a place where emotional reactions
to stress might have a positive or negative impact. P2, her schoolwork was more difficult.
She said that she could not focus. She said that she pretended like she was not at school.
P2 shared, “Yeah…Yeah, yes… schoolwork was much, much more difficult. I could not
focus on it.” Participants shared how the trauma affected them academically. P4 shared
that she could achieve more because people felt bad for her. She was failing her grades
because of her time out for surgeries. She felt that she missed social interactions in
relationships. She did not have any family support. P4 stated:
Honestly, I almost failed high school. I just was not strong academically, and I did
not have as much support at home because my mom was working full time, and
my parents were separated. So, it was really kind of like I felt like I was on my
own. And I do not feel like I ever had the support to help me be a stronger
student. I think my grades were just kind of accepted, so I did not do very well
academically.
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Some participants were impacted at school, and they shared their difficulties. P5
said that she missed a lot of school. It was hard. She was a home school student. P5 said
that she missed a lot of socialization. P5 said her grades need to improve. She said she
was disappointed because she could have done well in math or science.
When I was first diagnosed, I missed a lot of key stages. I missed kindergarten
through, basically. Second grade, and so I missed a lot of social development.
And so, when I went back to school in fourth grade, like when I went to home
school, I missed childhood interactions. So, it was only when I was in fifth grade
that I started interacting with children again other than children in the hospital but
would not be in the hospital. We just got along. We were all the same children.
We just got along, we, we… liked each other, you know. But when you're in the
real world, you know, so and so does not like you because the day so and so does
not like you because of this, so I had to learn really quick what it was like to be
part of, you know, whether you are cool or you are not cool.
P5 shared changes in high school by saying, “By my teenage years, I started to
have signs of depression. I started to have depression. So, my grades started to slip. And
so. So yeah … I started to have a lot of depression.”
Participants expressed the impact of health issues and marital distress and how it
affected them negatively at school or caused them to experience early marriage or school
difficulties. Participants shared how the trauma affected their social development and, in
some cases, emotional development.
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Theme 5: Participants Experienced Interpersonal Changes as They Were Dealing
with the Trauma
All 12 participants described one, two, or three interpersonal changes as they were
dealing with the trauma. The three final codes were changes in peer relationships,
personality, and family roles.
Change in Peer Relationships
Some participants shared how peer relationships can change when dealing with
trauma. Participant 1 shared how she was before the trauma; her friends protected her,
she cared for others, and she used her knowledge to help others. P1 stated how she was
dealing with relationships after the trauma:
She tried to hide much of that because she did not want other people to know.
When her mother decided to leave, then those caused questions, doubts, and …
worries because that was not supposed to happen. And, and… I am sure now that
cost. That worry in her life and when she found out that the person she married
was not quite what she thought it would be. Because of problems on her end, she
kept trying to do everything she thought she should do. And and… she kept
getting hit by other issues. You know, from him. Towards her, that made things
very, very… difficult. For her.
Participant 2 shared how her relationship with her sister became close. They were
co-dependent, which caused problems and was unhealthy. After some years, they had to
break away. P2 said it changed her confidence and ability to follow through. She focused
on one relationship. She had low self-esteem.
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P2 stated,
My … two sisters and I became very close. Probably in an unhealthy, you know,
unhealthy way. What is it called? What is that called when you attach yourself to
someone? Co-dependent. We had unhealthy co-dependency going on after my
parent’s car wreck. And we would rely on each other, you know, for things you
would rely on, maybe your parent or a grandparent. And it is it… Well, it… That
is all, I guess. I guess it was all we knew to do. But over the years, it caused
problems in our relationships. And we… had to break away from each other and
then come back at a different level, if that makes sense. Of … and create.
P2 said she had a boyfriend and would break up before the accident. After the
accident, she chooses not to break up. She said her boyfriend was her secure blanket. P2
said she began to focus on her boyfriend and not friends. P2 said she had to move
because of the trauma; she lost friendships.
P2 stated,
Yes, instead of feeling safe and secure, I always felt unsafe and insecure. And
and… honestly, I still do not feel safe and secure. I still do little with that, but
through my relationship with Jesus Christ, He is the one. He is the one that. That
fills that hole.
P3 said her friends were only at school during recess. P3 said she was angry
because she was raised with non-family. Her dad told her brother that no matter what,
they stayed together and finished school. P3 said she wanted to give her family what she
did not have.
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P3 stated:
I was okay. We talked and asked if I had friends, but it was just during class
during recess or in elementary school recess. Walking home, yeah, it was just. I
would like to think that it was that I was normal in the sense where…We could
talk and, you know, say, what are you going to do tonight? Blah, blah, I think I
carried myself pretty well. Limited, but at the same time, it was okay. I would. I…
just did the best I could with what I had. And, and… excuse me, I just kept a lot
of stuff, but it was not to the extent. I did, I did…feel sorry for myself a lot.
Some participants felt that it was not many changes in relationships after the
trauma.
P4 shared:
So, when I was a teenager, and as far as the divorce goes, I am not sure that that
had as much of an impact other than I was having to be really responsible at home
and taking care of my brother and helping my mom. So, as a single-parent
household, we probably had fewer than many people attending my school. But if I
said what had the most impact, I would say having gone through these surgeries
because I had scars on my legs on both knees and both ankles. It really affected
my self-image as a teenage girl and being able to feel good about myself and feel
confident because I was excluded from activities. I was lucky to have a high
school boyfriend from my sophomore in my senior year. But I bring that up
because he liked me and despised the scars, and the scars were long and very
fresh. So, they were very visible then and had somebody who could. You could
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say love me unconditionally despite, you know, what my insecurities were, helped
me to get through my teenager. Mm…So, I think having a positive support
system. And, and… the teenager was very helpful.
P4 said her mom's relationship was changing, and she became significant support
and took care of helping her. She said she was angry with her dad and could not
understand why he left his mom. P4 said that her stepfather became a role model. She
said he was a great support. P4 said,” I was more in a caregiver role than necessarily a
daughter.”
Participant 5 said she was different than her peers. She said she had a different
view of life.
P5 stated,
I just had a very different view of life, and they did not. I just, I, I… got bullied a
lot for, for... my beliefs. And, and… it really just, It really just… changed me.
They do not like you because of this, so I had to learn quickly what it was like to
be part of, you know, whether you are cool or not. So. I still like behind. By the
time I got to this part of the social scene. If that makes any kind of sense. So, it
was very hard. I still do not stand how people would act the way they would act.
Socially. Why would they treat people like they would for no reason? And it
would hurt my feelings to see other people's feelings get hurt. I was very
empathetic to other people. And other people would get mad at me for being
empathetic to other people. And. I would lose friends over that, and friends would
stop talking to me because of that. And it would just be a big mess, but. All right,
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it was just. And then I would get mad. I would have. I would be angry at God for
giving me this heart that cares so much. And it would cause me to get into a
deeper depression.
Participant 6 said she stayed away from her friend's fathers. She was afraid of
them. She had a large group of friends. She only had a few close friends and was cautious
about friendships. P6 said that she and her sister were very close. Mom was strict. She
said they followed Mom through her different relationships. Mom did not know how to
be parenting. Mom's goal was to have a man in her life. She said she was a little baggage
she brought alone in her relationships. They were supposed to be quiet and stay out of her
way through her relationships. P6 said the last man adopted her, and she had a good
relationship with him. She said it took a long time to trust him. P6 cautions with
relationships. Later, as a teenager, she began to like attention through relationships. She
still did not like the older man. She did not know how to handle relationships.
P6 shared,
I was nervous when I would go home with friends. I did not want to be around
their dads. I was always afraid of them. And, and… You know, at my house, we
learned to be very quiet and stay out of the way. Because you do not want to
anger anybody, I think I was that way everywhere. I, I... had a big group of casual
friends. You know, there I was…I always did stuff with large groups, but like
close friends, there were always just a couple. You know, the couple that you
would trust. To really tell who you are, too. You know.
Participants shared how they were affected by relationships. P7 stated,
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I was overly shy. People had to come to me to be friends. Versus me, joining in. I
had to be, and it is still like that to this day. Unless I know you, it is easier. To I
freeze, I freeze. I did as a child as well. Okay. And less I knew than the other
children.
Participant 8 shared the impact on her relationships and feelings:
I did not go to prom. I did not go to homecomings. You know, I felt a social
disconnect. Because I felt that, at times, I needed to take care of my mom and
sister, whom I had at the time. I had three siblings: an older… sister, a younger,
and an older brother. So, my two older siblings went and lived with my dad. And,
and…myself, twelve years old, and my sister, who was seven years old at the
time, went and lived with my mom. And my mom did not have a very good
handle on things, and she, she… always worked and she never… missed a day of
work, but she had a drinking problem and… she had a man problem. Yeah, not a
lot of close friends. No, everyone liked me. I think I mean I was the class clown,
trying to make everyone happy and … do everything that everyone wanted me to
do. I was hard at work, and, you know, so it was not like people sent me; there
were clicks, of course, like in any normal high school. I was not a jock. I was not
an athlete. I was not really a super brainy guy, so I was not part of that, you know,
the real, smart people. And, you know, I would not want to be a stoner either. I
did not like to do any of that. So … I did not fit in with anyone at that time as a
teenager.
Participant 9 shared the impact on her peer’s relationships:
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So. Unfortunately. My situation was very publicized. The way it was handled
made it so that a lot of people at my middle school knew what happened. So, I
was. It wasn't me thinking that people were judging me; there were people
judging me. Because you know we were so young, you know that. People She
was raped. Kids do not grasp that idea. They do not really understand what that
means, and you know. I was a kid, and I had a boyfriend at the time. So. You
know, it was, oh, she cheated on him. And you know, at such a young age, the
idea of sex is so, you know, that is something that some people would not even
think about. So, it did make people view me. Very differently, they saw me as
promiscuous, and you know. And some of my friends, you know. It was hard for
me to deal with the fact that some of my friends were friends with the person who
did that to me. So, because I was so young, I did not really know how to. Dealing
with that was kind of like. I attempted to give people an ultimatum, but. Like I
said, we are so young. They can only agree to do that like, oh, I will stop talking
to him, but I will keep talking to you. You know, I cannot stop people from being
someone's friend, so. That made me very angry, and so I did lose a lot of friends.
Participant 10 shared the impact of health issues on her relationships:
I missed, I know, many birthday parties when I was young and when, like, I had
to tell them, oh, because I was in the hospital. Some did not like that they did not
get it and were disappointed. So, I did not have like… a lot of friends.
Participant 11 shared about the relationships at school:
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My classmates. I have always been, but I have yet to talk to anyone. I was very
isolated. I would literally go and focus on what I was supposed to do, go to class,
and learn. Move to the next class. And I, like I said, I didn't. I was not. I could
have improved at socializing with others.
Participant 12 described how his trust in relationships was after the trauma:
It may be a wonder when they are going to end. Watching my parents, you know.
You are growing up, your parents are married, you assume that they are going to
stay together forever, and then watch that get torn apart. At least for me, it made
me wonder what other relationships in my life would end and when they would
win. And So… I was always in the back of my mind. I had, yeah, a group of
friends both at school and in the local neighborhoods that I grew up in. You
know, and we, you know, my friends in the neighborhood, we would run around
together in the evenings on weekends and friends I had at school. We did school
events together, and we had a good time. Do not get me wrong, but…It probably
drove some of my personality at that point, but I… caused it. Well, I necessarily
feel like I kept people at arm's length, but I was probably. When I would make
jokes, they were probably more mean-spirited than they needed to be or should
have been, which came from that. Place of wondering how long that relationship
was going to last. So, I guess, in a sense, one of the things that caused me to start
self-sabotaging some of my friendships and relationships.
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Participants described the impact of their interpersonal changes as they were
dealing with the trauma. The participants shared some of the changes they made when
dealing with difficulties.
Change in Personality
Four participants discussed how their personalities changed after the trauma.
Participant 2 shared how they see themselves:
You know, because I was 15 and I always, I always worked hard. I always had a
job or a babysitter. But I need help to answer that question. Because it is age 15 is
before you start having those dreams about who you want to be. So…I mean, I
believe in my heart. I have loved children since I was little. So, I believe my
destiny has always been to work with children. But I have to wonder what I would
have done if I had been able to have parents who would have been able to pour
into my life and also helped raise me throughout my high school years. With that,
that is just that security and that safety that you get from even alcoholics. You so,
I wonder what I would have ended up doing, but I love my job. I love what I do
with children. I do not know. I don't know if that would have changed.
Some participants shared the positive changes in their personalities. P3 stated:
I am a happy person now. As you grow through your childhood, you know, you
learn. How do you not know what you are doing as a child? You go through life.
You need to realize how you are getting through it or why. You struggle if you do
not have anyone to talk to, and then as you grow. My personality, my personality.
I was very quite withdrawn but very quiet as I grew. I just I… do not know how
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to answer that. My personality now. I like myself now before. I really did not like
myself, but…I got along, so I do not know how to answer that. For myself, you
know, but personality. I like the way I am now. I did not like the way I was then.
Yeah, I was very mouthy. Let me put it that way. I was not a pleasant person. I
was always in a bad mood. I guess that that is… what what… is. I do not know
how we would If I had to see a person the way I was. You know, you try, you say,
oh, everything is okay. Everything's okay. But it is not. It is not okay. And now I
can, I can say as a personality, I say, hey, I am not having a good day, you know,
I can remember. When I was like that, now I am this way, and I am a happy
person now. I am joyful. I feel full of life. So, I do not know how that came about,
but I do not want to be the person I was before.
Some participants describe how their personalities change as a consequence of the
trauma, P6 stated:
Yeah, that is a hard, tricky one for me. I am not sure how to answer that because.
It is like there was not me before the trauma. And then the trauma and then me
after because I was so young. Yes. There was not one of me before, so I cannot
answer that. The trauma shaped me. You know. Yes. Yeah....through the years
now as an adult. The drama streams, too. However, we change you differently;
like you say, you find God, and that helps you. Right, so the trauma made me who
I was, but God, and then maturity and just age and kind of maybe hopefully a
little wisdom in there. Has shown me that. There, I do not have to live like that. I
do not have to be that person. I can be a better, you know, that like. Like a lot of
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that, you know, it. It was not my fault, so that is not who I must be. I can be a
better version of myself. But that was. The trauma. Hmm…I think it was me
overcoming. The trauma through religion through maturity. Through just kind of
life and age.
Participant 9 said her new friends supported her. She can be honest with them and
let them know how she feels. Her boyfriend's support and motivation. Her boyfriend kept
pushing her and helped her to follow through with her goals in life. P9 stated:
I… in high school I, I am… got a boyfriend and you know, I did not take it very
seriously at first because I did not think you know it is a high school relationship.
They can only last so long, but. I've actually been with him for the past six years.
Moreover, he motivated me to keep going and follow through, like being more
confident. He was always that little push. That, that I needed, you know. I did,
and I think that was something I needed after having something. So horrible
happens because something like that happening, you know, you know, it strips
away every sense of yourself that you knew. Many people thought it was not a
good idea for me to jump into a relationship after something like that happened so
soon after. But I really do feel like it. I needed that. Constant support, and you
know. Even if, at some point, it was a little co-dependent. He was understanding
completely, and He was willing to like. Deal with whatever happened along the
way because of, you know, all the stuff I had to deal with. He was just very
understanding, and he is always, you know, motivated me to be my best self. So, I
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think that is definitely something that has made me. I am willing to, you know,
keep pushing through and following through with my goals in life.
Some participants mentioned their experiences with interpersonal changes in their
relationships. Other participants described how they felt about their experience with the
personality change.
Summary
The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological design is to understand better
the lived experiences of individuals with traumatic events and the consequences of
identity formation. All participants were recruited from social media, Facebook and
LinkedIn. Qualified participants were emailed a consent form, and a Zoom interview was
scheduled. Semistructured interviews were helped with a total of 12 participants to
understand lived experiences better. All interviews were recorded. After the interviews,
the interviews were transcribed. Five themes emerged Through the data analysis, and 20
categories/final codes emerged. The five themes were: They describe intense changes in
emotions, they describe their identity as changing as a result of external support, they
describe their coping in context as they were going through the trauma, they describe
their negative consequences as a result of their traumatic event, and they describe their
interpersonal changes as they were dealing with the trauma.
Chapter 5 will discuss the interpretation of the data further, addressing its
limitations and strengths. It will also explore social change and how this research impacts
social change. Lastly, Chapter 5 will explore how this research can further help
understand the consequences of identity formation in traumatic events.
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Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Introduction
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the lived
experiences of young adults who experienced traumatic events as children or adolescents
and gain an understanding of how those events shaped their identity development. The
research question for this study was: How do young adults describe their experiences of
identity after experiencing trauma as children or teenagers? I conducted 12
semistructured interviews via Zoom. Data were analyzed using a descriptive
phenomenological approach by Giorgi (2012) to gather rich data and focus on the
participant’s experience.
Through my data analysis, I identified five themes made up of 20 categories/final
codes. The five main themes were (a) intense changes in emotions, (b) their identity
changing as a result of external support, (c) their coping in context as they were going
through the trauma, (d) their negative consequences as a result of their traumatic event,
and (e) their interpersonal changes as they were dealing with the trauma. These five
themes and 20 categories/final codes were discussed in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5, I discuss
the interpretations of these findings and how the findings relate to the previous literature
reviewed in Chapter 2. This discussion includes the conceptual framework, limitations,
recommendations, social change, and a conclusion.
Interpretation of Findings
In my literature review, I focused primarily on understanding how trauma can
impact young adults and their identity development. I also reviewed Erikson’s (1968)
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psychosocial theory of development. There have been studies that focused on trauma (see
Jenkins et al., 2021; Kearns et al., 2021; Lucas et al., 2020) and other studies that focused
on trauma-related barriers and consequences (see Marin & Shkreli, 2019; May et al.,
2016; Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene et al., 2020) but few researchers have looked at how
trauma impacted young adult identity formation. The findings of this study can be used to
expand the current literature by including information about how trauma might have
affected adult identity development.
Theme 1: Participants Experience Intense Changes In Emotions
Many participants experienced intense changes in emotions, which are best
explained as fear, fake emotions, anger, or self-determination. These findings are
consistent with what was found in research on trauma (see Blaauwendraat et al., 2017;
Mętel et al., 2019; Yazdani et al., 2016). I found that some people grew up with a fear of
relationships as a consequence of divorce, health issues, and other trauma. Additionally,
participants expressed how minor trauma caused a lack of trust and low self-esteem and
found themselves with anxiety, depression, and panic attacks. These findings are
consistent with Doba et al. (2022), who explained that children who experience trauma
likely feel strong emotions. It seems that the influence of minor trauma is relatively
similar to the consequences of trauma in general. I found that emotions changed and
confused individuals’ identity formation.
Changes in emotions can cause individuals to doubt who they are, and this
occurred frequently before the minor trauma, as reported by participants. Depending on
individuals’ experiences of trauma, not displaying emotions can disrupt identity
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development, preventing teenagers from adding the identity versus identity dissolution
psychosocial conflict (Erikson, 1963). Some participants went through a period of loss of
identity. The key to promoting identity formation in individuals after going through the
negative emotions of trauma is how the trauma is resolved and how much support they
experience during identity formation (Berman et al., 2004; Erikson, 1985). Erikson
(1985) explained how emotion regulation can assist teenagers with identity development,
which is reflected in the participants' experiences in this study.
Some participants experienced anger as a side effect of their trauma, which
changed many areas of their lives and who they wanted to be when they grew up. For
example, for many participants, missing school made it hard for them to continue with
what they wanted to be in the future.
I found that a lack of interactions with others from childhood to adulthood
affected some relationships. In this study, I found that people who experienced health
issues could overcome their fears if they had family support. For others, I discovered that
due to a lack of self-esteem, the search for relationships in some cases caused more pain
or becoming co-dependent with others, which had implications for their identity
development. This finding is consistent with Yazdani et al. (2016), who found that people
who experience trauma report emotional or behavioral changes that have implications for
identity development. I found that many people often felt that withholding their emotions
could be safer for them. In this study, I found that some people pretend not to be hurt, and
they get involved in relationships to avoid feeling the pain from their childhood trauma. I
found that other people fake their emotions in new relationships to avoid anyone seeing
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their distress and lack of confidence. This fluctuation in emotions is consistent with
Raemen et al. (2021), who explained that trauma can target risk factors to their identity as
a consequence of traumatic events. I found that keeping emotions guarded from anyone
helps individuals deal with the trauma, which is also similar to Raemen et al.’s (2021)
findings. These findings show that childhood trauma can affect their identity
development.
I found that some people experienced intense changes in self-determination as a
consequence of trauma. I found that people who described themselves as strong-willed
and motivated by someone close to them could achieve what they wanted. I found that
when people were offered different opportunities after a trauma, they were able to drive
with determination not to be stopped by the trauma. This study is consistent with Shaw et
al. (2022), who found that people with support experienced a positive recovery. I found
that some participants whose identity was established and had support did not report
changes in their identity, meaning that support may limit the amount of fluctuations in
identity. I found that individuals who had a strong character prior to their minor trauma
found a driving force in their identity formation that helped them to deal with the
conflict; they acquired psychological strengths that served them well to overcome and
protect their identity.
In this study, I found that when children experience minor trauma as adults, they
become fearful of letting others down. I found that many people have changed to be
people-pleasers. This is consistent with others who go through life avoiding conflict. In
this case study, individuals' identity was affected as a consequence of the trauma because
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they changed to be people pleasers and avoided conflicts, which also inhibits the
development of identity, according to Erikson (1985). This finding is consistent with
Shalka (2020), who found that people react differently to pain or fear. I found that other
people choose marriage at a young age, seeking family closure. I found that for some
individuals, identity changed in all areas, like peer relationships, work environments, and
love relationships. I found that people who do not deal with their trauma, in some cases,
cause relationship issues, including in their marriage, and for others, these issues can
cause divorce. I found that without any help or support, individuals' experience barriers
throughout their lives, causing changes in their identity development.
I found that some people who are impacted by trauma become peacemakers, and
when they get older, they may experience struggles in their marriages and other
relationships and may affect their own children. For some people, instability seems to
promote struggling to keep their jobs, family, and peer relationships. These findings are
consistent with Ranieri (2021), Erikson (1985), and Shalka (2020) regarding how trauma
can lead to problems that permanently affect identity formation.
Theme 2: Participants Describe Their Identity as Changing Due to External
Support
I found that identity changes due to external support like religion, counseling, and
support programs. I found that for participants who experienced trauma as a child,
religion was crucial for changing their emotions into a positive emotional outcome. Some
people found religion to be a motivation for healing and forgiveness. This finding is
inconsistent with the literature reviewed in Chapter 2. However, there is consistency with
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Branje (2022), because religion connects to how identity changes with real-time
interaction with others, particularly in a religious context. Some appropriate religious
counseling made minor trauma easier to navigate. This would mean that if trauma were to
occur during identity development, finding support and religiosity could help teenagers
address the identity versus identity dissolution conflict.
Most people in this study found healing when they decided to get help through
support groups, family support, peer relationships, or counseling. I found that people with
family or peer relationship support experience fewer changes in their identity formation. I
found in this study that support groups, counseling, or family or peer relationships are the
key to a positive outcome or fewer changes in identity development. This result is
consistent with Branje (2022), because life transitions or life events can contribute to
identity changes; however, I found inconsistency in some people who expressed that
having family support did not change their identity development. Individuals felt that this
caused some immediate effects on their identity development; however, through the
years, their identity formation recovered and was not altered after going through life
stages. I found that some individuals, as they were getting older and family was there
through the hurting process, were able to overcome their pain and find or recover who
they wanted to be. This result is inconsistent with Branje (2022) because life events can
contribute to changes; some individuals explained that having family support and getting
older did not influence their identity formation.
I found that other individuals reported that helping others gave them a new sense
of identity. These findings are consistent with Perry et al. (2021), who found that coping
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mechanisms, including therapy, support, or family, can reduce distress as a consequence
of trauma. I found that other people who are too deep in depression, become
perfectionistic, experience a severe lack of self-esteem, and have no program for recovery
or family support can lose their identity, and some people never find a way out.
Individuals who fail to effectively resolve their minor trauma did not develop the
essential skills needed for a strong sense of self (Erikson, 1985). I found that in this
study, some people who had support, counseling, religion, or family support found a way
back to their identity development; for others, their trauma and lack of support caused
more barriers to their identity formation. I found that age and support can be critical to
some individuals recovering their identity; unfortunately for others, the pain or hurt and
loss of who they are became an obstacle to recovery. I found that other individuals, as
they experience more life events as consequences of their trauma and their identity, like
divorces, loss of jobs, and loss of relationships, found themselves wondering what is
wrong and seeking religious counseling. The participants experienced extensive changes
during times when participants sought religious counseling. This finding relates to
Erikson’s (1963) psychosocial theory of development. Erikson (1968) defined identity as
a “fundamental organizing principle which develops constantly throughout the lifespan”
(p. 98). As a result of minor trauma and other environmental variables, such as religious
support, individuals’ identities continued to change throughout development.
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Theme 3: Participants Describe Their Coping in Context as They Went Through the
Trauma
I found in this study that work, academic motivation, school, or early marriage
can be essential for coping after a traumatic event. This finding is consistent with Perry et
al. (2021) because having a way to reduce stress can provide some psychological effects.
I found that most people’s work is critical to finding healing and, for others, can be a
place to feel value and self-esteem. I found that some people found work as an outlet for
them to avoid worries or to avoid dealing with their trauma distress. I found that work
can be, for some people, a place to share ways to help others. I found some areas where
people who experienced trauma find work a place to hide. This shows that some people's
work becomes their identity formation. This finding is consistent with Shaw et al. (2022)
because seeking support can provide some recovery and can support identity
development.
Additionally, I found that some participants’ schools and plans for their future
changed after the minor trauma; people developed a lack of interest in focusing on
school. This finding is consistent with Doba et al. (2022), who explained that people who
experienced trauma may lack concentration as a consequence of their distress. I found
that some individual’s identity was affected at school because of the lack of interest due
to the trauma. Other people found school to be a place where they could pretend or avoid
dealing with trauma distress. I found that some people’s coping method with school was
to act silly or be a class clown. However, I found that for other individuals, school was
the place to feel recognized by different people, and people developed goals to finish
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school to assist with coping. This finding is consistent with Albarello et al. (2021), who
explained that trauma can create social factors to interact with to help with coping. I
found that identity development at school was affected in many ways, whether distress or
pretending at school to be someone else or school was a social support used as a coping
method.
I found that for people with health-diagnosed trauma, schools can be challenging
to relate to or interact with peer relationships. I found that for people who suffered health
trauma, school can be a place where identity can be more confused because of bullying or
restrictions or barriers due to health diagnoses. I found consistency with Mętel et al.
(2019) about the implications that can continue when trauma is not dealt with as a child
or young adult. I found that people who deal with health-diagnosed trauma can
experience barriers to college opportunities, which is consistent with the literature.
The finding of this study regarding women coping with distress by getting
married early after a traumatic event is consistent with Mętel et al. (2019), who found
that women process their emotions differently than men. I found that women participants
seek loving relationships more than men as a coping method to deal with their trauma.
In this study, I found inconsistency with Yazdani et al. (2106) because some individuals
exposed to trauma were at high risk, prompting low academic performance. I found in
this study that coping methods were found at school for some individuals, and this is how
they developed their identity. Other people found coping by accomplishing higher
academic achievements, and they found their identity there. Additionally, as they got
older, other people found identity at work. This finding connects with Erikson (1968),
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who stated that unresolved trauma can impede identity formation; however, through an
identity crisis, exploration and questioning can help promote healthy identity formation,
as described by participants in this study.
Theme 4: Participants Describe the Negative Consequences Due to Their Traumatic
Event
This study revealed how traumatic events have negative consequences for identity
development. Some negative consequences are lost confidence, self-doubts, and loss of
stability. Another finding is an increase in depression and panic attacks. I found that
people who experienced a child's parent’s divorce or the death of their parents can
experience insecurity, the emptiness of losing their safety, loneliness, withdrawal from
peers, anger, and lack of interest in school. People losing a lack of support from parents
causes them to blame themselves or one of their parents, causing people to feel that they
need to be in charge because their parents are not there. People experienced barriers of
insecurities and character. This result is consistent with Kearns et al. (2021), Yazdani et
al. (2016), and Planellas et al. (2020), who found that many people exposed to traumatic
events can be at high risk of negative consequences due to trauma.
I found that for people who had health-diagnosed trauma, it can cause them to
change their identity or future goals as a consequence of the side effects of the minor
trauma. This study finds that individuals whose childhood was in health distress
experienced severe consequences on who they wanted to be. I found this finding
consistent with Blaauwendraat et al. (2017) because they explained that individuals who
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deal with trauma depend on many elements, including physical, which can impact other
health issues or psychological arousal.
I found that some people avoid dealing with any trauma, and other people move
through life pretending not to have pain, do not cope in any form, do not seek help, and
end up struggling with identity formation. Others go through adulthood struggling with
relationships, numb themselves, and avoid conflicts, which can cause many broken
relationships throughout their lives. This study is consistent with Raemen et al. (2021)
because it explains how a traumatic event can increase individual risk factors. These
changes in individuals created a change in identity formation. I found in this study that
when a person has been sexually abused, it can cause a significant break in their
character, emotional distress, identity confusion, and no trust in peer relationships. This
finding is consistent with Doba et al. (2022), who explained how trauma can hinder and
alter individuals’ development of their self-concepts. In contrast, some participants
disguised their identity or did other behaviors that did not allow them to determine who
they were. In this way, participants were restricted in their identity development.
This fluctuation in emotions mask emotions is consistent with Raemen et al.
(2021); this study finds that some adults could see later as adults how their identity
changed after the trauma. Some people change from introvert to extrovert, outgoing to
highly withdrawn, and joyful to angry. I found that some people’s reaction is to be overly
protected. Some findings in this study are that some people, after experiencing childhood
trauma, go to adulthood using work or school as a place to feel self-worth, and some
people find work as a healing place. I found that some people did not deal with their
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trauma. This study is consistent with Perry et al. (2021), that if people do not seek help, it
can lead to maladaptive coping methods. People who do not deal with a trauma or deny
having a trauma struggle emotionally. These findings are similar to Erikson’s (1985)
theory that if trauma is not dealt with during adolescence, it can have negative
consequences later in life, making it more difficult to resolve future psychosocial
conflicts.
Theme 5: Participants Describe Their Interpersonal Changes While Dealing with
the Trauma
This study found that most people who had a traumatic event in childhood
experienced changes when dealing with peer relationships, personality changes, and
family roles. These findings are some barriers that can affected during the developmental
stages of identity, and it can be the potential for failure. (see Erikson, 1985). Some
examples of how personality changed, as described by participants when dealing with
trauma, were being a hard worker, joyful, “A” student, defense with others, angry with
people and religious, having low academic grades, and having higher expectations of
themselves than before the trauma occurred. Additionally, other individuals' personalities
increased, becoming more perfectionist and hard on themselves, creating a no-failure
policy. Other individuals felt disappointed in religion, were rebellious with parents or
authorities, ended relationships, and reported anxiety, panic attacks, and depression. I
found that some people end up in an abusive relationship and/or severe depression. These
findings are consistent with Weiss et al. (2019) and Maroney (2020), who found that
adding trauma can cause increased stressors and impact negatively on adolescent
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emotional or physical development. I found in this study how identity is affected by risk
factors and stressors as consequences of their trauma. Individuals, as they were growing
and becoming older, explained how a recovery of some areas of who they were before the
trauma began to reappear, which impacted their identity development.
Another finding regarding interpersonal relationships is that people change after a
trauma. Some examples are co-dependency with siblings and seeking love relationships,
which were consequences of minor trauma in this study. I found that some people
changed their ability to follow through and focus on loving relationships, lost confidence,
and most people lost friendships. Other findings were anger, struggling with
relationships, trust in others, fear of failure, and insecurities. This finding is consistent
with Mętel et al. (2019; 2020) about how early trauma can affect behavior. For some
people, their role in their family changed after a trauma. Individuals had to be caretakers
for their parents in some traumatic events. For people who suffered trauma in this study, I
found that having positive peer relationship support can be helpful for their healing from
the trauma. However, I found that with other individuals who had peer relationships who
were abusive and experienced being bullied, it was hard to build trust in relationships.
These findings were consistent with Doba et al. (2022), who explained the effects of early
childhood trauma can cause issues with peer relationships and lower trust in others. This
finding is also consistent with Raemen et al. (2020), who explained how individuals can
experience different consequences for identity development.
I found that people's personalities changed to shy, frozen, socially disconnected,
class clown, detached, brutal to make connections, afraid of men or women, afraid of
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letting people down, people pleasers, feeling alone, and having a hard time with
authority. Participants expressed how their personalities changed, which confirmed how
identity development caused changes as a consequence of the trauma. Other findings of
this study were expressed by the participants getting older; their personalities changed
from being mean, violent, abused, and hating alcohol to being more understanding of
how they felt after the trauma. I found in this study that after individuals become adults,
having family support, religion, or counseling is the most positive answer for their pain
and to move forward positively from their traumatic event. According to these findings,
the participants’ identity formation changed even more with age. These findings relate to
the definition of identity, which develops consistently throughout the lifespan (Erikson,
1968). Support can help mold someone’s identity and inhibit identity confusion as
individuals develop over time.
Theoretical Implications
This study's findings were also related to the conceptual framework articulated in
Chapter 2. Erikson (1985) said development occurs by addressing eight different
psychosocial conflicts, with the fifth conflict being identity versus role confusion. I
would argue that trauma likely hinders individuals’ ability to figure out who they are.
Trauma may make it harder for individuals to address the identity versus identity
confusion psychosocial conflict. Trauma impedes identity development; however,
individuals who address the minor trauma were able to find their identity; in this study,
individuals who experienced external support like family support, religious support,
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school support, peer relationships, or joined religion their identity were positively
impacted.
Trauma can impact an individual in many ways; it may not impact their identity if
the trauma impacts a previous stage of psychosocial development. However, if it did,
according to Erikson (1985), not resolving conflict in earlier stages can hinder identity
development. I found that age can be a factor because if a trauma occurred before their
identity developed, according to Erikson (1985), identity development occurred between
age 12 and 18. Some of the individuals needed clarification about who they were through
teenagerhood. However, I found some participants whose identity development was
changed. Then, they returned to who they wanted to be as they got older; others received
some support and experienced healing.
I found that people who experience trauma also experience changes in emotions,
which impede their identity development. I argued that during this process of emotions, it
was natural for individuals to wonder who they were or wanted to be. I found that other
participants did not think about who they wanted it to be because of all their emotions
(see Blaauwendraat et al., 2017; Mętel et al., 2019; Yazdani et al., 2016). I found that
most of my participants found identity at work. According to Perry et al. (2021), work or
school motivation or peer relationships can be a coping method as a consequence of
trauma. I found that some people found identity through the motivation of achieving
excellent grades, with the idea of overcoming their trauma with success. Other
participants seek identity through love relationships, such as getting married, who they
choose to seek, and who they can be.
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I found that some people who experienced minor trauma described negative
consequences to their identity because it was covered with their emotions. The findings
are consistent with Berman et al. (2004), who stated that when identity is in distress, it
confuses their identity. I found that some individuals’ identity development changed
because of the stressors of trauma. Some individuals’ identities are continually evolving
by their stages of life (see Erikson, 1968). However, one consideration is to support
teenagers at school, peers, relationships, support groups, and counseling; I found that
Erikson’s theory regarding identity development is consistent and can be affected
negatively.
I found that some individual expressed that their identity did not change.
However, in one particular case, the trauma caused their identity to develop a barrier of
high expectations on others and themselves, and this individual did not know how to
adjust or balance their identity and took their life. This finding is related to Erikson’s
theory that if an individual does not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense
of self, it can cause adverse effects. (Erikson, 1985). However, there is an inconsistency
in this literature. If the individual did seek help to deal with conflict, there is an unknown
area as to why the individual identity formation could not adjust even with help. It was
more as the identity as a teenager grew to higher expectations, and trauma caused a solid
identity to grow even more perfectionist. There were no programs to reach out to the
individual to help or could have caused the individual too much damage to develop a
mental health block, and there were no support programs, including treatment, to help
with the individual identity formation.
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Positive Social Change
This study shows that Erikson’s theory is connected to this study of how young
adults experience trauma and its impact on their identity development. The results of this
study contribute to understanding the gap and identifying ways to help with individuals’
identity development. One consideration for social change is to support children and
teenagers after they experience a minor trauma. This study found that when a child or
teenager experiences a trauma, having support like counseling, religious, or peer
relationships is beneficial for their identity development. When individuals do not seek or
have support, it can have significant danger to the individual. I found one case that even
having support could not be overcome. Some individuals might never see their original
identity; however, having external support or for others having some role that allows
them to witness to others is beneficial. Resilient teenagers can overcome this by adding
at-school educational training for teachers, counselors, or administration to be aware of
the consequences of minor trauma during teenage identity formation is crucial. The study
results can be shared with mental health professionals, non-profit organizations, schools,
businesses, and community-based organizations to advocate awareness of the impact of
minor trauma and identity formation. Mental health professionals, service providers,
businesses, schools, cities, and policymakers can learn about the lived experiences of
individuals who suffered minor trauma during their childhood or teenage years in their
coping methods and how external support may have an impact on their lives.
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Limitations of the Study
Although this study provided insight into the experiences of traumatic experiences
and identity formation, it has its limitations. Descriptive phenomenology was ideal for the
study because it helped emphasize describing the individual’s trauma and identity
development after experiencing trauma by using concepts and terms in interpreting data.
One of the limitations was interviewing through Zoom; it was hard to read the body
language and emotions. Recruit adapted well. However, some initially contacted me and
did not show up for the Zoom interview, or after the initial communication, they stopped.
Another limitation was that they were more mature adults who volunteered to participate.
When I asked about the past, some people could have changed events fluctuation; some
people can interpret their story differently, or some of them not share the whole story,
Recommendation for Future Research
Based on this study’s strengths, limitations, experiences, and findings, I have
some recommendations for future research. This study did not include significant trauma
as part of that IRB recommendation. I could not interview people younger than 18 or
people who experienced trauma like hazing or assault in their younger years. Future
studies can explore expanding the interview to younger people and focusing on
significant traumatic events, particularly to compare and contrast with the findings in this
study, which focused on mild trauma. Additionally, I would recommend a more
substantial sample size, notably including a more diverse sample, such as having more
male participants.
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This study illustrated the negative experiences of participants, and some
participants were surprised by the significant effect of mild trauma on their identity
development. Future studies can explore the impact of specific traumas like hazing,
bullying, or assault rather than mild traumas generally. This approach would help identify
similarities and differences regarding specific traumas rather than assuming they have a
similar effect. Additionally, participants expressed experiencing low self-esteem, anger,
depression, and anxiety as part of their trauma. Although participants shared that they
utilize support systems, including family, friends, and religion, as a means of coping, this
study didn’t focus on the impact of the influence of these support systems on identity
development. It would be interesting to learn more about the influence of support systems
on identity development. It would also be fascinating to control for differences between
those participants who sought out support for their trauma compared to those who did not
seek out support. Many of these suggestions imply quantitative research. Examining
trauma quantitatively may also help unravel the relationship between trauma and identity
development. Although this qualitative study provided thick, descriptive information
about trauma and identity development, quantitative data can be used to predict specific
outcomes, like mental well-being, coping, and self-esteem.
Conclusion
This research was striving to understand the lived experiences of traumatic events
in childhood or adolescence and how they impacted young adults’ identity formation.
Multiple studies have shown that traumatic events are highly stressful situations in
individuals’ lives (Blaauwendraat et al., 2017). I found that each individual expressed
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distress differently depending on their trauma, age, coping, support, and identity were
affected by the barriers of the trauma. Most of the individuals I interviewed were affected
by their experienced emotional similarities; however, how their identity was changed or
found again was a consequence of support and age. Some individuals took a long period
of their lives struggling with who they are or who they became because of the trauma.
I agree with Erikson’s (1985) theory of how adolescents successfully integrate
identity and work through an identity crisis through exploration and questioning. As I
conducted the interviews and heard individuals expressing their traumatic events, I
noticed that, for some, having external support was crucial to their recovery. Erikson
(1968) defined identity as a “fundamental organizing principle which develops constantly
throughout the lifespan” (p. 98). I agree with the definition of identity; some individuals
find their identity as they age. Another key was when and how it was handled throughout
the process. I found that calling divorce minor trauma was not a good fit. I found that 11
participants were interviewed about how they struggled with their identity and questioned
their lives, and another lost their lives. Most participants experienced resilience and
played a crucial role in finding themselves or defining a new identity. I agreed with
Erikson (1985) that individuals who do not have a way to deal with trauma find
themselves identifying negatively and experiencing more negative consequences through
the process of recovery that affects their understanding of who they are or who they want
to be. For some individuals, coping through work, school, and religion was a key to
finding a new identity in themselves, like helping others was a new sense of identity.
