The Impact of “Quality” in Children’s Development
Abstract
Quality has a strong relationship between methods used in ECD
programs and the development of the child based on measurable
outcomes. Typically, quality is the underlying indicator of the level of
success in the development of the child evaluated against cognition,
the ability of the child to communicate using language appropriately,
the ability of the child to self-regulate oneself, language acquistion
skills and competence, the level of competence in social skills, the
ability to acquire competence in early literacy skills, make
observations, and the motivation to play and do other tasks based on
the underlying development the child achieves. The approaches used
in ECD programs, especially preschool programs and custodial
programs, which have their defining characteristics that have their
quality implications on the child and consequent development of the
child. It is worth noting that the development of the child is based on
multidisciplinary disciplines, with their contributions to quality and
the ultimate development of the child. However, the approaches factor
strong similarities in the ultimate goal of attaining the ultimate goal of
development of the child defined by the factors such as cognition
development mentioned above, with their own differences based on
their settings, though their differences are small.
Introduction
Quality is a crucial element in children’s development. The
assessment of impact of quality on the children’s development draws
on the multidisciplinary development methods used to impart quality
in children in early childhood development programs in the United
States, which includes custodial care programs and preschool
programs. Despite the strengths and weaknesses of each of the
programs, these methods underpin the ability of the child to acquire
cognitive development and other essential elements necessary from
the child based on the quality of each program.
Typically, the underlying factors that decide on the quality imparted
on children and eventual consequences of quality on the education and
development of children are strongly related to the methods used in
early childhood education and development of children in the United
States. The approaches used in early childhood education and
development in the United States are multidisciplinary, borrowing
from the disciplines of Education, Sociology, Psychology, American
Studies, Anthropology, and Cognitive Science. The interdisciplinary
nature of early childhood education and development is practically
applied on two specific programs which include custodial care
programs and preschool programs. These programs have quality
characteristics, based on quality metrics, viewed historically and from
modern perspectives with ultimate effects on the development of
children in the United States. Typically, quality has a direct
implication on the education and development of the child with each
method having its own implications due to each method’s quality
characteristics and implication on the development of the child
(Santrock, 1997; Piaget, 1980). An examination of the similarities and
differences between the two approaches crystalizes their direct quality
effects, which have eventual implications on the development of the
child. Typically, both of these approaches form the basis of the study.
As mentioned above, custodial and preschool programs are some of
the early childhood development programs used in the education and
development of children in the United States. It is worth noting that
custodial care programs were designed to primarily accomodate
working class families by tending to the basic and hygienic needs of
their children, whereas preschool programs were traditionally
designed for middle class families in fostering their children’s
cognitive and social development. It is crucial to note the underlying
rationale for parents selecting a specific program to impart education
and development in their children is based on a diversity of reasons.
Crucial among the underlying reasons is the economic level of income
for the parent, the perceptions about the benefits about the likely
quality and outcome of the program, and other social factors.
Typically, social factors can be influenced by underlying social
theories such as positive cognition development of the child,
underlying social cultural processes (Lightfoot, 1988; Brown, 1996;
Wertsch, 1985). However, it is crucial to note that the underlying
theories identified to have direct implications on quality that has direct
impact on the children’s education and development have some
degree of contention. One of the social theories include Piaget’s social
theory which identifies a strong relationship between personality and
effectiveness, intellectual development, and sociomoral development
which is focused on the development of knowledge in the child and
ultimate implications on the child’s development. However, from the
educational point of view, different approaches with different
implications of quality have eventual implications on the development
of the child. Basically, that includes approaches such as play and
school readiness programs (Wertsch, Minick, & Arns, 1984).
It is crucial to note the interdisciplinary nature of the development of
the child and the implications of quality on the development of the
child. One such discipline factors the social cognition development of
the mind and the underlying theoretical link between social cognition
of the mind of the child, the child’s perceptions on quality, and other
underlying factors that might affect the quality of knowledge
inculcated into the mind of the student. Such factors include values,
attitude and beliefs, role of other people such as parents and teachers
in the lives of the children, and a child and the parent’s desires
(Brown, 1996).
Typically, the perceptions about quality and quality programs are
diverse, but converge at specific points such as factors which include
providing individual attention to the children, active participation of
the teaching staff to provide an appropriate environment for the
development of the child, and additional elements that impact quality
to the development environment (Stipek, Feiler, Daniels & Milburn,
1995). However, quality borrows from other disciplines such as
education where quality is viewed from the educational context as
providing a learning environment constituting quality learners, who
can be described as having good nutrition and health, experienced
positive psychological development, regular in the learning process,
receives family support in the learning and development process, and
consists of appropriate physical learning environments. Other
elements that define a quality learning environment include a peaceful
and safe learning environment for children constituting psychological
elements, high quality content, and quality processes. Typically, these
elements have implications on quality which has a direct effect on the
development of the child (Stipek, Feiler, Daniels & Milburn, 1995;
Strickland & Morrow, 2000).
It has been argued that social economic factors such cultural issues
and income levels of parents have an impact on quality with a direct
impact on the development of the child. Thus, several studies
conclude that quality is significantly influenced by the poverty levels
of the parents and the affluence of their backgrounds. In addition to
that, other theories that have been identified to have a direct impact on
quality which translates to the development of the child includes
psychological theories, anthropological connections between quality
and the development of the child, and the cognitive development of
the child. It is a multipronged comparative study with the readiness
program and the paly programs forming the underlying pillars of the
study. Typically, school readiness programs are designed with the
underlying objective to inculcate educational capabilities that form the
foundation of educational success in the future of the child
(Tabors,1997).
However, it is crucial to identify what really constitutes the
development of the child and the parameters that define development
of the child. Development, from the perspective of education and
other underlying social theories includes social behavior of the child,
cognitive and language development of the child, health and physical
growth of the child, and emotional development that the child
develops and their relationship with parents, among other parameters
used in the development of children. Typically quality has a direct
impact on the development of the child and different researchers have
developed different quality measurement metrics to determine quality
in early childhood development programs Thompson, 1995).
Typically, the study endeavors to answer the research questions on the
the impact of quality in children’s development. It focuses on the early
childhood education and development and underlying concepts to
conclude on the effects of quality on the development of the child.
Quality in child care is defined from different perspectives. One of the
definitions of quality is based on, by Schick:
The view from the perspective of the contextual and adult-work
environmental dimensions of quality such as staff wages, goal
consensus, the exercising of autonomy to make professional
judgments, workload and job satisfaction, p.2
Another approach to quality is based on, Schick:
Child care that is characteristically warm, supportive
interactions with adults in a safe, healthy and stimulating
environment, where early education and trusting relationships
combine to support individual children’s physical, emotional,
social and intellectual development, p4
However, an historical perspective of quality entails that quality is the
extent of worth underpinned by social, cultural, values, beliefs,
processes, and effectiveness of ECD programs that have evolved with
time.
Problem Statement
The underlying implications of quality on the development and
education of children in early childhood development programs in the
United States presents a significant challenge on the role of quality
and its long term and shot term development of the child. Preschool
and custodial programs in early childhood development provide a
significant challenge in identifying their implications of quality on the
education and development of the child.
The Aim
The aim of the research is to determine the impact of quality on the
development of children in early childhood education and
development programs in the United States, which include custodial
and preschool programs.
Research questions
1. What constitutes children development?
2. What are the basic dimensions of quality in child development?
3. What are preschool programs and their implications on child
development?
4. What are play programs and their implications on child
development?
5. How does preschool and play programs vary from each other
Research Objectives
1. To identify the underlying perspectives of quality and quality
metrics associated with the ECS programs.
2. To study the underlying characteristics of preschool, readiness,
and custodial programs
3. To conduct research on relevant literature and multidisciplinary
theories associated with the development of the child.
Significance of the Study
The study forms a strong foundation for identifying the most
appropriate method of imparting development in the child based
desirable qualities that characterize the approaches used in diverse
backgrounds of parents and other stakeholders involved in early
childhood development of children.
Literature Review
Research has shown a strong relationship between quality and the
education and development of the child in the United States (US).
Typically, that is based on a number of theories underlying the
development of the child, and factors that have influential effects on
the education and development of the child in two settings, the play
and the readiness programs. Each of the approaches, based on the
underlying learning concepts and theories, contribute significantly to
quality and therefore the development of the child. The underlying
theories and concepts are multidisciplinary and borrow from
education, sociology, psychology, American studies, anthropology,
and the science of cognition. It is crucial therefore crucial to take turns
and conduct an in-depth investigation of the disciplines and their
contributions of quality, which has a direct impact on the development
of the child. Moreover, the income levels of the parents, social cultural
issues, and other issues related to quality in the development of the
child. In addition to that, the strength of the literature is a review on
schools in affluent communities, poor communities, and differences
between custodial and preschool programs. On the other hand, it is
worth examining what constitutes quality and development of the
child and the relationship between quality and the education and
development of the child.
Quality
Quality, the underlying element that affects the development of the
child is defined based on different metrics that have direct impact on
the development of the child. Quality, therefore, is variedly
determined on different underlying items such as the child care setting
and the nature of interactions between the child caregiver and the
child (Thompson, 1995).. These have been identified as underlying
principles upon which quality is imparted in the child. Typically, these
elements are reflected on the adult child ratio provided in any
childcare program be it preschool or play programs. Typically the
child adult ratio provides the number of adult staff involved in
providing care for the child over a specific period of time (Blau,
2000). It is established that higher rations and lower rations have
direct impact on the quality imparted on the child and ultimate
development of the child. Research shows that when the ratio between
the child and the adult is low, high quality scores have been
experienced in the development of the child, thus showing that low
rations have positive impact on the development of the child (Rao,
Koong, Kwong & Wong, 2003). In addition to that, lower rations have
resulted in high process qualities (Rao, Koong, Kwong & Wong,
2003). On the other hand, low rations have strong relationships
between the better child care outcomes. On the other hand, high
rations have been identified to have low process qualities, and
gradually impacted negatively on the development of the child.
However, when he changes in rations are not significantly varied,
there is little or no significant changes in the ultimate effects on the
quality imparted on the child.
Other factors identified to have direct implications on quality include
the group size of the children in a child care setting. Typically, group
size affects both preschool and play programs despite the fact that the
children come from affluent communities or poor communities.
Typically, research shows a big group size reduces the implications of
quality in the child which has direct implications on the education and
development of the child (Burchinal, Cryer, Clifford & Howes, 2002)
Quality has several underlying elements that contribute to the child’s
development. It has been established that the quality of education and
training of the caregiver provides another underlying influence on the
outcome of quality on the child and consequent development of the
child. Typically, the type and level of education of the caregiver, the
training one undertakes before becoming a caregiver, and is a strong
determinant factor on the quality imparted on the child and
consequently the development of the child (Burchinal, Cryer, Clifford
& Howes, 2002).
However, to establish the facts underlying the study on the
implications of quality on the development of the child in the United
States, it is crucial to examine other how different school program
provide early childhood care and the quality aspects associated with
the programs in the development of the child. Typically, the approach
consists of preschool and play programs as discussed in the following
section.
Play Programs
The play programs are among the approaches used prepare children
for their development in their early childhood. However, it is crucial
to note that paly and preschool development where the child is
prepared for preschool life. Typically, play is viewed as a providing
the child with the school readiness based on its ability to impact the
abilities in the child to be dramatic and to be imaginative, a technique
that the child develops (Smilansky, 1968). This type of play is
regarded as socio-dramatic, which demands that the child take certain
roles, while making social interactions and including the use of
language which leads to the development of the language lexicon of
the student. Play tasks are designed to last for at least 10 minutes with
profound effect on the development of the child. However, it is crucial
to note that the elements that define quality are included in the play
program as children undertake the play tasks in their development,
with consequent implications on their ultimate development. It is
crucial to note that children might be required to pretend on different
phases in play tasks that are distinguished into dramatic play and
socio-dramatic play. Thus, one could note that both approaches have
their implications on the development of the child. In their differences,
the Socio-dramatic play is a combination of other prentice aspects
such as when a child pretends to be a policeman.
In theory, play provides a significant ability for the child to develop
by enabling the child to show behavioral characteristics that are
beyond their present abilities and mastery. Thus, the child develops a
mental capability to be imaginative, which is one of the elements of
play, children are able to take different roles in the play scenario and
pretend to provide solutions to specific problems, and use language in
the process of communicating, thus develop their language use and
competence (Bodrova & Leong, 1998). It is important to note that
play is a significant element during the later years of a toddler’s
development and growth. In addition to that, during the development
of the child based on the play program, the child uses objects that act
as imageries, thus enabling the child develop appropriate skills for
later school education and development which become more
sophisticated as the child development progresses (Bodrova & Leong,
2003). In the development process of the child, play plays a
significant role as the child develops the cognitive abilities to acquire
sophisticated play skills that benefit the cognitive development of the
child. typically, other elements in the child that are developed the
psychological faculties of the mind of the child, the educational or
academic abilities start developing, their ability to interact socially,
and their perceptions about the physical world. It is an approach that
integrates approaches from different disciplines as mentioned
elsewhere in the paper, being multidisciplinary.
In theory, play plays a significant role in the development of the
cognitive abilities of the child as an individual develops the abilities to
renounce one’s self and endeavors to conform to the current situation
and rules of the play environment. It is crucial to note that sometimes
children involved in dramatic play at times might suspend the
activities they are undertaking to renegotiate a certain issue. Typically,
that is one of the quality elements that show the level of development
of the child. It is possible, however, for the play to disintegrate and
break if the rules of the game are not adhered to. Implying the children
has acquired a certain level of development in different aspects that
define the development of the child. However, there is the distinction
between free play and dramatic play. In the sense of free play, the
child motivated to conduct play activities based on impulsive
response. It is typically meant to satisfy one’s own curiosity and
pleasure. However, in the current study, both free play and dramatic
play are viewed to contribute significantly to the development of the
child.
As mentioned elsewhere in the study, one of the fundamental elements
that play a significant role in the development of the child is the
environment that consists of adults. Typically, the adult to children
ratio determine the extent of quality imparted in the child. Thus, the
teacher, who constitutes the adults in the play program, and as a
fundamental quality component has a strong influence in the
development of the child. Typically, the teacher plays a significant
role in educating the children on how to play and the restrictions or
rules to follow. In that respect, the level of training of the teacher is
one aspect that influences the quality imparted in the child and the
consequent development of the child in the early childhood
development program. Roskos and Neuman (2001) researched and
concluded that the teacher plays a significant role in imparting quality
in the child in the form of making observations, acting as a co-player,
and as a stage manager. It is crucial, based on their level and quality of
training for the teacher to make close observations during a play to
identify and determine the most appropriate point to intervene, when
to intervene, and how to intervene on a play. Typically, the teacher’s
intervention is significant and its level of significance is influenced by
the theme of the play and the desired level of quality to impart in the
child. It is therefore, typical for the teacher to model, guide,
demonstrate, and elaborate what needs to be done by the children.
Therefore, the quality imparted in children determines the level of
development and readiness that children acquire to join school.
It is important to note that once children have developed, based on the
underlying preparations based on the play program, they become
ready to join school programs based on underlying readiness factors.
The imparted quality in the children strongly influences the level of
acquistion of skills and abilities that are reflected in later years of
educational development in life. Play, according to research, shows a
strong relationship between abilities of the child in develop and the
direct relationship between the play factors and their development. A
number of play factors that affect quality in the child that directly
affects their development are diverse as discussed below.
One of the factors with strong relationship with quality, play, and
development is the ability developed in the child to self-regulation.
Early childhood development draws on self-regulation, as a
fundamental element of the children’s development. Self-regulation is
viewed as “development may be viewed as an increasing capacity for
self-regulation, not so much in the specifics of individual behaviors
but in the child’s ability to function more independently in personal
and social contexts” (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000, p. 26). Typically,
self-regulation has distinctive implications on quality, with its direct
impact on the development of the child. Self-regulation enables he
child to develop in health and mental faculties distinctly associated
with the ability of the child to take control of their thinking processes,
and their emotions. On the other hand, it is crucial to note that play
can be translated into a play plans that are integrated in the education
of the child. Typically, the approach involves using a written
description of the child’s schedules activities during the day. Usually,
that comes in the form of a play plan. The play plan includes the roles
the child is to take during the day in the play program, the underlying
situations, and the ability of more than one child to plan together. That
affects the development of the child as the child eventually develops
writing skills, which is referred to as scaffolded writing. Thus, the
child is able to develop at earlier stage literacy skills. In addition to
that, the approach enables the child develop their cognitive abilities,
their self-regulation capabilities, and their social development. In
addition to that, the child is bale to develop in their impulsive controls,
thus enabling the child to develop the abilities to be ready for school.
From the perspective of socialization, play programs provide an
environment that enables the development of social competence of the
child. According to studies by Fromberg (1999), play is a significant
contributor to the development of social behavior among children. In
the perspectives of Fromberg (1999), children who have developed on
the play program show a significant level of intellectual and social
competence. Typically, the child is able to develop a degree of
readiness for early childhood education with their intense involvement
in goal oriented tasks.
Language is identified as one of the tools that are crucial to the
development of the child in joining early childhood programs.
Language, according to Dickinson and Tabors (2001) provides an
excellent based for evaluating the development of the child for their
readiness to join school. Typically, Tabors (2001) realizes in their
research that language plays a crucial role in the social and cognitive
development of the child. Play programs provide an enabling
environment for the development of language competencies in the
child. One such a situation is where children take the role of an adult.
In that role, the child is able to communicate with other children using
language as a tool to enable understanding and to negotiate. One of
the quality aspects that children gain when speaking through pretense
by taking the role of adults is language speech and style. According to
Anderson (1986), speaking on play programs has been established to
possess profound effects on the development of the child. Other
aspects of play programs include the competence of literacy
acquistion capabilities.
Literacy skills provide the child with the competence required in their
education and development in early and later years of development. It
is curial to note that dramatic play has been identified to provide
positive development in the child’s literacy skills. Other elements
identified to provide competencies in the quality and therefore the
development of the child are scaffolded writing, a techniques that
draws on repetitive task performance by the child based on the
guidance provided by the teacher. Typically, the technique enables the
use of lines and letters and repletion of symbols by the child under the
guidance of the teacher. The technique enables the child develop the
ability to link different words with different sounds. That enables the
child become competent in understanding the symbolic relationships
of printed text; comprehend the patterns of words and their usage, and
ability to enhance their writing skills. Thus, one is able to conclude
that play draws on elements such as symbols that children use to
symbolize different activities, represent objects and activities,
stimulate and improve imagination, and enable them use words,
propos, and actions to communicate in their development process.
However, it is crucial to note that children at different ages require
object that are modified to meet their growth and development needs.
Research has shown a strong relationship between quality and
development. Typically, the underlying motivation in the play
program is essential in deciding the level of development of the child.
Play and motivation are essentially interlinked in the sense of the
support the children get in their development. Typically, the play area
has a chart field with different types of letters and other materials
which form the underlying motivation for the child to learn. Such an
environment has been identified to provide children in play programs
with the ability to pretend during their growth and development.
However, for the study looks at another approach to crystallize both
approaches used in imparting quality in the child and therefore the
development of the child.
School Readiness Programs
Having established the underlying characteristics of play programs,
which include elements such as self-regulation, play and motivation,
development and competence in social skills, competence in the use of
language, and early literacy skills, it is crucial to examine the
characteristics of preschool programs to crystalize the difference
between play and preschool programs (Fabricius, 1979; (Dalton,
1991).
Research shows that school readiness programs and play programs
draw from the same context5. Typically, that includes the social,
physical, and cognitive development of the child. In addition to that,
school readiness programs also draw on the basic elements of quality
defined as quality metrics for any program. Thus, the approaches used
to impart development in the child based on any approach have their
own quality implications on the development of the child.
However, it is crucial to identify the basic elements that constitute
readiness. Readiness is the characteristic attainment of the mental and
physical ability connected with the emotional development, behavioral
characteristics, and cognitive competencies required for learning in a
school environment. It also involves a combination of the mentioned
factors in the child to acquire the competence to work successfully in
a school learning environment (Fabricius, 1979; Dalton, 1991).
Typically, school readiness programs provide the child with the ability
to follow activities that follow a specific pattern in school, ability to
show a sense of independence when carrying out learning tasks,
ability to socially mix and cooperate with other children, and the
ability to work under specified rules and regulations. In addition to
that, the preschool program qualifies a child to identify colors words,
sounds, to count, and ability to write (Fabricius, 1979).
School readiness programs provide the basis for an active learning
environment that relies on the use of objects or learning materials in
the development of the child. The use of objects is a contrast
established between play and school readiness programs. Typically,
the use of objects supports the child in cognitive development as they
are allowed to use their minds to manipulate the objects. It is crucial to
note that play learning enables the children to pretend and manipulate
situations and negotiate around problems. On the other hand,
readiness programs enable the child develop cognitively by
manipulating objects. Readiness programs support cognitive
development by enabling the child reflect on actions, develop
questions about situations and seek to answer the questions on their
reflections. Typically, the development process actively involves
physical activities that arouse mental activities during the physical
interactions with objects. Typically, the underlying component is to
understand the world through the mental inquiries and actions in the
physical world (Dalton, 1991).
One fundamental component of the readiness program is the element
of problem solving. Readiness programs provide the learner with the
ability to identify approaches to solve problems they encounter in their
development process. The process of identifying and seeking for a
solution implies learning gets stimulated in the mind of the child
(Fabricius, 1979).
One other underlying element of the readiness program is the
motivation effect on the child. it is the internal drive to learn springing
from the child that motivates the child and stimulates a learning
element. Typically, the child triggers personal interests, which trigger
questions, and stimulate the desire to explore, experiment, and
construct knowledge and understanding.
Among the essentials of discovery that enable development in the
child include the ability of the children to talks about their
experiences. Talking about their experiences involves the use of
language, a crucial communication component in the child (Bruner,
1985). The discussion environment allows children to talk about their
current activities, encourage conversation with adults, and what they
are doing at a particular point in time. Thus, the readiness program is
based on the active learning paradigm.
The active learning paradigm also requires that the child gets involved
in combining different materials in their learning environment with
the support of adults. Here the children play with materials such as
sand whose shape they easily manipulate and change shape in the
learning process. In addition to that, children use other tools that are
strongly related to their abilities in transforming objects, thus enabling
active learning. It is worth noting that while children carry out such
activities, they are developing their health and mental faculties. Thus,
the impact on quality is strongly related to the elements discussed
above on school readiness programs, and their direct implications on
the development of the child. That leads to the need to study the
effects of schools in affluent and poor communities, their implications
on quality and eventually the impact on the development of the child
(Dalton, 1991).
As mentioned above, communication is fundamental component in
imparting quality in the child. The child becomes competent in
linguistic competence, where the child becomes competent in the use
of the language, the syntax of the language used in communication,
and the ability to phrase word and structure the words into sentences.
On the other hand, the communication component could require
sociolinguistic competence that denotes the underlying
communication quality and ability by the child to respond in any
communication setting. Other issues inherent in the communication
component include the ability to repair communication breakdown
when such issues arise ((Fabricius, 1979).
Effect of Affluent and Poor Communities
Profound and significant implications of quality on the development
of the child are strongly related to the income levels and economic
background of the parents. Research shows a strong relationship
between quality, development, and prevailing economic background.
It has been established that inequalities in income levels provide a
significant impact on the development of the child in terms of
cognitive development and other quality metrics discussed in the
paper. One of the underlying elements of development of the child is
cognitive development. It is evident from available literature that the
family type based on income levels directly affects the cognition
development of the child. Low income families find the cognition
development of the children low as compared with high income
families. Thus, level show a wide gap in stimulating support for
cognition development in the child and therefore the ultimate impact
of quality on the development of the child. Typically, that translates to
the quality of child rearing environments based on an economic model
(Astington, 1993).
That leads to the conclusion, based on an economic model that
opportunities that could be exploited by disadvantaged communities
have less educational achievements compared with economically
well-endowed families. A strong relationship between social
economic factors, quality and the development of the child has very
strong implications on the development of the child. Typically, the
social economic level of the parent has a strong influence on the
relationship between the child and the parent, resulting in weak
bonding between mother and child, thus causing weak response and
stimuli on the children and their development. Social economic factors
also affect development in the language of the student adversely,
resulting in poor health, and their health. However, it is crucial to
evaluate the effectiveness of the early childhood development
programs to crystalize the rationale for their use in the development of
the child as shown in figure 1 below.
The Effectiveness of play and preschool Models
It is worth, in crystallizing the differences between play and preschool
programs to establish a benchmarks against which they could be
evaluated and the quality implications on the development of the
child. Typically, an analysis of the benchmark elements shows that
overall development of the child is based on cognitive development
outcomes of the child, social competence and outcomes of the child,
the development of the health of the child, economic efficiency, and
other interventional effects on the development of the child.
Typically, the model shows the quality factors and their impact on the
development of the child that models need to embrace in figure 1
above.
History of American Education
A brief history of the American history on education provides a rich
context for the current study which shows that the historical
foundation provided the basis for emphasizing on early childhood
development. However with the evolution of time, different
approaches have been developed in addressing early childhood
development in the United States (Oswald, 2003). That is also based
on the policies on early childhood development formulated over time.
Typically, early childhood development and education is historically
based on the descent of Froebel, who was among the finding fathers of
modern practices and principles of ECD education in the United Sates.
At the time, learning was imparted on the child through internalization
methods. Each of the children involved in their education and
development were required to provide an environment in their minds
where they internalized their knowledge to be reproduced and used
later. The approach was teacher centered. However, later methods
which formed the basis for the modern development required that the
development and education of the child is learner centered instead of
being teacher centered. That was the basis for forming the foundation
of modern practices in early childhood education and development in
the United Sates (Oswald, 2003).
The underlying principles and practices of ECD development from an
historical perspective shows that the pioneers advocated for different
materials for children of different ages. That suggestion was based on
the assumption that nature had a strong role and influence on the
development of the child and the type of materials to use in their
development (Oswald, 2003). According to the pioneers, each of the
subjects to be learnt were arranged in order based on the assumption
that noting was beyond comprehension. It was a process with a
universal beginning and a specific or particular ending. Thus, the
stages of cognitive development for the development and appropriate
curricula development to meet the needs of the child were based on
the underlying principles of universality to specific point. It was based
on the assumption that children from both poor and rich backgrounds
could be accommodated in such an ECD education system. ECD was
regarded as an education system that significantly provided a ladder
through which each child irrespective of their backgrounds could
grow and attain a level of status with the interference of their
backgrounds, in this case either poor or rich (Oswald, 2003).
One of the proponents and founders of modern ECD programs was
Comenius. Comenius proposed a multilayered system of EC education
which included infancy, vernacular school, Latin school, and
University and Travel schools. To be more specific, the infancy
program could be directly translated to its equivalent being
kindergarten and nursery schools. However, there were other
successive developments and theorists in formulating different
fashions of ECD programs. These include Rousseua’s theoretical
propositions that regard the development of the child to be separate
and distinct from each stage. Among the elements that defined this
theory is the assumption that a child was an animal and not yet a
human being. Typically, that formed the basis for arguing, according
to the theory, which the child should be taken through infancy and
other stages of growth and development. That led to the development
of the new models of early childhood education and development.
One such model was the preschool program. The preschool program,
according to the history of early childhood development was based on
the argument that early childhood development is fundamental to the
growth and development of the child (Oswald, 2003).
In a nutshell, preschool and custodial programs were regarded as
crucial to the development of the child in the 1920s. It was at that time
that people started to work outside their homes requiring that the child
be exposed to early education and development for several hours in a
day pre-school programs at the time were trending in acquiring
similarities with custodial programs at the time. However, at the time,
there was a lot of stigma associated with custodial programs, a
prejudice associated with low income families that was fading with
time. However, preschool programs showed a significant positive
impact on the development of the child who was either black or white
(Oswald, 2003).
According to a number of investigations, preschool programs
contributed significantly to the aversion of the prejudice especially
inherent with black children who showed a significant risk of failure
to attend and complete school. The method of education and
development of children from the black community showed a
significant effect on the positive development and education of the
child and positive economic value over custodial programs. Thus, the
economic value and other benefits associated with the early
development of the child lead to the wholesale acceptance and
implementation of the preschool program through the United Sates.
That was in contrast to custodial programs that were viewed not to
serve the interest of the child. it is worth noting at this point that
preschool programs were a byproduct of public policy, where working
mothers and other high income groups were interested in investing for
the development and growth of their children.
Culture and Education
The fundamental elements of education are embedded in culture.
Cultural capital constitutes the underlying component in determining
the attitude and quality developed into programs used in ECD
education and development and the ultimate impact on the quality of
such culturally influenced ECD methods in the development of the
child. It is crucial, however to note that the common elements in
phycology and sociology affect the cultural orientation and
educational development of the child discussed elsewhere in the paper
(Oswald, 2003).
Developmental Psychology
In theory and practice, development of the child is based on
underlying principles of psychology for human beings. Typically,
development, from the perspective of developmental psychology is a
lifetime process that has no distinct boundary at which it begins in the
life of the child. However, in the current context, the assumption is
based on the quality implications of school readiness and play
programs and the consequent implication on the education and
development of the child.
Typically, the principles and theories underlying the development of
the child are based on the development of motor skills, which are
important for the well-functioning of the child. However the need to
understand the actual definition of development in the context of the
study is important. Development is defined as “patterns of change
over time which begin at conception and continue throughout the life
span”. In a broader sense, the definition draws on biological changes
that might include the physical development of the child, changes in
emotional perceptions, and the cognitive development of the child.
Typically, the definition is in line with the development that is
experienced in readiness and play programs for children in the United
States. Development therefore is an integration and differentiation
process. Integration constitutes using the basic behavioral elements
into higher structured forms. On the other hand, differentiation
provides the basis for the child to distinguish between elements in the
environment and manipulate them and emerging situations to solve a
problem. Development might include historical perspectives such as
normative history-graded influences and Chronological age
development, among other approaches to development (Oswald,
2003).
Typically, development in different forms is regarded as continues
process that the child is exposed. However, there is the need to
understand some contentious issues such as the discontinuity in
development due to certain traits. However, the entire theory on
development regards development from the continuity and
discontinuity perspectives. It is worth concluding that the baseline
theories on development are supported in the development of the child
either directly or indirectly in early childhood development in the
United States based on the readiness and the play program models.
However, there is the question on the anthropology of the child in
relation to their development (Oswald, 2003).
Anthropological Theory
The anthropological theory draws on cultural essentialism and cultural
anxiety (Kuper, 1999). Typically, that signifying the implications of
cultural essentialism and cultural anxiety on the education and
development of the child in early childhood development programs in
USA. Typically, the anthropological model factors genuine concerns
about the cultural aspects that surround different children in their early
development years, beliefs, political concerns and influences,
conceptions of human beings as cultural beings differentiated by the
cultural boundaries established and developed by the human beings
themselves (Todorov, 1993). However, components such as anxiety
do not define culture, but border the influence to create influence on
the behaviors and perceptions of people in a cultural environment
(Parekh, 2000).
Culture, therefore, constitutes the elements of social culture that has
overall impact on the relationship between different people and the
boundaries existing between the individuals, peer culture that is
developed between the children in early childhood development
programs, and the culture established in social networks (Stolcke,
1995; Turner, 1993). However culture has an intricate implication on
the development of the child as it is strongly related to the adults who
provide support and an environment for the development of the child.
Typically, cultural backgrounds have a strong relationship in
explaining the developmental attainments of the children based on the
underlying quality if imparting instructions and other essential
ingredients for the development of the child (Parekh, 2000; Touraine,
1997; Trouillot, 2002).
Cognition
Cognition is a fundamental concept in the development of any child.
Cognition is strongly related to the element of perception and resulting
actions. Thus, when a child’s cognition capabilities are developed,
their abilities to discriminate actions and words develop enabling
development in discriminating different tasks and objects in the
learning environment (Schick, n.d). Other elements associated with
cognition include call cognition which demands that tasks be
performed based on recall, which is based on abstract representations.
However it is crucial to note that motor capabilities are central to the
discrimination process (Schick, n.d).
In theory, the cognition development of the child in any of the
programs be they preschool or custodial care programs with either the
play or the readiness program provides a basis for argument on the
cumulative effects on quality and eventual implications on their
development.
Sociology of Education
From the perspective of the sociology of education, the effect of
quality on the development of the child is analogous to the ultimate
implications of early childhood development methods on the
development of the child (Garrison, 1998). That is based on the social
dynamics of early childhood development methods based on the
diversity and quality inherent in the methods that shape the
development of the child to acquire the competence of self-regulation,
social skills, lexical competence and use of language, early literacy
skills, and underlying motivation to perform various developmental
tasks (Astington, 1993).
It is therefore, from the social perspective in the sociology of
education that the quality of approach used is variedly affected by
social factors such as gender, economic status of the parents, race,
gender, and class positively or negatively affects the development of
the child.
It is worth noting from the historical perspective that sociology has
been the underlying element that stimulated the industrial revolution
and consequently the welfare state. However, successive
transformation of sociology based on different theoretical models such
as the structural functional theory leads to the understanding coined in
the modern application of sociology and its impact on quality and
consequent development of the child. Typically, that involves the
development of the child from the perspective of the critical reflection
during the development process and ethnographic understanding in the
context of quality and its effects on the development of the child
(Garrison, 1998).
Custodial Programs
The quality factors in custodial programs provides the child with the
development depends on the level the teacher has attained, quality of
the teacher’s support, the level of interaction of the teacher and the
child, and their experience in handling children in custodial programs.
In addition to that, the environment the custodial program operates
such as the frequency of interaction between the mother and the child,
parental support, income level of the parents, and the health of the
child with their quality characteristics had eventual implications on
the development of the child (Garrison, 1998).
Discussion
The multidisciplinary study based on theories and literature review on
different early childhood development paradigms has shown that
quality has a strong implication on the development of the child. The
questionnaires were distributed among the six states based on the
underlying advantages of using questionnaires. Results show high
response rates for the administered questionnaires on the impact of the
quality elements on the development of the child based on different
ECD development programs. In this case, the data indicate below is
for response of teachers to ECD programs in USA constituting
responses to preschool and ready programs.
In summary it shows that both custodial and preschool programs are
effective in their quality implications on the development of the child,
with significant differences arising between the approaches used in
preschool and custodial programs.
On the other hand, quality is viewed as a dispensable element for the
development of the child and is based on underlying principles of
quality. Typically, quality and the impact each of the methods has on
the development of the child is evident from the underlying principle
of quality, the differences and similarities of the methods. It is clear
that preschool programs and day care programs provide support for
children with different backgrounds and indirect support for parents
based on the background of each parent. It is however, crucial to note
that children from either of the programs have similar needs required
for their development. Among the needs that reflect the quality of
each program is the cognition development of the child and other
early childhood development needs. However, one of the crucial
points is the fundamental similarities associated with each program.
The similarities and underlying principles of the development of the
child require that the child develop physically, develops emotionally,
and develops socially based on the standard development
requirements of the child and what constitutes quality.
It is worth noting that the physical development, as one of the
underlying principles that define quality, should be safe and provide
the required interest to children when engaged in their activities. In
addition to that, some of the elements that define quality are the
presence of adults. In an appropriate children’s development
environment, it is worth commenting that the adult to children ratio
strongly influence the quality children are exposed to when using any
of the ECD methods mentioned above. Typically, each of the
programs endeavors to provide an appropriate parent to children ratio
and staff who provide consistent care for the children. In addition to
that, both programs provide child care based on the principle of child
parent ratio, while ensuring that both the parent and the staff
appropriately model their behaviors while nurturing self-esteem and
approach issues in a manageable way.
It is also clear from the findings that custodial programs provide
support and care for children especially from poor families. Typically,
that is historically based on legislation enacted during the 1960’s
meant to fight poverty.
Conclusion
Findings from the study show a strong multidisciplinary element and
implications of quality in the ultimate development of the child and
the direct implications of quality in the development of the child in
ECD programs in the United States. The quality implications on the
development of the child translate to the development of the child in
cognitive development, cultural association that draws from the
anthropological theory, which heavily draws on cultural essentialism
and cultural anxiety. It draws from the field of psychology that
evaluates the development of the child from theoretical perspectives
that converge on the underlying elements of development that draws
directly on the approaches used to impart development of the child in
the perspective of the quality associated with each approach. It is
crucial to conclude at this point that the quality metrics against which
any quality is evaluated include cognitive development that draws on
cognitive theories of development of the child, social interactions
based on social theories that include the Piaget’s social theory which
affirms that development social and individual factors have a strong
influence on the development of the child. Other quality metrics
include development of social skills, development of cognitive skills,
development of language and auditory skills, anthropometry,
morbidity, mortality, physical development, and play observation
skills. Typically, each of the preschool and custodial programs has
their own quality implications on the development of the child.
However, these approaches have a common denominator that includes
the cognition and development, ability of the child to self-regulate
oneself in different and unfolding environments and situations, ability
to develop social skills that enable the child interact in a social setting
with other people, develop the lexical competence of the language
since language is a critical tool in communicating, develop appropriate
early literacy skills, and develop the abilities to play and respond to
underling motivations to initiate action and perform a task. On the
other hand it is worth noting that readiness and play programs have
significant similarities though they have differences that caused by the
broad or narrow perspectives of either of the approaches. Typically,
the approaches factor observable behavioral development, basic skills
acquistion, physical well–being, motor development, and health
development. The research shows that quality inculcated into the
development of the child based on any program. Quality is in terms of
the environment that provides good physical well-being that enables
the child to move freely and enable the development of the child’s
brain. In conclusion, therefore, both early childhood development
methods have quality characteristics already mentioned as quality
metrics that positively impact on the development of the child.
However, it is recommended that further studies be conducted to
develop an actual scale of development and relatively evaluate the
programs against the developed scale to identify in detail their relative
impact on a numerical scale on the development of the child in ECD
programs.
Annotated Bibliography
Astington, J. W. The child’s discovery of the mind. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press: 1993
The author discusses issues related to socio-economic development
and their direct impact on the development of the child. The author
continues to evaluate how socio-economic issues relate to the
development of the mind of the child, with the main objective being to
identify the relationship between the cognition development as one
method of early childhood development and as a measure of quality in
the development of children. The paper discusses social cognition, and
the development of the mind, the theory of the mind, and how both
internal and external factors affect the development of the mind of the
child. It endeavors to link the development of the child and how
successful the child becomes in response to the both external and
internal factors. It culminates the discussion with recommendations to
policy makers, parents, teachers and other stakeholders involved in
early childhood development to consider when deciding on the best
method to use in implementing ECD programs.
Blau, D.M. The effects of child care characteristics on child
development. Journal of Human Resources, 34, 786-822: 1999.
The paper focuses on the development of the child, and the
determinants of quality in early childhood development. Quality in
this case is discussed in the context of child to adult ratio, caregiver
education, language and low staff turnovers, and behavioral problems.
The author is an excellent source of information on how quality is
affected by the above mentioned factors, the significant indicators of
quality being the main objective of the paper, the relationship between
quality and outcome on child development, and the historical
perspective of quality. It is worth source for informing on how to
measure the quality and its implications on the development of the
child.
Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. Chopsticks and counting chips: Do play
and the foundational skills need to compete for the teachers’ attention
in an early childhood classroom? Young Children, 58(3), 10–17:
2003.
This source demonstrates how readiness and play programs in schools
are associated with the development of the child. It provides an in-
depth discussion and clear definition of school readiness and play
programs and the complex constructs associated with the programs in
terms of education and development of the child and quality
implications on the child. The focus is on the role play and readiness
programs play in the cognition, language, social interactions, and
other development on the child.
Bruner, J. Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J.
Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication, and cognitive: Vygotskian
perspectives (pp. 21-34). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press:
1985
The author focuses on the historical perspectives of the development
of the child, the decoding abilities of the child’s mind, and how the
sight vocabulary of the student develops. It is an authority in the area
of memory development and how children retain new words learnt
during their education and development, the type of learners educators
encounter, and the best approach to handle different cases. The source
is strongly recommended for teachers and adults who develop and get
involved in ECD programs. However, it is important to use the
sources along with other sources.
Burchinal, M. R., Cryer, D., Clifford, R. M. & Howes, C. Caregiver
training and classroom quality in child care centers. Applied
Developmental Science, 6(1), 2-11: 2002
The above author provides a clear and sanguine approach used in
providing care for children in preschool and custodial programs while
ensuring the approach used imparts values in the earl education and
development if the child. The paper explores the social aspect of early
childhood development, how the child is integrated into the society
which includes social groups and other forms of interactions. It is a
qualitative source of knowledge for teachers and others involved in
ECD programs in the USA to understanding the human aspects of the
development of the child and how such values are integrated into the
society.
Fabricius, William. Piaget’s Theory of Knowledge—Its Philosophical
Context.” In The High/Scope Report: 1979, C. Silverman, ed., 4–13.
Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press
The above paper is the key to findings related to the theory of
knowledge and its relationship with the early childhood development
of the child. It discusses early childhood development and education
and the need for human development as a prelude to the educational
needs and metal faculty of the child. Active learning is considered the
foundation of ECD programs as the child develops the constituency of
the mind to actiley participate in their learning and development.
Fromberg, D. A review of research on play. In C. Seefeldt (Ed.), The
early childhood curriculum: Current findings in theory and practice
(3rd ed., pp. 27–53). New York: Teachers College Press: 1999
The above paper provides a detailed view and discussion on theory
and practice on Garrison, J. Foucault Dewey and Self-Creation.
Educational Philosophy and Theory. 30(2). 111-134: 1998
Kuper, A. Culture, the Anthropologists’ Account. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press: 1999
This paper is a theoretical discussion on anthropology and the
relationship it has and its influence on the education and development
of the child.
Lightfoot, C. The social construction of cognitive conflict: A place for
affect. In J. Valsiner (Ed.), Children development within culturally
structured environments, Vol. 2, Social co-construction and
environmental guidance in development (pp. 28-65). Norwood, NJ:
Ablex: 1988
The main focus of the paper is on social cognition and development of
the mind of the child. It provides a detailed view on what is cognition
and provides a guide for teachers and other stakeholders on the
requirements necessary for the development of the child.
Oswald, Laura. Branding the American Family: A Strategic Study of
the Culture, Composition, and Consumer Behavior of Families in the
New Millennium. The Journal of Popular Culture, Vol. 37, No. 2:
2003.
Discusses the cultural nature of the American family and other details
one might need on how culture affects the development of the child,
the choice of school and program parents choose for their chikdren,
and its influence on the performance of the child.
Parekh, B. Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and
Political Theory.Basingstoke: Macmillan: 2000.
Provides a detailed discussion on the effects of culture and its direct
influence on the performance and interaction of the child with the
external environment. The paper culminates with the findings on
cultural diversities and their relationship with the approach used to
bring to children.
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