Psychological, Physiological, and Relational Effects of Pornography
Joshua Cehulik
THEO 650 Public Theology
February 4, 2023
1
Introduction
Since the sexual revolution, pornography has been fiercely debated along two lines.
Harrison and Ogden describe the camps as “anti-porn” and “anti-censorship.”0 There has long
been a prevailing attitude within the contemporary culture that sexual expression, specifically
pornography, is a vice that has no victim and causes no harm. The more significant damage
caused by the anti-porn establishment has been assumed to be the minimization of free speech. It
has become increasingly apparent that the digital age phenomenon has brought an explosion of
sexual imagery and unique ways to engage within the pornographic medium. This has given
pause to scholars of many disciplines to study the tangible effects of pornography on the
individual and society at large.0 Despite contemporary normative thought that pornography has
no measurable after-effects, it has become clear that there are legitimate psychological,
physiological, and relational consequences of pornography.
Consistent pornographic use has been related to increased violence against women,
specifically of a sexual nature. Exposure to sexually explicit material has shown reduced
cognitive function in younger people. As electronic media and the distribution of graphic sexual
content increases, relational detachment has also increased. Human beings exposed to explicit
media are losing their ability to connect in previously natural ways. What is being left in the
wake of this social experiment is that men and women can no longer express empathy for one
another and are viewed as objects of degradation rather than for their personhood.0
0 Katherine Harrison and Cassandra A. Ogden, eds., Pornographies 2018: Critical Positions (Chester:
University of Chester Press, 2018), 10.
0 Matt Fradd, The Porn Myth: Exposing the Reality Behind the Fantasy of Pornography (San Francisco:
Ignatius Press, 2017), 11.
0 Gail Dines, Pornland: How Porn Has Hijacked Our Sexuality (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2011),
http://books.google.com/books?https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/x9CMJ_zY4WUC?
hl=en&gbpv=1&kptab=overview.
2
“Pornography is a part of modern society, a considerable part of modern society.”0
Coleman and Held emphasize that with the advent of personalized computers and the internet,
the “pornification” of culture has ensued. This requires thoughtful reflection on the obligation of
individuals and cultures to one another.0 How has pornography shaped our understanding of
masculinity, femininity, gender, and sexual expression? What is the best path forward? Within
the last sixty years, there have been remarkable changes within the porn industry. Academia has
set out to justify positions from free speech and empowerment to vilifying pornography as a
social harm and a public health issue. The second wave of feminism has sought to characterize
pornography as a machine driven by the market and profits that have resulted in the abject
exploitation of women.0 Others argue that pornography has enabled a platform for individuals of
diverse backgrounds and an opportunity for personal and sexual expression. They conclude that
this has resulted in the elevation of minority groups, women, and the LGBTQ communities’
opportunities for advancement and notoriety. Proponents of pornography as free speech have
argued that people from all walks of life consume pornography for personal enjoyment and
pleasure.0
Harrison and Ogden argue that the “anti-pornography versus the anti-censorship of
pornography debate is behind us.”0 They conclude that as pornography is widely accepted, it has
become a legitimate academic pursuit by academia to be understood, not to be vilified or
criticized. They fully expect that pornography will no longer induce moral panic; instead, it will
0 Lindsay Coleman and Jacob M. Held, eds., The Philosophy of Pornography: Contemporary Perspectives
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), 9.
0 Ibid.
0 Harrison and Ogden, Pornographies 2018: Critical Positions, 5.
0 Ibid.
0 Ibid., 7.
3
be embraced with insightful analyses by the academic community.0 Those that advocate for
harms caused by pornography against people groups, genders, and society at large are accused of
unnecessarily causing sexual repression and “reinforcing dualistic gender divisions.”0
Others within the academic community trumpet a note of extreme caution. Gail Dines
suggests that the modern pornographic machine is neither interested in art nor the promotion of
repressed people. She states that pornographers “are not particularly interested in sex. What turns
these people on is money.”0 Before the advancement of the internet, making money in the porn
industry was difficult. Now Dines articulates that one industry publisher was set to produce over
15,000 new releases in a year.0 This has resulted in a pornographic arms race where publishers
are clamoring for creative, provocative, and exploitative ways to garner the only money-making
formula – viewers. What was once considered extreme or unimaginable has now become
mainstream. The material found only in a periodical or magazine is now easily accessible online.
A study by the American Psychological Association found that the average age of exposure to
pornography was thirteen years old, with an age range as early as five and as late as twenty-six.
Forty-five percent indicated their exposure was accidental.0 In a study by the National Library of
Medicine, 91.5% of men and 60.2% of women reported consuming pornography within the prior
month. Of the three mediums of pornography - picture, video, and written – men were more
likely to consume video, while women were more likely to consume written pornography.0
0 Ibid., 8.
0 Ibid., 10.
0 Dines, Pornland.
0 Ibid.
0 American Psychological Association, “Age of first exposure to pornography shapes men's attitudes
toward women,” www.apa.org, August 3, 2017, accessed February 23, 2023,
https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/08/pornography-exposure.
0 Solano I, NR Eaton, and KD O'Leary, “Pornography Consumption, Modality and Function in a Large
Internet Sample,” J Sex Res. 57, no. 1 (2020 Jan;), accessed February 22, 2023,
https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2018.1532488.
4
While modern pornography is cheap and easy to produce, what may be the unseen cost?
Dines argues that even the trade itself is coming to grips with the rapidly changing landscape of
the pornographic industry. The push for profitability has resulted in a “push the envelope” style
of content creation with little regard for the individuals involved in the production or the well-
being of society at large.0 Decision-makers must have a firm grasp on the psychological,
physiological, and relational harms that pornography poses to develop effective personal and
public policy.
Psychological Effects of Pornography
The brain functions in a fundamental reward paradigm. Searching for a dopamine high,
researchers learned that neurons fired to produce a specific outcome and would rewire the brain
accordingly. This type of plasticity maps the brain at the expense of what was previously
attractional. Pornography has a profound effect on the plasticity of the brain. Wilson identified
that pornography hijacked the “primitive appetite mechanisms of the brain.”0 This creates an
overconsumption model that is intrinsic to other addictive behaviors. The drive to seek more
extreme measures for stimulation overrides the risk/reward impulse. Researchers have correlated
increased compulsive sexual behaviors with repeated exposure to sexually explicit images. These
behaviors have led to adverse outcomes, including lost jobs, intimate relationships, influence in
social circles, diminished libido, and erectile dysfunction.0 The psychological effects of those
with CSB compared to the control group showed high levels of suicidal ideation, anxiety, and
0 Dines, Pornland.
0 Gary Wilson, Your Brain on Porn: Internet Pornography and the Emerging Science of Addiction
(Margate: Commonwealth Publishing, 2015), 14.
0 Valerie Voon et al., “Neural Correlates of Sexual Cue Reactivity in Individuals with and without
Compulsive Sexual Behaviours,” Plos One (July 2014), accessed February 17, 2023,
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0102419.
5
depression. Individuals with CSB were likely to spend large sums of money on explicit content,
escorts, and other illicit sexual behaviors.0
Wilson elaborates that high-risk sexual behavior is endemic to pornography users. He
correlates damage to the prefrontal cortex as the cause of cognitive impairment. “Dysfunctional
prefrontal circuitry manifests as weakened willpower and hyper-reactivity to addiction cues.0
This loss of “executive control” affects aspects of brain function such as planning, problem-
solving, and, most importantly, judging consequences.0 The prefrontal cortex regulates the more
organic part of the brain that is likely to act impulsively. Addiction bypasses the natural pathway
of the brain in pornography consumers and causes a severe lack of impulse control.0
This lack of impulse control causes concern in the mature brains of adults, but what effect
can be caused by pornography in the developing minds of young people? A comprehensive study
by Owens and Behun found that adolescents exposed to sexually explicit material were likelier to
engage in sexual behavior. This included a proclivity to causal sexual encounters and high-risk
sexual activity. The younger the individual was exposed to pornography, the younger they were
to engage in sexual behavior.0 This had a profound effect on the adolescent self-image. As young
people compared themselves to the images they viewed online, they began to “internalize
unrealistic expectations.”0 These became unattainable sexual expectations for themselves and
others. Researchers found this resulted in “body insecurity, feelings of inadequacy, frustration
0 Ibid.
0 Wilson, Your Brain on Porn, 116.
0 Ibid., 116.
0 Ibid.
0 Eric W. Owens and Richard Behun, Youth and Internet Pornography: The Impact and Influence on
Adolescent Development, Adolescence, and Society (London: Taylor & Francis Ltd, 2019), 42.
0 Ibid., 61.
6
with sexual function and performance, and overall sexual dissatisfaction.”0 A negative body
image in adolescents can lead to a lack of sexual confidence, sexual avoidance, and the
likelihood of body dysmorphia. The psychological aspects can lead to outward behaviors of
depression, unhealthy dieting, unsafe exercise regimens, or body-altering surgeries.0
The consumption of sexually explicit material has a psychological cost to the user that
includes but is not limited to cognitive impairment that manifests itself in negative self-image
and high/risk sexual behavior. These psychological implications can have profound physiological
harm.
Physiological Effects of Pornography
Paula Hall defines sexual addiction as “any pattern of out-of-control behavior that causes
problems in someone’s life, a pattern of behavior that cannot be stopped, or does not reliably stay
stopped.”0 Hall argues that pornography correlates with other compulsive behaviors like eating
disorders. The harm is not in the activity but in the “relationship to the behavior.”0 Just as eating
food is a natural part of life, an unhealthy relationship with food can manifest as anorexia,
bulimia, or compulsive overeating. An unhealthy relationship to sexual activity can be seen in
high-risk behavior, lack of impulse control, low libido, or erectile dysfunction. The physical
action of sexual expression no longer becomes about that act itself; it becomes a release for
underlying causes such as loneliness, boredom, or emotional cravings. 0 The body produces a
robust physiological response during sexual activity. The brain releases chemical compounds
0 Ibid.
0 Ibid., 63.
0 Paula Hall, Understanding and Treating Sex and Pornography Addiction: A Comprehensive Guide for
People Who Struggle with Sex Addiction and Those Who Want to Help Them, 2nd ed. (Bosa Roca, FL: Taylor &
Francis Inc, 2018), 6.
0 Ibid.
0 Ibid., 8.
7
called oxytocin and vasopressin. Struthers states this “binds men to the object of their affection.”0
When oxytocin is released in the brain, it produces the experience of sexual satisfaction.
Vasopressin is particularly important in the bonding event between partners and protects the
males from potentially being aggressive with other males. Therefore, vasopressin is correlated
with “marital bonding and the spouse’s perception of marital quality.”0 When sexual activity and
orgasm occur without an object of affection, it reinforces the need for more sexual activity in the
brain. This creates an imbalance and an inability for genuine relationships over time.
Researchers have identified another troubling physiological harm caused to the brain; the
reduction of grey matter. Kuhn and Gallinat published research correlating even moderate porn
users over the years with “reduced grey matter and decreased sexual responsiveness.”0 The loss
of grey matter inevitably led to two outcomes, satisfaction with sexual results (loss of libido) and
erectile dysfunction among men. The myriad of emotions connected with sexual activity can
result in harmful effects such as anxiety, violating personal values, and endless searching for
novelty. These neurochemicals include the release of norepinephrine, epinephrine, and cortisol.
Properly released, they can elevate the brain’s dopamine response. However, an unhealthy
relationship with these neurochemicals can lead to intense mood swings and unpredictable
behavior.0 This causes the pornography user to no longer to enjoy the “real” aspects of sexual
intercourse. Wilson defines these as “eye contact, touch, scent, flirting, and foreplay.”0 These
aspects are no longer sufficient as the user searches for synthetic “supernormal stimuli” to
0 William M. Struthers, Wired for Intimacy - How Pornography Hijacks the Male Brain (Downers Grove,
Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2010), 105.
0 Struthers, Wired for Intimacy - How Pornography Hijacks the Male Brain, 106.
0 S Kühn and J Gallinat, “Brain Structure and Functional Connectivity Associated With Pornography
Consumption: The Brain on Porn,” JAMA Psychiatry 71, no. 7 (2014), accessed February 24, 2023,
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.93.
0 Wilson, Your Brain on Porn, 30.
0 Ibid., 84.
8
repeatedly gain the same feeling of pleasure.0 The same level of happiness becomes more
challenging to synthesize and results in a general loss of sexual appetite. This will manifest in
depression and loss of interest in not only sexual activity but other activities previously enjoyed.
Insufficient stimulation can also lead to anxiety which is the leading cause of porn-induced
erectile dysfunction. The user is anxious when introduced to a physical partner over performance
fears. This can result in general avoidance of sexual activity in real life.0
As the psychological and physiological effects of pornography become apparent, it can be
assumed that these adverse outcomes will profoundly impact relationships. As sexually explicit
material becomes more aggressive and prevalent, how has this affected human interpersonal
relationships and the fabric of society at large?
Relational Effects of Pornography
Oppression is one of the core complaints lodged against the pornographic industry.0
Oppression has an inherent relational quality. Certain social classes can enact the subjugation of
marginalized classes by privilege, knowledge, and wealth. This can include paradigms such as
race, gender, and income. Men are seen as profiting from women’s bodies, people of color are
abused to promote systems of racism, and those with means can take advantage of those who
rely on the industry for income. As was argued earlier, pornography is less about the sexual act
and is rooted more deeply in the human psyche. This causes the breakdown in the relationship
between human beings that manifests itself in some of society’s most challenging problems.
Using data from more than 51,000 signals in 2021, the Human Trafficking Hotline identified the
pornography industry as the leading industry responsible for human trafficking.0 A power system
0 Ibid.
0 Ibid., 17.
0 Coleman and Held, The Philosophy of Pornography: Contemporary Perspectives, 48.
0 “National,” National Human Trafficking Hotline, 2021, accessed February 24, 2023,
https://humantraffickinghotline.org/en/statistics.
9
designed for profit no longer considers the intrinsic value of a human being. The human being
becomes a commodity rather than a person. This paradigm extends to the most vulnerable of
society as well. Although child pornography constitutes a tiny portion of sexually explicit
material, the U.S. Department of Justice considers it to “play a central role in the conduct,
assisting in seducing victims, and providing a means to blackmail the victims into preventing
exposure.”0 The Demand Project identifies child pornography as one of the fastest-growing
crimes in the United States, increasing by more than 2500% in the last ten years.0 Dines argues
that the dehumanization of sex is directly correlated to the pornographic industrial complex. No
longer does fantasy or sexual formula follow an organic process; instead, it is part of a market-
making machine. This has resulted in aggressive behavior towards women that includes sexual
violence.0 Interviewing college-age women, Dines concluded that although many of them had
not been the recipient of overt sexual violence, their sexual experience had been shaped by their
partner’s pressure to act out in real life what they had experienced in the digital realm.0
This sexual abuse has a negative impact on the family unit. Struthers identifies
mistreatment by fathers, boyfriends, and other family members, as one of the leading
commonalities between women in pornography and prostitution.0 The irony of this fact is that
biologically sex among humans is believed to have the opposite effect. Humans are rare in that
through sexual activity; a social bond is created that forms the nuclear family.0 However,
0 United States Department of Justice, “Child Pornography and Pedophilia,” Office of Justice Programs,
1986, accessed February 24, 2023, https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/child-pornography-and-
pedophilia.
0 “Real Stats & Results,” Demand Project, accessed February 24, 2023,
https://www.thedemandproject.org/Statistics.
0 Dines, Pornland.
0 Ibid.
0 Struthers, Wired for Intimacy, 68.
0 Fradd, The Porn Myth, 15.
10
frequent exposure to porn results in a breakdown of trust, promiscuous behavior, and cynically
engaging in sex. As Fradd states, “marriage becomes sexually confining; and belief that raising
children and having a family becomes an unattractive prospect.”0
The relational breakdown also becomes evident in the church. The church is significant
historically due to its shared set of values, both morally and interpersonally. A recent study by
Barna Group and Josh McDowell Ministries found an increasingly high usage of pornography
with each generation. Males twenty-five and older (23%) were less likely to actively pursue
sexually explicit material, while males ages twenty-five and under (55%) had viewed
pornography recently. Females showed the same propensity, with those twenty-five and up (5%)
being less likely to engage in pornography usage than their younger counterparts (13%).0 As was
argued previously, the earlier someone engages in sexually explicit material, the earlier they will
engage in sexual behavior. The following result is an ideological breakdown both generationally
and ecclesiastically.
The shared values that have shaped individual relationships and the pillars of society are
being overwhelmed by a tsunami of increasingly explicit material. As this material becomes
more mainstream and accessible in unique ways, such as virtual reality and robotics, the
breakdown of human connection is likely to continue. What has once served as the critical
bonding agent between human beings has become a poison pill that often promises greater
freedom and experience but is robbing humanity of its personhood. Women are viewed as a
commodity, and men as soulless and dehumanized sexual partners, which has given rise to high-
risk and sometimes violent sexual behavior.
0 Ibid., 104.
0 Josh McDowell Ministries, “Porn in the Digital Age: New Research Reveals 10 Trends,” Culture &
Media, Barna Group, April 6, 2016, accessed February 24, 2023, https://www.barna.com/research/porn-in-the-
digital-age-new-research-reveals-10-trends/.
11
Solutions
An attempt has been made to correlate pornographic consumption with adverse outcomes
individually and societally. The purpose has been to open the reader to the possibility that
sexually explicit material is not a victimless vice. There are positive results regarding
intervention. Some psychological and physiological consequences can be resolved if not reversed
entirely. Wilson states that the first step to regaining control is “rest from artificial sexual
stimulation for several months.”0 This time allows the individual to rewire the neurons and
reduce the intensity of the cravings caused in the brain. The prefrontal cortex will have time to
regenerate new nerve pathways resulting in more willpower and reduced stress.0 Of course, this
is not as simple as it sounds; therefore, Wilson provides some practical suggestions to
implement. First, be intentional about removing all sexually explicit material, physically and
digitally. Change the environment, and avoid triggers, relationships, and activities that induce
pornography-related cravings. Integrate blockers into browsing habits and keep track of days of
abstinence. Group-related strategies include an accountability partner, therapy, support groups, or
health care providers. Ultimately the underlying causes that prompt pornographic self-
medicating need to be addressed. Consuming sexually explicit material is almost always a
symptom rather than a disease.0 Wilson’s approach is formed from a purely secular point of view.
He sees no moral issue with pornography other than the adverse effects on the individual and
society. Consumption of pornography has no moral guidelines if it is not being abused or causing
addictive behavior.
This position leaves the reader wanting. Is there a better way to live? Simply removing a
behavior leaves a void that must be satisfied. The rationale that a void exists naturally drives the
0 Wilson, Your Brain on Porn, 134.
0 Ibid.
0 Ibid., 140-142.
12
individual to believe there is a greater purpose for sexual desire and appetite. Wax identifies a
biblical paradigm that addresses this question. “Alongside our ‘no’ to pornography must come
the Bible’s ‘yes’ to sexual expression within the marital union.”0 In modernity, Christians have
been accused of being prudish and narrow-minded in their approach to sexuality. Wax argues that
Christians should not think of nakedness as inherently evil. This leads to gnostic conclusions that
denial of sexual activity and abstinence leads to some higher spiritual plain. The biblical message
points out that this could not be further from the truth. According to Wax, “there is no higher or
more noble calling than the ordinary task of bearing fruit and having children (Gen 2).”0 The
image of a naked person is not inherently sinful. Sin occurs when the image entices a desire that
cannot be appropriately gratified. Individuals are no longer seen for their God-given integrity and
personhood; they are viewed as an object – a means to an end. Wax articulates this imbalance,
“the sin of Adam and Eve separated them from God and introduced barriers between them in
their relationship; pornography also leads into the dark shadows of shame and slowly isolates
them from the people around us.”0 Pornography leads to dullness and closes the mind to how
God intended for humanity to live. Wax concludes, “a shortcut to sexual pleasure bypasses the
hard work and lasting fruitfulness of truly loving one’s spouse, Jesus radical measures against
lust are not anti-pornography, but pro-marriage.”0 Pornography has been woven into the culture
from the beginning of time; it is not going away soon. It is essential to acknowledge this fact and
as Reissig argues, “turn to the Bible for a reorientation of our view of sex, shame, and the
0 Trevin Wax, “What Are We Here For?,” in The Gospel & Pornography, ed. Russell D. Moore and
Andrew T. Walker, Gospel for Life (Nashville, TN: Cengage Learning, Inc, 2017), 10.
0 Ibid., 12.
0 Ibid., 14.
0 Ibid., 17,18.
13
gospel.” Rather than celebrating sex as a commodity, true freedom is found in celebrating God’s
good design for sexual experience, uniting our personhood.0
Young people are at greater risk of pornographic addiction. The National Research
Council conducted a study identifying strategies to help young people avoid pornographic
exposure. The study concluded that “universal criteria” was impossible to identify as a standard.
Therefore, the most effective resource to steer minors properly was a responsible parent,
guardian, or proxy.0 Guides use different markers to identify whether the material is appropriate
or not. This includes reviewing available data, examining the source of the material, and
identifying any tags are disclaimers that may come with the content. Policy decisions will
include school material, library catalogs, and digital mediums. These must be rigorously vetted
by qualified proxies able to identify age-appropriate materials.0 Universal prohibition is simply
impractical. Therefore, legislation must make clear that the dissemination of obscene material to
minors will be prosecuted under the law. This is not easy to enforce with the advent of the
internet. With the advancement of artificial intelligence and Web 3.0, more rigorous standards
and blockers can be integrated to shield children and young people from inadvertent exposure to
obscene material. However, it is impossible to keep an individual intent on finding sexually
explicit content from doing so. This is why a guardian or proxy is vital for maintaining
boundaries.
Finally, and perhaps most effective, are educators and researchers who have gone to great
lengths to make the public aware of the harms of sexually explicit material. As it has been seen,
0 Courtney Reissig, “How Should the Christian Live?,” in The Gospel & Pornography, ed. Russell D.
Moore and Andrew T. Walker, Gospel for Life (Nashville, TN: Cengage Learning, Inc, 2017), 37.
0 National Research Council, Computer Science, and Telecommunications Board and Committee to Study
Tools and Strategies for Protecting Kids from Pornography and Their Applicability to Other Inappropriate Internet
Content, Youth, Pornography, and the Internet, ed. Herbert S. Lin and Dick Thornburgh (Washington: National
Academies Press, 2002), 184.
0 Ibid., 192.
14
real damage occurs psychologically, physiologically, and relationally to both the individual and
culture. An increase in depression and anxiety caused by shame results in relational breakdowns.
Impairment of certain brain functions necessary for decision-making breakdown due to addictive
behavior. This can result in losing jobs, marriages, and interpersonal connections. The downward
spiral continues as genuine relationships are traded for impersonal virtual ones. Acquiring a solid
grasp of the consequences will likely motivate even the most ardent supporters of pornographic
free speech to consider the cost-reward equation. A biblical ethic provides valid reasons for the
breakdown in the human psyche and relationships. The sexual union was intended to reveal the
mystery of the cosmos, Christ and His Church (Eph 5). Moore states that all non-marital sex,
technologically engineered or otherwise, “displace the presentation of this mystery with a
presentation of another counter-gospel.”0 This counter-gospel brings with it only shame and
dullness to genuine intimacy, searching more for novelty than genuine love. Too often, the addict
believes the lie that pornography offers freedom from boredom or self-loathing. True freedom
and satisfaction are only found in Christ (John 8:34-36).
Conclusion
As with all good things, pornography twists an excellent and healthy desire. God made
human beings for covenant relationships. Pornography promises something that it cannot deliver.
Sex within the marital union provides nakedness without shame (Gen 2:25). Pornography
promises unlimited and anonymous sexual experience but provides loneliness and
dissatisfaction.0 A serious responsibility exists to ensure that sexually explicit material cannot
propagate unhindered within the public realm. Severe sociological and psychological damage is
inflicted on the psyche and the culture. Youth are particularly vulnerable to this addictive
0 Russell D. Moore and Andrew T. Walker, “What Does the Gospel Say?,” in The Gospel & Pornography,
Gospel for Life (Nashville: Cengage Learning, Inc, 2017), 25.
0 Ibid,. 23.
15
behavior. Therefore, it is essential that both individuals and stakeholders act personally,
legislatively, and culturally to overcome the physical, psychological, and relational harm that has
woven itself into the fabric of society. The only robust way to achieve this end is to educate on
the harm, recognizing that true freedom and satisfaction can be found within a biblical ethic of
sexuality.
16
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17
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