PSYC 510
HOMEWORK: INTRODUCTORY ONCEPTS SSIGNMENT NSTRUCTIONS C A I
Answer the following short-answer questions using complete sentences. (10 pts)
1. Identify and briefly describe the three criteria that help to define science. (3 pts)
ANSWER:
Systematic Empiricism - Systematic Empiricism relates to observational learning, whereby scientists
learn about the natural world in a methodical manner by carefully choosing, conducting, collecting,
and analyzing observations.
Publicly Verifiable Knowledge - When creating publicly verifiable knowledge, researchers report their
findings after asking empirical questions, making observations, and deriving conclusions. This
typically involves drafting an article for publication in a professional journal in which they present
their research question in the context of previous research, detail the methods they used to answer
their question, and convey their observations and results convincingly.
Empirically Solvable Problems - These are questions about the real state of the world, which can be
addressed by systematically examining it. It must be possible to answer using currently known
empirical approaches. Empirically solvable problems must be testable and have precise predictions or
implications for observable events.
2. State the five main sections of a journal article. Identify one section and describe why you would go
to that section when skimming an article (e.g., what would you expect to find in that section?) (3 pts)
ANSWER:
The five main sections of a journal article are the abstract, introduction, method, results, and discussion.
It is the opinion of this author that one should always read the abstract first while doing reviews of existing
material. The abstract summarizes the entire article in a few sentences. The abstract often outlines the article's
emphasis, study findings, and conclusions. If the abstract indicates that the article will be helpful, one can
delve deeper into the research methodology and findings.
Test the hypothesis presented in the follow problem: Each of the cards below has a number on one side
and a letter on the other side. Two of the cards have their letter side showing and two have their number side
showing. Here is a rule: “If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side”.
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Answer the problem and explain how it relates to hypothesis testing, proof, and disproof as discussed in the
text.
3. In order to check that the rule is true or false,
which card or cards below would you turn over? Turn
over only the card or cards that you to check to need
be sure. (2 pts)
ANSWER: Keeping in mind the rule that if a card
has a vowel on one side, it has an even number on the
other side, we turn over cards labeled A and 4. must
A and 4 are the only two cards that display the two
conditions we must meet, according to what we know
from the rule (vowel=even number).
If we turn over the only card showing a vowel (A),
and the other side has an even number, the rule is
correct. If we turn over card A and the other side has
an odd number, the rule is incorrect.
If we turn over the card labeled 4 and the other side
contains a vowel, the rule is correct. If we turn it over
and the other side contains an odd number, the rule is
incorrect.
D and 7 can be eliminated because they do not
display a vowel or an even number, which are the
only two conditions stipulated in the rule that we
could use to prove or disprove the rule (vowel=even
number).
4. Explain how it relates to hypothesis testing, proof,
and disproof as discussed in the text. (2 pts)
ANSWER: A hypothesis is tested by attempting to
falsify or disprove it. We have support for a
hypothesis if it cannot be falsified. We can use
deductive reasoning to reach a specific conclusion by
applying a general rule and logical procedures. The
truth of the general rule and the validity of the logical
operations guarantee the truth of the conclusion,
which is referred to as proof of that conclusion.
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Answer the following questions related to its associated scenario. (Helpful hint: the “Interact:
Introductory Concepts – Practice Worksheet” for this module covers these topics!). 2 pts each = 20 pts
Scenario 1: In a study of the effects of nicotine on concentration, participants who smoke are compared to
those who do not on a measure of concentration. Identify the independent variable and dependent variable in
this study. Is the independent variable a manipulated variable or a participant variable?
5. What is the independent variable in this
study?
ANSWER:
Nicotine is the independent variable in this study
(smoking participant group versus nonsmoking
group).
6. What is the dependent variable in this study? The concentration level of the ANSWER:
participants is the dependent variable in this study.
7. Is the independent variable manipulated or is
it a participant / subject variable?
ANSWER: It is a participant/subject variable.
(Participants chose to smoke or not to smoke)
8. What type of research method (descriptive,
predictive, quasi-experimental, or
experimental)? is used in this study?
ANSWER: It is the quasi-experimental method. In
quasi-experimental research, participants are not
randomly assigned to comparison groups, and there is
an intervention.
9. What is a potential confounding variable in
this scenario? You must justify your answer
to earn points on this question.
ANSWER:
Stress could potentially be a confounding variable.
• For a variable to be confounding, it must meet two
conditions, correlate with the independent variable,
and be causally related to the dependent variable.
• The independent variable is smoking (smokers vs.
non-smokers) in the scenario described. Some
smokers report that they smoke to reduce stress,
thereby improving their concentration ability. This
implies a correlation between smoking (independent
variable) and improved concentration. This meets
condition one.
• Studies have demonstrated that nicotine has
cognitive-enhancing effects. One study indicated that
"attention, working memory, fine motor skills, and
episodic memory functions are particularly sensitive
to nicotine's effects" (Valentine & Sofuoglu, 2018).
The result of nicotine on cognitive function, i.e.,
concentration demonstrates a causal relationship
between smoking and concentration, which meets
condition two.
Reference
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Valentine, G., & Sofuoglu, M. (2018). Cognitive
effects of nicotine: Recent progress. Current
Neuropharmacology, 16(4), 403–414.
https://doi.org/10.2174/1570159x15666171103152136
Scenario 2: In a study comparing learning condition on knowledge acquisition, participants are randomly
assigned to one of the two learning conditions - collaborative group learning or traditional lecture/discussion
method.
10. What is the independent variable in this
study?
ANSWER: The type of learning i.e., collaborative
group or traditional lecture/discussion is the
independent variable.
11. What is the dependent variable in this study? The dependent is knowledge acquisition ANSWER:
i.e. how well the information is learned.
12. Is the independent variable manipulated or is
it a participant / subject variable?
ANSWER: The independent variable is manipulated
i.e. the participants are randomly divided into two
groups.
13. What type of research method (descriptive,
predictive, quasi-experimental, or
experimental)? is used in this study?
ANSWER: Experimental
14. What is a potential confounding variable in
this scenario? You must justify your answer
to earn points on this question.
ANSWER: There are several possibilities related to
the makeup of the groups that make up the total
sample size. One potentially confounding variable
would be the number students involved in the
collaborative group learning. The amount and quality
of information gathered, and knowledge acquired
could be dramatically affected as the number over
students increased or decreased.
Ethics is the foundation to research integrity. There are a lot of ethical dilemmas faced in our
profession, some specific to research. One example is if participation requires a person to recall a
traumatic experience. The recall of the event may result in distress, but participation may be healing.
Also, the research can provide valuable insights to better current treatments and therapies. (8 pts )
15. Determine the two principles at odds in the most
example provided. Describe how each relates to the
scenario. (3 pts per justification = 6 pts total)
ANSWER: Two principles most at odds are
Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence,
and Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility.
Principle A emphasizes that psychologists
should help people with whom they work
while avoiding hurting them.
Psychologists should protect the welfare and
rights of those they contact professionally and
those affected. In this scenario, when
participants must recall a traumatic experience,
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there is undoubtedly a risk of harm, considered
maleficence.
Principle B is at odds, particularly when it
comes to informed consent and protecting the
anonymity and confidentiality of the
participants. In obtaining informed consent,
research participants must be given
information intelligibly without duress or
inappropriate enticement. This will ensure that
the participants understand the research aim
and are willing to participate in the research
voluntarily. This principle is potentially at odds
with this scenario, as disclosing the need to
recall a traumatic experience would likely
cause participants to reconsider participation,
making the study population too small to be
practical.
Additionally, protecting the anonymity and
confidentiality of research participants means
they will be confidently willing to open up and
give all the details and information needed.
They will be giving a beneficial insight into
how psychologists can assist them and which
treatment or therapy alternative best suits their
case. However, using this line of reasoning to
encourage a person to participate in the study
might be construed as inappropriate
enticement and cause the person to feel as if
they were under duress.
Reference
American Psychological Association. (2022).
Ethical principles of psychologists and code of
conduct. American Psychological Association.
16. An Animal Care and Use Committee provides
oversight for animal research whereas what
provides oversight for human research at the
institutional level? (2 pts)
ANSWER:
An institutional review board (IRB) is a panel
that monitors research ethics by evaluating
research methodologies to assure that they are
ethical. All federally funded human behavioral
research is generally approved, overseen, and
evaluated by an IRB.
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Reference
Jackson, S. L. (2020). In Research methods
and statistics: A critical thinking approach (p.
41). essay, Wadsworth.
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