Module 6
South Asia
a. Introducing the Realm
The landmass of South Asia was formed by the Indian plate colliding with the
Eurasian plate. This action started about 70 million years ago and gave rise to the highest
mountain ranges in the world. Most of the South Asian landmass is formed from the land
in the original Indian plate. Pressure from tectonic action against the plates causes the
Himalayas to rise in elevation by as much as one to five millimeters per year. Destructive
earthquakes and tremors are frequent in this seismically active realm. The great size of
the Himalayas has intensely influenced the beliefs and traditions of the people in the
realm. Some of the mountains are considered sacred to certain religions that exist here.
The Himalayan Mountains dominate the physical landscape in the northern region
of South Asia. Mt. Everest is the tallest peak in the world, at 29,035 feet. Three key rivers
cross South Asia, all originating from the Himalayas. The Indus River, which has been a
center of human civilization for thousands of years, starts in Tibet and flows through the
center of Pakistan. The Ganges River flows through northern India, creating a core region
of the country. The Brahmaputra River flows through Tibet and then enters India from
the east, where it meets up with the Ganges in Bangladesh to flow into the Bay of Bengal.
While the northern part of this region includes some of the highest elevations in the
world, the Maldives in the south has some of the lowest elevations, some barely above
sea level. The coastal regions in southern Bangladesh also have low elevations. When the
seasonal reversal of winds called the monsoon arrives every year, there is heavy flooding
and its effect on the infrastructure of the region is disastrous. The extensive Thar Desert
in western India and parts of Pakistan, on the other hand, does not receive monsoon rains.
In fact, much of southwest Pakistan—a region called Baluchistan—is dry, with desert
conditions.
A monsoon is a seasonal reversal of winds that is associated with heavy rains. The
summer monsoon rains in South Asia—usually falling between June and September—
feed the rivers and streams of the realm and provide the water needed for agricultural
production. In the summer, the continent heats up, with the Thar Desert fueling the
system. The rising hot air create a vacuum that pulls in warm moist air from the Bay of
Bengal and the Indian Ocean. This action shifts moisture-laden clouds over the land,
where the water is precipitated out in the form of rain.
The monsoon rains bring moisture to South Asia right up to the Himalayas. As
moisture-laden clouds rise in elevation in the mountains, the water vapor condenses in the
form of rain or snow and feeds the streams and basins that flow into the major rivers,
such as the Brahmaputra, Ganges, and Indus. The Western Ghats creates a similar system
in the south along the west coast of India. Parts of Bangladesh and eastern India receive
as much as six feet of rain during the monsoon season, and some areas experience severe
flooding. The worst-hit places are along the coast of the Bay of Bengal, such as in
Bangladesh. There is less danger of flooding in western India and Pakistan, because by
the time the rain clouds have moved across India they have lost their moisture. Desert
conditions are evident in the west, near the Pakistan border in the great Thar Desert. On
average, fewer than ten inches of rain fall per year in this massive desert. On the northern
rim of the region, the height of the Himalayas restricts the warm moist monsoon air from
moving across the mountain range. The Himalayas act as a precipitation barrier and
create a strong rain shadow effect for Tibet and Western China. The monsoon is
responsible for much of the rainfall in South Asia.
The Indian subcontinent has a long history of human occupation, and is an area
where cities independently developed and civilization emerged. The earliest civilization
on the subcontinent was the Indus Valley Civilization, in existence from at least 3300 BC
to 1500 BC. This Bronze Age civilization started as a series of small villages that became
linked in a wider regional network. Urban centers developed into various religious and
trade networks that spanned as far as Central Asia, Southwest Asia, and, perhaps, Egypt.
The civilization is known for its planned structures. The cities and villages of the urban
phases were planned with major streets going north/south and east/west. It had a system
of drains that channeled waste water outside the city. Additionally, this civilization had a
homogeneous material culture. Its artifacts of pottery and metallurgy all had a very
similar style that was spread over a vast land area, a fact that aided in the recognition of
the expanse of the culture.
Invasions by outsiders have the potential effect of bringing with them an influx of
new ideas, concepts, and technology. Likewise, the Indus Valley Civilization no doubt
had an impact on the region that it encompassed. Little is known of the historical events
of earlier times. Some of the evidence we rely on today to discern historical events is
gleaned from language, religion, and ethnicity. Significant to South Asia is the presence
of Indo-European languages. It is presumed that these languages were brought to the
region by immigrants from the west, where these languages were dominant. Aryans from
Persia and other cultures might have diffused languages such as Hindi to South Asia,
which later may have led to Hindi, for example, becoming the lingua franca of the region.
The force of colonialism was felt around the world, including in South Asia.
South Asia provides an excellent example of colonialism’s role in establishing most of
the current political borders in the world. From the sixteenth century onward, ships from
colonial Europe began to arrive in South Asia to conduct trade. The British East India
Company was chartered in 1600 to trade in Asia and India. They traded in spices, silk,
cotton, and other goods. Later, to take advantage of conflicts and bitter rivalries between
kingdoms, European powers began to establish colonies. Britain controlled South Asia
from 1857 to 1947.
Goa is the smallest state in modern-day India. In the sixteenth century, it was first
encountered by Portuguese traders, who annexed it shortly after arriving. Goa was a
colony of Portugal for the next 450 years. By the mid-1800s, most of the population of
the tiny area had been forcibly converted to Christianity. Many of the Hindu traditions,
however, survived in the region. Hindu holidays are celebrated among the expatriate
community in India. Christian holidays are also celebrated, especially Christmas and
Easter. The cathedrals and secular architecture in many of the historic buildings of Goa
are European in style, reflecting its Portuguese origins. This architecture is locally termed
“Indo-Portuguese.” Goa was one of the longest-held colonial possessions in the world. It
was finally annexed to India in 1961.
South Asia has three of the ten most populous countries in the world. India is the
second largest in the world, and Pakistan and Bangladesh are numbers five and eight,
respectively (2020). Large populations are a product of large family sizes and a high
fertility rate. The rural population of South Asia has traditionally had large families.
Religious traditions do not necessarily support anything other than a high fertility rate.
On the other hand, the least densely populated country in South Asia is the Kingdom of
Bhutan. Bhutan has a population density of only fifty-nine people per square mile.
Bhutan is mountainous with little arable land. More than a third of the people in Bhutan
live in an urban setting. The physiologic density is about 2,552 people per square mile.
Population overgrowth for the realm is a serious concern. An increase in population
requires additional natural resources, energy, and food production, all of which are in
short supply in many areas.
South Asia’s growing population has placed exceedingly high demands on
agricultural production. The amount of area available for food production divided by the
population may be a more helpful indicator of population distribution than total
population density. For example, large portions of Pakistan are deserts and mountains
that do not provide arable land for food production. India has the Thar Desert and the
northern mountains. Nepal has the Himalayas. The small country of the Maldives, with
its many islands, has almost no arable land. The number of people per square mile of
arable land, which is called the physiologic density, can be an important indicator of a
country’s status. Total population densities are high in South Asia, but the physiologic
densities are even more astounding. In Bangladesh, for example, more than 5,000 people
depend on every square mile of arable land. In Sri Lanka, the physiologic density reaches
to more than 6,500 people per square mile, and in Pakistan it is more than 3,137. The data
are averages, which indicate that the population density in the fertile river valleys and the
agricultural lowlands are much higher.
b. The Peripheral States of South Asia
As detailed earlier, the Indian subcontinent is a large landmass that juts into the
Indian Ocean along the southern side of Asia, between Afghanistan and Myanmar
(Burma) and south of China. The Indian perimeter includes the southern countries of the
Maldives and Sri Lanka, and the northern regions of the Punjab, Kashmir, Nepal, and
Bhutan. This landmass has a long tectonic history and has been formed by the collision of
the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate. This tectonic collision has given rise to the
highest mountain chains and ranges in the world along the northern and northwestern part
of the Indian subcontinent—that is, the Himalayas.
The Karakoram Mountains are located in northern Pakistan and Kashmir.
Together with the other Himalayan Mountain ranges, they form an arc that stretches
across the entire northern border of South Asia. Nepal and Bhutan are both located in the
Himalayas. The Himalayan ranges have some of the highest peaks in the region,
including Mount Everest (located on the border between Nepal and China) and K2
(located in Pakistan). In western Pakistan and western Afghanistan, the Hindu Kush
mountain ranges that border this area are found. The Indus River flows from the northern
part of the Karakoram mountains and creates a large, fertile flood plain. Along its
northern area, the Indus River System has four main tributaries. Together, these rivers
constitute the five rivers of the Punjab regions of Pakistan and India; Punjab means the
“land of the five rivers” in the Punjabi language.
The Punjab is a fertile agricultural region with a high population density located
on the border between India and Pakistan. Areas of the Punjab lie in both India and
Pakistan. Where there is ample fresh water and bountiful food production, there is usually
high population density. The Punjab is the most densely populated region in Pakistan.
India has a separate state called the Punjab. Its river valleys are excellent areas for
agricultural production and contribute heavily to the provisions needed to feed the
enormous populations of the two countries.
The Punjabi people are found in the Punjab State ofIndia and the Punjab Province
of Pakistan. This large cultural area was separated into two countries during Partition at
the time of Indian independence and the creation of Pakistan in 1947. Most of the people
in the Punjab speak Punjabi, an Indo-European language. In a larger context, people with
Punjabi background are considered one of the main ethnic groups in South Asia. Punjabis
account for about 45 percent of the population of Pakistan. In Pakistan, the Punjabis are
grouped in clans and groups that correspond with traditional occupations. Traditionally,
Punjabis are farmers and warriors, and in modern times are associated with agricultural
professions and military life. Punjabis in Pakistan are predominantly Muslim, although a
Christian minority exists. Indian Punjabis belong to traditional groups, including many of
the same groups as in Pakistan, but many more. Most of the Muslim populations of the
Punjab migrated to Pakistan in 1947 and, thus, most of the Indian Punjabis are Sikh with
a Christian minority.
The Punjab region of Pakistan and India is the homeland of the Sikhs, people who
follow a religion that is different from Islam or Hinduism. Sikhism was founded by Guru
Nanak Dev (1469–1538). All distinctions of caste, creed, race, or gender are rejected in
this religion. In Sikhism there is no priestly class. Every person is equally and fully
responsible for leading a moral life, which eventually leads to universal salvation.
Heaven and hell are not physical places, and God is the cosmic universal spirit. Sikhs
believe in reincarnation and in the concepts of dharma and karma. Historically, traditional
Sikh men wear turbans on their heads and never cut their hair or beard. Sikhism is a
universal religion. A prominent Sikh landmark and spiritual center is their Golden
Temple, located in the city of Amritsar in the Indian state of the Punjab.
Located in the high mountains of the north is the former Kingdom of Kashmir, a
separate kingdom before the British divided South Asia. In 1947, when the British drew
the boundary between India and Pakistan, the leader of Kashmir, the maharajah, chose
not to be a part of either country but to remain independent. About 75 percent of the
population in Kashmir was Muslim; the rest, including the maharajah, were mainly
Hindu. This arrangement worked for a time, until the Muslim majority was encouraged
by their fellow Muslims in Pakistan to join Pakistan. After a Muslim uprising, the
maharajah asked the Indian military for assistance. India was more than pleased to oblige
and saw it as an opportunity to oppose Pakistan one more time. Today Kashmir is
divided, with Pakistan controlling the northern region, India controlling the southern
region, and China controlling a portion of the eastern region. A cease-fire has been
implemented, but outbreaks of fighting have occurred. The future of Kashmir is unclear.
None of the countries involved wants to start a large-scale war, because they all have
nuclear weapons.
The conflict in Kashmir is about strategic location and control of water rather than
labor and mineral resources. Though mountains often are a source of mineral resources,
mining has not been central to the conflict in Kashmir. One of the main physical features
of importance is water. The Indus River flows through Kashmir from Tibet and into
Pakistan. The control of this river system is critical to the survival of people living in
northern Pakistan. If India were to place a dam on the river and divert the water to their
side of the border, to the dry regions of the south, Pakistan could suffer a water shortage
in the northern part of the country. Another aspect of the Kashmir conflict goes back to
the division of Pakistan and India, which pitted Muslims against Hindus along the border
region. The religious differences have come to the surface again in the conflict over the
control of Kashmir. Extremist movements within Kashmir have fueled the division
between those who support Muslim-dominated Pakistan and those who support Hindu-
dominated India. It should be noted that the majority of the population in neighboring
Tibet, east of the Chinese-controlled region of Kashmir, follow Buddhism.
Landlocked and mountainous, the small Kingdom of Bhutan is remotely located
next to the high Himalayas between China and India. The mountain peaks reach more
than 23,000 feet. Bhutan has fewer than a million people and is about the size of
Switzerland, or about half the size in physical area of the U.S. state of Kentucky. The
southern plains are warm, with subtropical weather, but the higher altitudes of the snow-
capped mountains have polar-type climates. The local people call their country the “Land
of the Thunder Dragon” because of the harsh storms they experience. Bhutan has large
areas of natural habitat that have not been disturbed by human activity. The natural
environment and the unique heritage and culture of the people make Bhutan an attractive
destination for world travelers and ecotourism.
Bhutan is a small country without much industry or high-tech corporate
involvement. Forestry and agriculture are the main economic activities, which account
for approximately 60 percent of the country’s population. Grazing livestock and
subsistence agriculture are the primary types of farming. Increasing the country’s modest
infrastructure is hampered by its high mountains and remote location. India is Bhutan’s
main trading partner and has played an important role in the country’s development and
economic situation
Modern transportation and communication technologies are being introduced in
Bhutan and are changing how the country is connected to the rest of the global economy.
Satellite and cable television, mobile phone networks, the internet, and major airline
service are opening the doors of opportunity and interaction between the people of
Bhutan and the rest of the world. Introduction of technological services has prompted
Bhutan’s government to take steps to protect its environment and unique heritage.
Tourism has become a major focus of the changes. The country has stepped up its efforts
to develop tourism but has targeted a specific type of traveler. Bhutan is an expensive
place to visit, which has been the biggest deterrent for travelers. Visitors from places
other than India and Bangladesh must agree to strict requirements set by the suppliers of
Bhutanese tourism, including large daily fees just to be in the country. Tourism is
increasing in Bhutan but remains highly selective in its requirements and regulations.
These measures are to ensure that the environmental health of the country remains intact
and that there is minimal cultural impact from outsiders.
Buddhism is the state religion and is followed by about 75 percent of the
population. Hinduism is the second-largest religion and is followed by the other 25
percent of the population. One of the principles of the government in regulating
development projects has been the concept of gross national happiness (GNH), which is
used as a guide to determine the impact of a project on the culture and people of Bhutan.
The stern measures regarding development have protected the country from serious
environmental degradation and have helped to sustain the lifestyles of the Bhutanese
people. Some measures may appear harsh to outsiders, but the country is implementing
these measures to promote the health and well-being of its people. For example, tobacco
products are banned from being sold in the country. Democratic elections are becoming
standard after centuries of rule by a monarchy. The intent of the transition is to provide
the people with more direct control of their government and country.
Bordering the highest mountain range in the world, the Himalayas, the country of
Nepal is isolated from any seacoast and buffered from the outside world by India and
China. Nepal is about the same size in physical area as Bangladesh, and is home to 30
million people. More than 80 percent of its people work the land in a region that is
suffering from severe deforestation and soil erosion. Trees are cut down to build houses,
to cook food, and to keep warm. Without trees to hold the soil, the monsoon rains wash
soilfrom the mountain fields into the valleys. The combination of the fastgrowing
population with the loss of food-growing capacity means it is only a matter of time before
a major crisis occurs in Nepal. Nepal’s best farmland is in the Tarai lowlands of southern
Nepal, while the north is quite mountainous. The towering elevation of the Himalayas
restricts human habitation in the north. High population growth has also been
outstripping the country’s economic growth rate in recent years.
Nepal has an abundance of tourist attractions, Mt. Everest being its best known. In
addition, there are hundreds of ancient temples and monasteries. Swift flowing streams
and high-mountain terrain support a modest trekking industry. Visitors to Nepal have an
opportunity to glimpse a rich culture that few outsiders can witness. The downside is that
tourism demands an investment in infrastructure and services. Such investments direct
funds away from schools, medical clinics, and public services needed by the Nepalese
people. Income from tourism is needed and always welcome, but the trade-off with
investments is a difficult choice to make. Tourism in Nepal is not as restrictive as that of
Bhutan, and the unique physical and cultural landscapes will continue to draw travelers
from throughout the world.
Hinduism is the main religion in Nepal, but a blend of Buddhism is more
prevalent in the north. The guardian deity of Nepal is Shiva. Pashupatinath Temple, the
world’s most significant Shiva worship site, is located in the capital city of Kathmandu.
This Shiva temple is not only a UNESCO World Heritage Site but a major destination for
Hindu pilgrims from around the world. Buddhist and Hindu beliefs often mix in Nepal.
There are certain situations where the same deities and temples can be honored or
worshipped by members of both religions.
In a different part of Nepal, Lumbini—near the city of Bhairahawa
(Siddharthanagar), on the border with India—is another UNESCO World Heritage Site,
this one focusing on the birthplace of the Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism.
Prince Siddhartha Gautama was born about 563 BC, near Lumbini. The city has
recognized the prince with a number of monasteries and temples built in his honor. An
entire development zone is restricted to nothing but monasteries and temples. No other
commercial or public buildings—such as hotels, shops, or businesses—can be
constructed in the zone. The different branches of the Buddhist faith each have their own
specific designated of the zone. Lumbini is a major pilgrimage site for Buddhist believers
from around the world.
In the late 1700s, local states of Nepal were consolidated into the one kingdom
and ruled by monarchy. The kingdom was ruled by royal families until the mid-1900s.
Nepal has been free of British influence since 1947, but has had trouble establishing a
stable central government. The royal family in charge of the kingdom was replaced in
1951, and further democratic reforms were made in 1990. Communist partisans from
China have been active in insurgent activities. Frequent protests and civil unrest have
caused political instability, which has discouraged tourism and has depressed the
economy even further. The Maoist Communist movement and other opposition political
parties held mass protests, culminating in a peace accord. Ensuing elections created the
establishment of a federal democratic republic. The first president of Nepal was sworn
into office in 2008. There is still much tension in the country between those loyal to the
royal family and those wanting the royal family to be dissolved. Without a stable
government, economic and political progress in Nepal will be a serious challenge.
Sri Lanka is a beautiful island about half the size of Nepal. The island has a warm,
tropical type A climate, with forested hills and mountains in the center. Rivers flow from
the center outward to water the farm fields of rice and other crops. The best farmland is
located in the southwestern portions of the island. Cinnamon is native to the island and
has been cultivated since colonial times as an important export. Coconuts, coffee, and tea
are also important export products. The island is home to various national parks, four
biosphere reserves, and several wild elephant herds. The island has all the elements to
become a major tourism center with an attractive location for international commerce.
The people of South Asia follow various religions. Pakistan and Bangladesh are
Muslim. India has a Hindu majority. About 90 percent of the people of Nepal are
considered Hindu but many follow a unique blend of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. The
small, mystical, mountainous kingdom of Bhutan is Buddhist. Sri Lanka has its own
unique circumstances and is a mixed country with a strong Buddhist majority and an
active Hindu minority. The conflict between the majority and the minority ethnic groups
fueled a low-level civil war on the island for decades. Differences in religion, ethnicity,
and politics have brought the country to a halt on various occasions.
Sinhalese people from the regions of northern India moved to the island of Sri
Lanka about 2,500 years ago. The Sinhalese brought with them Buddhism and the
Sinhala language, which belongs to the Indo-European language family. They established
themselves on the island for centuries. Sri Lanka was first colonized by Portugal, then the
Dutch. When the British colonized South Asia, they took control of Sri Lanka. It was
called Ceylon at that time and changed its name to Sri Lanka in 1972. The higher
elevations of the center of the island were excellent for tea production; British colonizers
established tea plantations there. To work the plantations Britain brought thousands of
additional Tamil laborers from southern India across the Polk Strait to Ceylon. Most of
the Tamil speak a Dravidian language and follow the Hindu religion.
When the British were forced out of South Asia and left Ceylon, the Tamils
remained on the island. The Tamils now make up about 10 percent of the population and
live mainly in the northeastern region of the island. They have been pressuring the
Sinhalese majority to split the island politically and grant them independence. An
insurgent civil war was waged for decades between the Tamil guerillas—called the Tamil
Tigers—and the Sinhalese government. About 60,000 to 80,000 people died in this
conflict. Originally only controlling the Jaffna Peninsula, the Tamil Tigers later made
claims on a large portion of the northeastern part of the island. The Tamil Tigers created
a government in the north called Eelam and wanted to legitimize it. The Sri Lankan
president announced an end to the civil war in 2009, and the Tigers admitted defeat at
that time. This civil war devastated Sri Lanka’s tourism industry and discouraged foreign
investments, further reducing economic opportunities for the island.
Factors working against Sri Lanka reaching its potential are not based on its
physical geography or location, but rather they are linked back to colonialism and cultural
or ethnic divisions between the Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority. Sri Lanka has
the potential to become a major tourist destination with high incomes and a hub for
international trade. The port of Colombo is located on the major shipping lane from
Europe to China and is positioned to take advantage of global economic conditions. A
world trade center has been built in Colombo to further attract business and investments.
Light manufacturing in the garment and textile industry is already well established. The
economic future of the island is dependent upon the stability of the political and cultural
environment
Just north of the Equator in the Indian Ocean to the southwest of India lie the
Maldives, a group of low-lying islands that consists of twenty-six atolls encompassing a
territory of only about 115 square miles. Within the atolls are approximately 1,200 small
islands, of which about 200 are inhabited. Portugal controlled the Maldives from 1558
during their colonial expansion into Asia. The Dutch took over from the Portuguese in
1654. The Maldives became a British protectorate in 1887, which lasted until 1965, when
independence was achieved. Three years later the country became a republic. The
Maldives is a country with many extremes. It is Asia’s smallest nation in both physical
area and population. The island nation has the smallest physical area of any country with
a majority Muslim population. The average elevation—four feet, eleven inches above sea
level—is the lowest in the world for any country. The highest point in elevation in the
entire country is just over seven feet above sea level.
Fishing and tourism are the chief methods for Maldivians to earn a living.
Tourism has increased in recent years. The many islands and atolls are attractive
destinations for world travelers. The first tourist resort opened in 1972. Since that time,
dozens of world-class resort facilities have opened for business across the archipelago.
Tourism is the country’s number one means of gaining wealth. The coral reefs that make
up the island chain are excellent for diving and water sports. The tropical climate and
miles of sandy beaches provide for an attractive tourism agenda.
The Maldives is an example of an entire country that could be in danger of
flooding because of climate change if polar ice melts and sea levels rise. Concerns over
the future of the islands gave reason for the president of the country to announce a plan in
2008 to purchase land in other countries in case sea levels rise to a point where the
Maldives are no longer habitable. The purchase of land from tourism receipts would
provide a place for the Maldivians to move in case they had to evacuate the islands. The
administration of the Maldives has worked hard to lobby the international community to
address the increase in greenhouse gas emissions and the possibility of an increase in sea
level caused by the global warming aspect of climate change.
c. Pakistan and Bangladesh
Pakistan and Bangladesh are two separate and independent countries physically
divided by India. Historically, this was not always the case: from 1947 to 1971 they were
administered under the same government. The two countries share a number of attributes.
They both have Muslim majorities, high population densities, and are dependent upon
major river systems. The countries are two of the top ten most populous countries in the
world. Their populations are youthful and mainly rural; agriculture is the main economic
activity in each country. Rural-to-urban shift is a major trend affecting urban
development. Infrastructure is lacking in many areas of each country. These similar
factors indicate that both Pakistan and Bangladesh willface comparable challenges in
providing for their large populations and protecting their natural environments.
The Muslim League was responsible for the formation of a united Pakistan, a
predominantly Muslim state for South Asian Muslims. Pakistan was created from the
former Indian territories of Sindh (Sind), North West Frontier Provinces, West Punjab,
Baluchistan, and East Bengal. Pakistan was formed with two separate physical regions,
defined by religious predominance. East Bengal, on the eastern side of India, was known
as East Pakistan, while the remainder, separated by more than 1,000 miles, was known as
West Pakistan. The two physical units were united politically under one political system.
in 1956 and became an Islamic republic. In 1970, a massive cyclone hit the coast
of East Pakistan and the central government in West Pakistan responded weakly to the
devastation. The Bengali populations were angered over the government’s lack of
consideration for them in response to the cyclone and in other matters. The Indo-Pakistan
War changed the situation. In this war, East Pakistan, with the aid of the Indian military,
challenged West Pakistan and declared independence to become Bangladesh in 1972.
West Pakistan became the current country of Pakistan.
The physical area of Pakistan is equivalent to that of Venezuela or the U.S. states
of Texas and Louisiana combined. Much of Pakistan’s land area comprises either deserts
or mountains. The high Himalayan ranges border Pakistan to the north. The lack of
rainfall in the western part of the country restricts agricultural production to the mountain
valleys and near the river basins. The Indus River flows roughly northeast/southwest
along the eastern side of Pakistan, flowing into the Arabian Sea. River sediments are
deposited in large areas found between river channels and oxbow lakes, round bends in a
river cut by erosion, are formed from the constantly changing river channels. These
“lands between the rivers” are called “doabs” and represent some of the most fertile land
in the Indian subcontinent. The Indus River flows from the northern part of the
Karakoram mountains and creates a large, fertile flood plain that comprises much of
eastern Pakistan. Pakistan has traditionally been a land of farming. The Indus River
Valley and the Punjab region are the dominant core areas where most of the people live
and where population densities are remarkably high.
Over 60 percent of the population lives in rural areas and makes a living in
agriculture. Most of the people are economically quite poor by world standards. In spite
of the rural nature of the population, the average family size has decreased from 7 to 3 in
recent decades. Nevertheless, the population has exploded from about 34 million in 1951
to over 238 million as of 2020. About half of the population is under the age of twenty-
four; one-third is under the age of fifteen. A lack of adequate medical care, an absence of
family planning, and the low status of women have created an ever-increasing population,
which will have dire consequences for the future of Pakistan. Only about 46 percent of
women are literate, while about 71 percent of men were literate in 2020. The country is
not in a good position to engage the global economy when almost half the population
cannot read or write. Service and infrastructure to address the needs of this youthful
population are not available to the necessary degree. Schools and educational
opportunities for children are rarely funded at the needed levels.
The capital of Pakistan when it was under British colonialism was Karachi, a port
city located on the Arabian Sea. To establish a presence in the north, near Kashmir, the
capital was moved to Islamabad in 1960. This example of a forward capital was an
expression of geopolitical assertiveness by Pakistan against India. The lingua franca of
the country for the business sector and the social elite continues to be English, even
though Urdu is considered the national language of Pakistan and is used as a lingua
franca in many areas. More than sixty languages are spoken in the country. There are as
many ethnic groups in Pakistan as there are languages. The three most prominent ethnic
groups are Punjabis, Pashtuns, and Sindhis.
The three main physical geographic regions of Pakistan are the Indus River Basin,
the Baluchistan Plateau, and the northern highlands. These physical regions are generally
associated with the country’s main political provinces. The four main provinces include
the Punjab, Baluchistan (Balochistan), Sindh (Sind), and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (North
West Frontier). To the north is the disputed region of Kashmir known as the Northern
Areas. Each of these regions represents a different aspect of the country. The North West
Frontier has a series of Tribal Areas bordering Afghanistan that have been traditionally
under their own local control. Agents under Tribal Agencies have attempted to administer
some type of structure and responsibility for the areas, with little success.
The Punjab is a core area of Pakistan, and has about 60 percent of Pakistan’s
population. The five rivers of the Punjab border India and provide the fresh water
necessary to grow food to support a large population. Irrigation canals create a water
management network that provides water throughout the region. The southern portion of
the Punjab includes the arid conditions of the Thar Desert. The northern sector includes
the foothills of the mountains and has cooler temperatures in the higher elevations. The
Punjab is anchored by the cities of Lahore, Faisalabad, and Multan. Lahore is the cultural
center of Pakistan and is home to the University of the Punjab and many magnificent
mosques and palaces built during its early history. In the 1980s, many Punjabis migrated
to Europe, the Middle East, and North America seeking opportunities and employment.
This diaspora of people from the Punjab provided cultural and business ties with
Pakistan. For example, trade connections between the Punjab and the United States are
increasing. The Punjab is the most industrialized of all the provinces. Manufacturing has
increased with industries producing everything from vehicles to electrical appliances to
textiles. The industrialization of the Punjab is an indication of its skilled work force and
the highest literacy rate in Pakistan, at over 80 percent.
Baluchistan (Balochistan) encompasses a large portion of southwest Pakistan to
the west of the Indus River. The region connects the Middle East and Iran with the rest of
Asia. The landscape consists of barren terrain, sandy deserts, and rocky surfaces.
Baluchistan covers about 44 percent of the entire country and is the largest political unit.
The sparse population ekes a living out of the few mountain valleys where water can be
found. Local politics provides the basic structure for society in this region. Within the
Baluchistan province of Pakistan are several coastal and interior rivers; the interior rivers
flow from the Hindu Kush Mountains of Afghanistan, while most of the rivers along the
coastal deserts from west of Karachi to the Iranian border are seasonal in nature and
provide one of the few sources of fresh water in those coastal regions. Much of the
coastal region is arid desert with sand dunes and large volcanic mountainous features.
The Sindh (Sind) region of the southeast is anchored by Karachi, Pakistan’s
largest city and major port. The Indus River is the border on the west and the Punjab
region lies to the north. To the east of the Sindh is the border with India and the great
Thar Desert. The Sindh is a region that misses out on the rains from the summer monsoon
and the retreating monsoon season when the winds sweep in from the north over South
Asia. The city of Hyderabad, Pakistan, is located along the Indus River, which is a key
food-growing area. Food crops consist of wheat and other small grains, with cotton as a
major cash crop that helps support the textile industry of the region.
The North West Frontier is a broad expanse of territory that extends from the
northern edge of Baluchistan to the Northern Areas of the former Kingdom of Kashmir.
Sandwiched between the tribal areas along the Afghanistan border and the well-watered
lands of the Punjab, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province is dominated by remote mountain
ranges with fertile valleys. The famous Khyber Pass, a major chokepoint into
Afghanistan, is located here. The frontier is a breeding ground for anti-Western culture
and anti-American sentiments, mainly fueled by the U.S. military activity in Afghanistan.
The Taliban movement that once controlled the government of Afghanistan has been
active and generally more organized in this region than in Afghanistan. A push for more
fundamentalist Islamic law has been a major initiative of the local leaders. Support for
education and modernization is minimal. The government of Pakistan has also stepped up
its military actions in the region to counter the activities of the militant Islamic
extremists.
The North West Frontier borders the Tribal Areas, where clans and local leaders
are standard parts of the sociopolitical structure. These remote areas have seldom been
fully controlled by either the colonial governments (the British) or the current
government of Pakistan. There are about seven main areas that fall under this description.
Accountability for the areas has been difficult and even when the national government
stepped in to exercise authority, there was serious resistance that halted any real
established interaction. These remote areas are where groups such as al-Qaeda and the
Taliban often find safe haven. South and North Waziristan are two of the main areas that
have been controlled by Tribal Agencies and not directly by the Pakistani government.
Pakistan’s Northern Areas include the territories that were once part of the
Kingdom of Kashmir, the boundaries of which are disputed with India. The region is, in
other words, interconnected with the issues related to Kashmir that involve Pakistan,
India, and China. There are two main political entities: the large northern bordering
Afghanistan is called Gilgit-Baltistan, and the narrow near Islamabad is called Azad
Kashmir (Azad Jammu and Kashmir). The Northern Areas are highlands, bordered to the
north by the towering Karakoram and Pamir mountain ranges. K2, the world’s second
highest mountain, which reaches 28,250 feet, is located here. The Northern Areas are
sparsely populated except for the Indus River Valley. The conflicts over these territories
fuel nationalistic forces in both Pakistan and India. The conflicts are as much between
Islam and Hinduism as they are between political factions. The early war between India
and Pakistan over the border that the British placed between them in 1947 almost seems
to be reenacted in the more recent conflicts over the region of Kashmir.
Today most of the people living in Pakistan are Muslim. About 85 percent of the
Muslim population in Pakistan is Sunni and about 15 percent of the Muslim population is
Shia, which is consistent with the percentages of the two Islamic divisions worldwide.
Islam is considered the state religion of Pakistan. The state is a federal republic with a
parliamentarian style of government. As an Islamic state following the Sharia laws of the
Koran, it has been a challenge for Pakistan to try to balance instituting democratic
reforms while staying true to fundamental Islamic teachings. Pakistan has held elections
for government leaders, and the status of women has improved. Women have held many
governmental and political positions, including prime minister. The military has been a
foundation of power for those in charge. As a result of weak economic conditions
throughout the country, it has been the military that has received primary attention and is
the strongest institution within the government. Pakistan has demonstrated its nuclear
weapons capability in recent years, which established it as a major player in regional
affairs.
Pakistan is confronted with severe environmental issues. One of the concerns is a
fault zone that runs directly through the region. Pakistan’s regions are divided by the
Eurasian tectonic plate and the Indian tectonic plate. Shifting tectonic plates cause
earthquakes; there have been several major ones in Pakistan’s recent history. For
instance, an earthquake of 7.6 magnitude in 2005 in the northern region of the North
West Frontier claimed about 89,000 lives in Pakistan and a few thousand others in
neighboring India and Afghanistan. About 150 aftershocks were felt the next day, many
of which were over the 6.0 level on the Richter scale. This particular event in 2005 was
listed as the fourteenth most devastating earthquake on record at the time. It left over 3
million people without a home in Pakistan alone and more people were left homeless in
neighboring areas. Hardest hit outside of Pakistan was the portion of Kashmir that is
controlled by India. Many countries, including the United States, stepped up and
supported the aid effort to reach people in the devastated region. Major earthquakes that
cause devastation for the large populations here are common along this tectonic plate
boundary.
Bangladesh is a low-lying country that is associated with the types of marshy
environments found in tropical areas and river deltas. The region is extremely prone to
flooding, particularly during the monsoon season because of the high amount of rainfall.
One of the most important rivers of Bangladesh flows southward from the Himalayas
through India and into Bangladesh. While in India, this river is known as the
Brahmaputra River, but when it enters Bangladesh, it is known as the Jamuna River. It
provides a major waterway for this region and empties into the Bay of Bengal.
Bangladesh has a physical land area similar in size to the country of Greece but
has a population that is equal to the number of people in France and Germany combined.
With an estimated population of about 164 million in 2020 and a land area of only 55,556
square miles, it is one of the most densely populated countries on the planet. Most of the
population in Bangladesh is rural, agriculturally grounded, and poor. The larger modern
cities, such as the capital of Dhaka, have modern conveniences, complete with internet
cafes, shopping districts, and contemporary goods. The rural areas often suffer from a
lack of adequate transportation, infrastructure, and public services. Poverty is common;
the income level average is the equivalent of a few U.S. dollars per day. Remarkably, the
culture remains vibrant and active, with people pursuing livelihoods and seeking out
every opportunity or advantage available to them.
The summer monsoons are both a blessing and a curse in Bangladesh. The
blessing of the monsoon rains is that they bring fresh water to grow food. The northeast
part of Bangladesh receives the highest amount of rainfall, averaging about eighteen feet
per year, while the western part of the country averages only about four feet per year.
Most of the rain falls during the monsoon season. Bangladesh can grow abundant food
crops of rice and grain in the fertile deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, rivers
that ultimately empty into the Bay of Bengal. About 55 percent of the land area is arable
and can be used for farming, but flooding causes serious damage to cropland by eroding
soil and washing away seeds or crops. Every year, countless people die because of the
flooding, which can cover as much as a third of the country. One of the worst flooding
events in Bangladesh’s history was experienced in 1998, when river flooding destroyed
more than 300,000 homes and caused more than 1,000 deaths, rendering more than 30
million people homeless.
d. India
India is considered the world’s largest democracy. As the historic geography and
the development patterns of India are examined, the complexities of this Hindu state
surface. European colonizers of South Asia included the Dutch, Portuguese, French, and,
finally, the British. In search of raw materials, cheap labor, and expanding markets,
Europeans used their advancements in technology to take over and dominate the regional
industrial base. The East India Company was a base of British operations in South Asia
and evolved to become the administrative government of the region and control it from
1857–1947. The British government created an administrative structure to govern South
Asia. Their centralized government in India employed many Sikhs in positions of the
administration to help rule over the largely Muslim and Hindu population. The English
language was introduced as a lingua franca for the colonies.
Contrasts in India are explicitly evident in the regional differences of its human
geography. The north-south contrasts are apparent through the lingua franca and ethnic
divisions. The main lingua franca in the north is Hindi. In the Dravidian-dominated south,
the main lingua franca is English. The densely populated core region along the Ganges
River, anchored on each end by Delhi/ New Delhi and Kolkata, has traditionally been
called the heartland of India. The south is anchored by the port city of Chennai and the
large city of Bangalore. Chennai has been a traditional industrial center. The industrial
infrastructure has shifted to more modern facilities in other cities, giving over to a
“rustbelt” syndrome for portions of the Chennai region. India is a dynamic country, with
shifts and changes constantly occurring. Any attempt to stereotype India into cultural
regions would be problematic.
Rural and urban life within the Indian subcontinent varies according to wealth and
opportunity. While concentrated in specific areas across the landscape, in general the
population in rural areas is discontinuous and spread thinly. In urban areas, the
populations are very concentrated with many times the population density found in rural
areas. India has many world-class cities: Kolkata, Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore,
and Hyderabad, to name a few. There are at least fifty cities in India with a population of
over 1 million.
India’s interior is mainly composed of villages. In rural villages, much of the
economy is based on subsistence strategies, primarily agriculture and small cottage
industries. The lifestyle is focused on the agricultural cycles of soil preparation, sowing,
and harvesting as well as tending animals, particularly water buffalo, cattle, goats, and
sheep. About 65 percent of the population lives in rural areas and makes a living in
agriculture. About 35 percent of the population is urbanized. There is a high rate of rural-
to-urban shift occurring within India that coincides with the rapidly progressing move
toward urbanization and industrialization. Changes in technology, however, tend to be
slow in dispersing to the rural villages. More than half the villages in India do not have
road access for motor vehicles. For residents of those villages, walking, animal carts, and
trains are the main methods of transportation. Agricultural technology is often basic that
relies on a high amount of manual labor. Diffusion of new ideas, products, or methods
can be slow. Modern communication technology is, however, helping to connect these
remote regions.
In the past decade, India has possessed the second fastest-growing economy in the
world; China is first. India’s economy continues to rapidly expand and have a tremendous
impact on the world economy. In spite of the size of the economy, India’s population has
a low average per capita income. Approximately one-fourth of the people living in India
live in poverty; the World Bank classifies India as a low-income economy. [2] India has
followed a central economic model for most of its development since it declared
independence. The central government has exerted strict control over private sector
economic development, foreign trade, and foreign investment. Through various economic
reforms since the 1990s, India is beginning to open up these markets by reducing
government control on foreign investment and trade. Many publicly owned businesses
are being privatized. Globalization efforts have been vigorous in India. There has been
substantial growth in information services, health care, and the industrial sector.
South Asia’s physical geography—an overview of its physical features—was
described at the beginning. India makes up the largest physical area of the South Asia
realm. Another way of looking at the physical and human landscapes of India is to study
spatial characteristics. Additionally, the economic side of the equation can be illustrated
by dividing India between east and west according to economic development patterns. To
do this, on a map of India draw an imaginary line from the border with Nepal in the
north, near Kanpur, to the Polk Strait border with Sri Lanka in the south. This division of
India illustrates two sides of India’s economic pattern: an economically progressive West
India and an economically traditional East India.
There are differences in the geographic patterns between the northern and
southern halves of India as well as between the eastern and western halves—depending
on the criteria used to compare them. Climate patterns, for example, are more diverse in
the north, with a wide range of temperatures throughout the seasons. Winter temperatures
in the mountainous north are cold and summer temperatures in the Thar Desert can be
extremely high. Southern India has a more moderate range of temperatures throughout
the year. The far north has high mountains. The south has only the low-lying Eastern and
Western Ghats. The north has the extensive Ganges River basin. The south has different
drainage networks based on the plateaus of the region.
Besides physical aspects, there are cultural differences between the north and
south as well. India is a complex societal mix of many ethnic groups, languages, and
traditions. Spatially separating the country into vernacular regions is not conducive to
agreeable results. Still, there are some recognizable trends that have been noted or
commonly stated between the northern and southern parts of India. The north is portrayed
as a faster-paced society, with more edge and competitiveness. The south has been
portrayed as more relaxed and less insistent.
India has a number of rare animal species that need habitat if they are going to
survive. A few of the larger animals include the Indian Rhinoceros, Clouded Leopard,
Indian Leopard, Snow Leopard, Asiatic Lion, Bengal Tiger, Asian Water Buffalo, Asian
Elephant, Striped Hyena, and the Red Panda. Many species are endangered or threatened
along with many other lesser-known organisms. The high human population growth
throughout South Asia places a strain on the natural habitat of wild animals. Habitat loss
caused by human development makes holding on to the wide array of biodiversity
difficult.
India has instituted measures designed to preserve its biodiversity. The Indian
government has created sanctuaries for threatened or endangered species. National parks
were established before India declared independence and were substantially expanded in
recent decades. In 1972, The Wildlife Protection Act was instituted to create critical
habitat for tigers and other rare species. There are hundreds of protected wildlife areas
and fifteen biosphere reserves in India. Four of the biospheres were created in
conjunction with the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
The Indian government has established protected areas throughout the country,
many of which are in the highland regions and the northern mountains. For example, the
Gir Wildlife Sanctuary, including an area preserved for Asian Lions, is located on the
Kathiawar Peninsula north of Mumbai, which juts out into the Arabian Sea. India is the
only place left with Asian Lions in the wild. Tigers, elephants, rhinos, and leopards can
be found in the sanctuaries. The country has about ninety-two national parks, which are
also home to rare wildlife species, and more than 350 wildlife sanctuaries of all sizes.
There are about twenty-eight tiger reserves in India. The country also has a number of
marine reserves and protected areas along its coastlines.
e. Religions of India and South Asia
The realm of India and its surrounding countries is the native land for more than a
few ancient religions. There are many people in the realm who continue to adhere to
animist beliefs who are not followers of any of the main world religions. The oldest
organized world religions of India are Hinduism and Buddhism. Other important
religions in the realm include Islam, Jainism, Christianity, Sikhism, Zoroastrianism, and
the Baha’i Faith. India is at times labeled a Hindu state, but the accuracy of the label is
dubious. A more suitable way to describe India is to say that it is a secular country where
approximately 80 percent of the population follows Hindu traditions. Islam is the second
most popular religion, practiced by about 14 percent of the population. Christianity and
Sikhism are also prominent. Buddhism and Jainism are two other minority religions that
have their origins in South Asia. And finally, there are still Indians who practice animist
religions that predate all the other religions listed, especially in remote areas.
Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest major organized religions still practiced. Its
origins can be traced to ancient Vedic civilizations in India approximately 4,000 years
ago. Today, the religion is found mainly in India, and it has the third-highest number of
believers of religions in the world. Hinduism does not originate from a single teacher but
from many traditions. The Hindu belief system consists of a number of schools of
thought, with a wide variety of rituals and practices.
Hinduism has a vast body of written scripture that discusses theology, mythology,
and philosophy as well as providing important guidance on the practice of dharma,
religious or right living. These texts include the Vedas and the Upanishads. Other
important scripts include the Tantras, the Agamas, the Purānas, and the epics of the
Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana. The Bhagavad Gitā is a small part of the Mahābhārata
that is a conversation between one of the Pandava brothers and the god Krishna,
concerning the meaning of life and worthiness. This is often thought to be a summary of
the spiritual teachings of the Vedas.
Around 535 BC in northern India, a prince by the name of Siddhartha Gautama
broke from the local traditions that shaped Hinduism and taught religious salvation
through meditation, the rejection of earthly desires, and reverence for all life forms.
Siddhartha is recognized as the first Buddha. He taught that through meditation a person
can attain enlightenment and no longer have a need for desire or selfish interests. Buddha
taught that there is no need for gods or deities. Enlightenment is from within and is being
free from suffering. In Buddhism, a person can reach a state of liberation, often referred
to as Nirvana, through the Middle Way or Eight Fold Path. Similar to Hinduism, Jainism,
and Sikhism, Buddhism is considered a “dharmic” faith that concerns following a path of
duty for a proper life. According to Buddhism, life is dictated by karma, which connects
our actions with future experiences. Reincarnation is an accepted tenet but there is no
caste system. Buddhism spread across the Indian Subcontinent after the sixth century BC
and became the region’s dominant religion within 1,500 years. However, since that time,
the religion has diminished in the Indian Subcontinent, although it has seen some revival
under the influence of Buddhist scholars. Buddhism predominates in the northernmost
areas of India.
Buddhism is the majority religion in Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and most of
Southeast Asia. It was prominent in China, Mongolia, and North Korea before their
governments adopted Communist ideology. Communist governments officially
announced that their countries were nonreligious, although many people still followed
religious systems. Various branches of Buddhism have developed, with many schools
established within each branch. Buddhism can be divided geographically into southern,
northern, and eastern Buddhism. Scholars and Buddhist practitioners may arrive at
various methods of classification of the various schools of thought within the Buddhist
faith; the geographic basis of recognition provides only one way to understand the
variations within the religion.
The majority of the population of India follows Hindu traditions. The other major
religions in India include Islam, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Christianity, Baha’i, and
Zoroastrianism. There are also millions of people in India who follow traditional beliefs.
The Constitution of India provides a formal recognition of Scheduled Tribes within the
country. The Scheduled Tribes term refers to indigenous people whose status is
acknowledged to some formal degree by national legislation. Individuals included in the
Scheduled Tribes frequently follow a wider range of traditional religious beliefs. It is not
uncommon for traditional beliefs to be mixed with practices of the other major religions.
Islam diffused to South Asia from the Middle East through traders and merchants
shortly after its creation. The Mogul Empire dominated northern India for centuries and is
an example of the Islamic presence in the region. India has the largest Muslim minority in
the world. In 2016, India had an estimated population of 175 million Muslims, which
made up about 14 percent of the population. India has the third-largest Muslim
population in the world, after Indonesia and Pakistan. Most Muslims in India live in the
north along the Ganges River Basin. There is also a large Muslim population in eastern
India near the border with Bangladesh. Kashmir, in northern India, also continues to hold
a significant Muslim population.
Christianity is India’s third-largest religion, practiced by about 2–3 percent of the
population. Christianity is a monotheistic religion following the teachings of Jesus Christ
that originated in the Middle East. Tradition has it that Christianity first came to India
through first-century CE missionary activity linked to the Apostle Thomas, and later
arrived to other parts of India through the activities of Western missionaries from 1500
CE onward. A major Christian stronghold is the state and city of Goa on the southwest
coast, a colony of Portugal from the 1500s to the mid-1900s. There is also a recognized
Christian presence in eastern India, in the region bordering Myanmar.
Jainism or Jain Dharma is a spiritual, religious, and philosophical tradition in
India that dates back to about the ninth century BC. Jains (followers of Jainism) believe
that their religion’s origins extend back to the distant past. A Jain is a follower of Jinas
(the saints), who are humans who have rediscovered the dharma (or the way) and have
become fully liberated. These Jinas can then teach this spiritual path to other people. A
major characteristic of Jainism is the emphasis on the consequences of physical and
mental behavior. There are about 5 million Jains in India, and others around the world.
Sikhism was previously discussed in on the Punjab, the region at the center of the
Sikh community. Sikhism is a monotheistic religion centered on justice and faith.
Dharma and reincarnation are major components of the religion. In Sikhism, salvation
can be obtained through devotion to God and through disciplined meditation. There is a
high importance placed on the principle of equality between all people in the Sikh
religion. There should be no discrimination on the basis of gender, creed, caste, or
ethnicity; every person is equal. Service or serving others is a major focus of the faith.
The writings of former Sikh gurus are the basis for the religion. The center of the Sikh
religion is found in the Golden Temple, in the city of Amritsar, in the Punjab. This is
where Sikhs gather to unite in the faith and associate with each other. There are about 30
million Sikhs in the world, and about three-fourths of them live in the Punjab state of
India.
The Baha’i Faith is found in many large urban areas of the Indian Subcontinent,
particularly New Delhi, where a large temple complex is found. This temple is commonly
known as the “Lotus Temple” based on its shape, which looks like a large lotus flower.
Two million Baha’is live within India, which has the largest population of Baha’is in the
world. Iran has the second-highest Baha’i population in the world. There is also a major
Baha’i temple and center in Haifa, Israel. The Baha’i Faith was founded by Baha’u’llah
in Persia (Iran) during the nineteenth century CE. This religion focuses on the spiritual
oneness of humanity and the unity of the other major world religions.
Zoroastrianism has ties to some of the oldest religious teachings in the world and
originated in Iran (or Persia); in fact, it was once the dominant religion of Greater Iran.
This monotheistic religion was a precursor to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The
religion has now dwindled to about 200,000 Zoroastrians around the world, with
concentrations in Iran, India (primarily Mumbai), and Pakistan (primarily Karachi and
Lahore). Zoroastrianism follows the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster (also known as
Zarathustra or Zarthosht). This philosophy acknowledges the divine authority of Ahura
Mazda (Mazdaism) as proclaimed by Zoroaster. One of the tangible forms of this religion
is the use of fire as a purifying agent in ceremonies. The temples are commonly known as
“fire temples.” Additionally, because of a prohibition of burials of bodies in the ground,
Zoroastrians allow natural exposure of bodies to the elements in structures known as
“Towers of Silence.” The greatest numbers of followers of Zoroastrianism can be found
in India, with additional numbers in southern Pakistan.
