Module 4
South America
a. Introducing the Realm
The continent of South America has a wide diversity of physical landscapes, from
the high Andes Mountains to the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. This assortment of
physical features offers many resource bases, allowing people to engage in economic
activity, gain wealth, and provide for their needs. The extensive Andes Mountain range
holds mineral riches that have been being extracted since ancient times. Precious metals
have been mined from the mountains to grant great opportunities for those fortunate
enough to be recipients of its wealth. Fossil fuels have been found in abundance in the far
northern regions of Venezuela and Colombia. The Amazon Basin has been a source of
hardwood lumber and, more recently, extensive mineral wealth. Some of the largest iron
ore mines in the world are located here. The massive plains of Brazil and the rich soils of
the Pampas allow for enormous agricultural operations that provide food products for the
continent and for the world. Even the inhospitable Atacama region in northern Chile
holds some of the world’s largest copper and nitrate reserves. In addition, the wide
variety of climate zones allows a diverse range of species to develop. The extremes in
physical geography in South America have created both barriers and opportunities to
those who live there
Before the era of European colonialism, many local groups organized themselves
into states or empires. The Inca Empire was the largest in South America at the time the
Europeans arrived. The early empires developed massive structures that required huge cut
stones weighing many tons to be moved into place without the benefit of modern tools or
technology. European colonialism altered the continent in several ways. Not only did the
Europeans defeat and conquer Indigenous Amerindian groups such as the Inca, but
cultural exchanges also took place that altered the way of life for countless South
Americans. Colonialism created many of the current country borders and influenced trade
relationships with the newly created colonies. The plantation system and the introduction
of enslaved people from Africa drastically changed the ethnic makeup of the people
living along the eastern coast. After slavery was abolished, indentured servitude brought
workers from Asia to support the labor base.
Indentured servants were usually poor individuals who agreed to work for an
agreed-upon period of time, usually less than seven years, in return for the necessities of
life such as lodging, food, and transportation or clothing. These individuals did not
usually receive a salary but may have received a lump sum payment upon completion of
the agreed upon service. Under favorable conditions indentured servants were treated like
relatives and gained important experience and job skills to provide for their future. Many
situations were much less favorable and resembled a form of slavery where individuals
did not survive their servitude but succumbed to disease, harsh conditions, or death.
The physical environment and the influence of colonialism were both responsible
for the cultural attributes of the regions of South America. The continent can be divided
into regions by ethnic majorities influenced by early colonial development. The mixing
of ethnic groups from Europe, Africa, and Asia with each other or with the Indigenous
population has created a diverse cultural mosaic. For example, most people in Guyana
and Suriname are from Asia, most people in Argentina and Uruguay are from Europe,
most people in Peru and Bolivia are Amerindian, and the majority in many areas along
the eastern coast of Brazil are of African descent. A large percentage of the population of
South America is of a mixed ethnic background. Understanding the cultural geography of
South America supports comprehension of the realm’s human development patterns.
South America’s modern economic development has helped integrate it with the
global economy. The levels of economic development vary widely within the realm.
There are clear indications of core-peripheral spatial patterns within various regions of
the continent, and rural-to-urban shift has been strong in many areas. The rural regions in
the Andes or the interior suffer from a lack of economic support needed to modernize
their infrastructure. At the same time, metropolitan areas are expanding rapidly and are
totally integrated with global markets and the latest technologies. Most of the large cities
are located along the coastal regions. This pattern of urbanization is mainly a result of
colonial activity and influence. The countries of South America are working among
themselves to network trade and commerce activities. Trade agreements and economic
unions have become standard methods of securing business partnerships to enhance the
realm’s economic opportunities.
The far-reaching Andes Mountains and the massive Amazon River system
dominate South America’s physical geography. The 5,000-mile-long Andes Mountain
chain extends along the entire western region of the continent from Venezuela to
southern Chile. The Andes are the longest mountain chain on Earth and the highest in the
Americas. The Andes Mountain range has more than thirty peaks that reach at least
20,000 feet in elevation, many of which are active volcanoes. The Andes has provided
isolation to the Inca Empire, mineral wealth to those with the means for extraction, and a
barrier to travelers crossing the continent. The Andes’ minerals include gold, silver, tin,
and other precious metals. Mining became a major industry in the colonial era and
continues to the present.
At the core of the continent is the mighty Amazon River, which is more than
2,000 miles long and has an enormous drainage basin in the largest tropical rainforest in
the world. The Amazon’s many tributaries are larger than many other world rivers.
Flowing parallel to the equator, the Amazon is in contention with the Nile as the longest
river in the world. In 2007, a dispute arose over the actual length of the Amazon River.
Brazilian scientists using satellite imagery and teams on the ground using a global
positioning system (GPS) calculated a new length for the Amazon. Using similar
methods, the Nile River also had a new length calculated. Both were determined to be
longer than originally measured. At this time, the actual length of each river is openly
debated. The most accurate statement is that the Amazon River has the greatest discharge
of any river in the world, and it is potentially also the longest river in the world.
The Amazon’s extended tributaries—such as the Rio Negro, the Madeira, and the
Xingu—move massive amounts of water through the Amazon Basin and are major rivers
in their own right. The Amazon has more than 1,100 tributaries; a dozen are more than
1,000 miles long. Hydroelectric dams are located on the tributaries to produce electricity
for the region’s fast-growing development. South America has additional large rivers that
drain the continent, including the Orinoco, which flows through Venezuela; the Sao
Francisco, which flows through Southeast Brazil; and the Paraguay and the Paraná rivers,
which flow south from Brazil into the Rio de la Plata between Argentina and Uruguay.
Lake Titicaca rests in the middle of the Altiplano Region of the Central Andes on
the border between Peru and Bolivia. The Altiplano Region is a wide basin between two
main Andean mountain ranges. The word altiplano means “valley” in Spanish. There are
a substantial number of altiplanos in South America. They provide for agricultural
production and human habitation. The Altiplano Region has been home to ancient
civilizations that date back to early human settlements. Lake Titicaca is a large freshwater
lake about 120 miles long and fifty miles wide. The surface is at an elevation of about
12,000 feet above sea level, and the lake is more than 900 feet deep in some areas.
Usually at such high elevations, the temperature would dip below freezing and restrict
agriculture. However, the large lake acts as a solar energy collector by absorbing energy
from the sun during the day and giving off that energy in the form of heat during the
night. The energy redistribution allows for a moderate temperature around the lake that is
conducive to growing food crops. With abundant fresh water and the ability to grow food
and catch fish, the Altiplano Region has supported human habitation for thousands of
years. On the Bolivian side of the lake are the ancient stone sites of Tiahuanaco and
Puma Punku, which has had some artifacts dated to 1500 BC or earlier. The history of
who built these extensive complexes remains unknown. The people who currently live
around Lake Titicaca maintain a traditional and subsistence lifestyle.
Across the Andes Mountains from the Altiplano Region is the Atacama Desert.
The Atacama is one of the driest places on Earth: in some parts, no rain has fallen in
recorded history. In normal circumstances, the Atacama would be a desolate region
without human activity, but that is not the case. Some of the world’s largest copper
reserves are found here. Nitrates, which are used in fertilizers, are also found in large
quantities. Mining the Atacama has brought enormous wealth to people fortunate enough
to be on the receiving end of the profits. The rain shadow effect is responsible for the
extraordinary dryness of the Atacama. The Andes are quite high at this latitude, and the
winds blow in rain clouds from the east. When the clouds reach the mountains, they
ascend in elevation, releasing their precipitation without ever reaching the western side of
the Andes.
South America has large agricultural plateaus east of the Andes, such as the Mato
Grosso Plateau, which includes a portion of the great cerrado agricultural region of
central Brazil. The Cerrado is a vast plain that has been developed for agriculture and
produces enormous harvests of soybeans and grain crops. Bordering the Cerrado to the
southeast are the Brazilian Highlands, an extensive coffee-growing region. The Pampas
in eastern Argentina, Uruguay, and southernmost Brazil is another excellent agricultural
region with good soils and adequate rainfall. Farming, cattle ranching, and even
vineyards can be found here, making the Pampas the breadbasket of the Southern Cone.
To the south of the Pampas is the lengthy expanse of Patagonia, which covers the
southern portion of Argentina east of the Andes. Patagonia is a prairie grassland region
that does not receive a high level of rainfall because of the rain shadow effect of the
Andes to the west. The main activities in Patagonia are the raising of cattle and other
livestock. The region is starting to attract attention for the extraction of natural resources
such as oil, natural gas, and valuable minerals.
To the northern part of the continent in Venezuela and Colombia, sandwiched
between the Andes Mountains and the Guiana Highlands, is a grassland region with scrub
forests called the Llanos. The human population is small because of the remoteness of the
region along the Orinoco River basin. The Guiana Highlands of southeast Venezuela and
the Guianas are an isolated set of mountainous plateaus mixed with rugged landscapes
and tropical climates. Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world, with a free fall of
more than 2,647 feet and a total drop of about 3,212 feet (more than half a mile), is
located here. To the northwest of the Llanos and the Guiana Highlands in Venezuela is
Lake Maracaibo, a large inland lake open to the Caribbean Sea. A coastal lake,
Maracaibo rests atop vast oil reserves that provide economic wealth for Venezuela.
South America’s colonial legacy shaped its early cultural landscape. The
Indigenous people, with their empires and local groups, were no match for the Iberian
invaders who brought European colonialism to the continent. South America was
colonized exclusively by two main Iberian powers: Spain colonized the western part of
the South America, and Portugal colonized the east coast of what is present-day Brazil.
The only region that was not colonized by those two powers was the small region of the
Guianas, which was colonized by Great Britain, the Netherlands, and France.
Everything changed with the invasion of the Iberian colonizers. The underlying
tenets of culture, religion, and economics of the local Indigenous people were disrupted
and forced to change. It is no mystery why the two dominant languages of South America
are Spanish and Portuguese and why Roman Catholicism is the realm’s dominant
religion. Colonialism also was responsible for transporting food crops such as the potato,
which originated in the Peruvian Andes, to the European dinner table. Today, coffee is a
main export of Colombia, Brazil, and other countries in the tropics. Coffee was not native
to South America but originated in Ethiopia and was transferred by colonial activity. The
same is true of sugarcane, bananas, and citrus fruits; oranges were not native to South
America, but today Brazil is the number one exporter of orange juice in the world.
Colonialism was driven by the desire for profit from the quick sale of products such as
gold or silver, and there was a ready market for goods not found in Europe, such as
tobacco, corn, exotic animals, and tropical woods.
Plantation agriculture introduced by the Europeans led to a high demand for
manual laborers. When the local populations could not meet the labor demand, millions
of Africans were brought through the slave trade. These enslaved Africans introduced
their own unique customs and traditions, altering the culture and demographics of the
Western Hemisphere. The current Indigenous Amerindian population, a fraction of what
it was before the Europeans arrived, makes up only a small percentage of South
America’s total population. European colonizers generally took the best land and
controlled the economic trade of the region. The acculturation in South America is
directly related to the European colonial experience.
Not long after Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire of Mexico in 1521, a
young Spanish conquistador named Francisco Pizarro, stationed in what is now Panama,
heard rumors of silver and gold found among the South American people. He led several
sailing excursions along the west coast of South America. In 1531 CE, he founded the
port city of Lima, Peru. Since 1200 CE, the Inca had ruled a large empire extending out
from central Peru, which included the high-elevation Altiplano Region around Lake
Titicaca. The Inca Empire dominated an area from Ecuador to northern Chile. The Inca
were not the most populous people but were a ruling class who controlled other
subjugated groups. Pizarro, with fewer than 200 men and two dozen horses, met up with
the Inca armies and managed to defeat them in a series of military maneuvers. The Inca
leader was captured by the Spanish in 1533. Two years later, in 1535, the Inca Empire
collapsed.
The Inca Empire was significant thanks to the high volume of gold and silver
found in that region of the Andes. The story is told that Pizarro placed the captured Inca
leader in a small room and told him that if the room was filled with gold to the top of the
Inca leader’s head, Pizarro would let the Inca leader go free. Gold was summoned from
the people and the countryside, and the room was filled. The conquistadors forced the
Inca leader to convert to Catholicism and be baptized and then killed him. The gold was
melted down and transported back to Spain. The mineral wealth of the Andes made the
conquistadors rich. Lima was once one of the wealthiest cities in the world. Europeans
continued to dominate and exploit the mining of minerals in Peru and Bolivia throughout
the colonial era. European elites or a Mestizo ruling class has dominated or controlled the
local Amerindian groups in the Andes since colonial times.
Many Amerindian groups inhabited this region before the Inca Empire, such as
the people who built and lived in the ancient city of Tiahuanaco, which could have
bordered Lake Titicaca during an earlier climate period, when the lake was much larger.
Clearly, humans have lived in South America for thousands of years. There is speculation
that travel between South America and the Mediterranean region occurred earlier than
current historic records indicate. Many of the ruins in the western region of South
America have not been thoroughly excavated or examined by archaeologists, and the size
and scope of many of the stone structures stand as testimony to the advancements in
engineering and technology employed in an era that, according to historical records, had
only primitive tools.
The Spanish conquistadors were not the only European invaders to colonize South
America. Colonial influence—which forced a change in languages, religion, and
economics—also came from the small European kingdom of Portugal. Portuguese ships
sailed along the eastern coast of South America and laid claim to the region for the king.
The Portuguese did not find large gold or silver reserves, but they coveted the land for the
expansion of their empire. Soon the Spanish and the Portuguese were fighting over the
same parts of South America. In 1494, the issue was brought before the Roman Catholic
Church. The Tordesillas Line was drawn on a map to divide South America into the
Spanish west and the Portuguese east. The region that is now Brazil became the largest
Portuguese colonial possession in South America, a center for plantation agriculture
similar to that in the Caribbean. For this reason, a large African population lives in Brazil,
and most of the people in Brazil speak Portuguese and are Roman Catholics.
The Guianas in the northeast were the only European colonies in South America
that were not under Spanish or Portuguese control. The British, Dutch, and French all
held claims to different parts of the Guianas. French Guiana remains a department of
France to this day. The transition from colony to independent state has required
persistence, time, and patience. Guyana and Suriname only received their independence
in the latter part of the twentieth century.
It is impossible to understand the current conditions in South America without
first understanding what occurred to create those conditions. This is why studying
European colonialism is so important. Colonialism changed the ethnicity, religion,
language, and economic activities of the people in South America. The past 500 years
have tempered, stretched, and molded the current states and regions of the South
American continent. To identify standards of living, ethnic majorities, and economic
conditions, it is helpful to map out South America’s various cultural regions.
Located along the north and east coast of South America, the Tropical Plantation
Region resembles the Caribbean rimland in its culture and economic activity. The region,
which extends as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn, has a tropical climate and an
agricultural economy. Europeans opened up this area for plantation agriculture because of
coastal access for ships and trade. The local people were forced into slavery, but when
the local people died off or escaped, millions of enslaved Africans were brought in to
replace them. After slavery was abolished, indentured servants from Asia were brought to
the Guianas to work the plantations. The Tropical Plantation Region has a high
percentage of people of African or Asian descent.
The Rural Amerindian Region includes the countries of Ecuador, Peru, and
Bolivia. The ruling Mestizo class that inherited control from the European conquistadors
mainly lives in urban areas. Most of the rural Amerindian population lives in
mountainous areas with type H climates and ekes out a hard living in subsistence
agriculture. This is one of the poorest regions of South America, and land and politics are
controlled by powerful elites. The extraction of gold and silver has not benefited the local
Amerindian majority, which holds to local customs and speaks local languages.
The Amazon Basin, which is characterized by a type A climate, is the least-
densely populated region of South America and is home to isolated Amerindian groups.
Development has encroached upon the region in the forms of deforestation, mining, and
cattle ranching. Large deposits of iron ore, along with gold and other minerals, have been
found in the Amazon Basin. Preservation of the tropical rainforest of this remote region
has been hampered by the destructive pattern of development that has pushed into the
region. The future of the basin is unclear because of development patterns that are
expected to continue as Brazil seeks to exploit its interior peripheral region. Conflicts
over land claims and the autonomy of Amerindian groups are on the rise.
The Mixed Mestizo Region includes the coastal area of the west and the interior
highlands of the north and east. This region between the Tropical Plantation Region and
the Rural Amerindian Region includes a majority of people who share a mixed European
and Amerindian ethnicity. It is not as poor as the Rural Amerindian Region and yet not as
wealthy as the European-dominated region to the south. Paraguay falls into the Mixed
Mestizo Region, as do other portions of other South American countries such as parts of
Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela. Paraguay is mainly Mestizo, but its economic qualities
resemble that of the Rural Amerindian Region to the north, even though Paraguay is not
located in the mountains.
The southern part of South America, called the European Commercial Region or
the Southern Cone, includes Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and parts of Brazil. European
ethnic groups dominate this region and include not only Spanish and Portuguese but also
German, Austrian, Italian, and other European ethnic heritages. Fertile soils and
European trade provided early economic growth, and the region attracted industry and
manufacturing in the later decades of the twentieth century. There are not many
Amerindians or people of African descent here. More than 90 percent of all the people in
Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay are of European descent and live in urban areas. With a
highly urbanized population and with trade connections to a globalized economy, it is no
surprise that the Southern Cone is home to South America’s most developed economies.
South America has been fragmented by European colonialism, which established
colonies and economic dependence on its European controllers. The colonial economic
patterns did not encourage the South American countries to work together to create an
integrated continental trade network. Countries outside the continent have promoted trade
partnerships to benefit from South America’s natural resources and agricultural exports.
The establishment of the European Union and the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) created globalized trading blocs that challenged the South American countries
to consider how to take advantage of trading opportunities within their realm to protect
and support their own economic interests.
Since the 1990s, cooperation and business ventures have started to form within
the realm to create a more integrated network of trade and commerce to benefit the
countries of South America. Transportation and communication systems are being
developed through joint ventures by internal investment groups. River and road systems
continue to be managed and developed for improved transport of people and goods
throughout the continent. Free trade agreements have been implemented to support the
integration of internal economic networks and competition in the global marketplace.
b. Urban North and Andean West
Bordering the Caribbean is the large urban country of Venezuela. The Andes
Mountains reach into the northern part of the country and make up the terrain of the
northern coastal region all the way to the capital city of Caracas. The large grassland
plains of the Llanos extend farther south from the Colombian border to the Orinoco River
delta. The Llanos is a large, sparsely populated region that makes up about one-third of
the country. It is remote, susceptible to flooding, and used mainly for raising cattle. In the
southeast of Venezuela are the Guiana Highlands, which make for a spectacular physical
landscape of tropical forests and rugged mountainous terrain. The rugged highlands with
steep towering mesas include Angel Falls, the tallest waterfall in the world. Angel Falls
has a single drop of 2,647 feet and is Venezuela’s most popular tourist attraction. Lake
Maracaibo, a large inland sea located in the western region of the country, is not a true
lake in that it is open to the Caribbean Sea, but it is considered the largest inland body of
water in South America. Lake Titicaca, located in the Andean region of the Altiplano on
the border between Peru and Bolivia, is considered the continent’s largest freshwater
lake.
Venezuela has an assortment of physical regions, but most of the population lives
along the northern coast. About 90 percent live in urban areas, and the capital Caracas
has the highest population. This is an urbanized country. Less than 5 percent of the
population lives south of the Orinoco River, and Amerindian groups live in the interior
and along the river. Venezuela is located within the Mixed Mestizo Cultural Region of
South America. The country has a heavy Spanish influence laid over an Amerindian base
in a plantation region known for its African infusion. There is also a strong Caribbean
cultural flavor, which is evident in the region’s music and lifestyle. Venezuela has a
number of islands off its northern coast. The official language is Spanish, but more than
thirty Indigenous languages are still spoken in the country.
Three ranges of the Andes Mountains run from north to south through Colombia,
a country larger than the nine most southeastern U.S. states. With a land area covering
about 440,839 square miles, Colombia is more than ten times larger than the U.S. state of
Kentucky and close to twice the size of France. Colombia borders five countries, with the
Caribbean to the north, the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Orinoco River to the east, and a
short segment of the Amazon River to the far south. Even though agriculture has been a
mainstay of the country’s economic activities, because of the influence of the
mountainous terrain, about 80 percent of the country’s population of about 50 million
people lives in urban areas. The fertility rate has decreased from over six in 1960 to the
replacement level of 2.1 in 2020. [1] The three largest cities are world class in size and all
located in the interior. Medellin and Cali, are the second- and third-largest cities in the
country, and the capital city is Bogotá.
Colombia’s tropical climate and its many remote areas contributed to its
development as a major coca-growing region. The coca plant grows throughout the
slopes of the Andes, from Colombia to Bolivia. Historically, locals have chewed it or
brewed it into tea. Coca can alleviate elevation sickness and act as a mild stimulant.
Using modern methods and strong chemicals, the coca leaves can be converted into
cocaine, a powerful narcotic. It often takes up to a ton of such chemicals to produce a kilo
of cocaine. Once the process is completed, most of the chemicals are discarded and
frequently find their way into nearby rivers and streams, which are the same water
supplies that local people drink, clean with, and bathe in. Birth defects have become a
problem in coca-growing regions because of the high levels of chemical pollution in
water supplies. By the 1970s, extensive drug smuggling had developed, and powerful
drug cartels became major political brokers within the country, competing against the
government for control of Colombia.
Colombia’s two main legal exports are coffee and oil. Coffee is only grown in the
tropics, since coffee trees must be grown in a frost-free environment. Coffee trees, which
originally grew in Ethiopia, have since been grown throughout the equatorial regions of
the world. There are various types of coffee with Arabica and Robusta being the two
most common. Coffee grown in South America is Arabica. Arabica coffee trees can grow
in elevations from sea level to 6,000 feet, but most of the best specialty coffee is grown at
elevations between 3,000 to 6,000 feet. Colombia has ideal conditions for growing coffee
and was once the world’s largest coffee producer, which is now Brazil. Robusta coffee
trees can produce more coffee and grow well at lower elevations but does not have the
same flavor as Arabica. Vietnam is the largest producer of Robusta coffee.
The Central Andes, which includes Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, were home to the
Inca Empire. The empire had gone through some internal divisions and was working on
unifying the region when Francisco Pizarro’s small army defeated the Incan warriors and
brought about colonial rule beginning in the 1530s. Many cultures lived in the Central
Andes before the Inca, and their legacy continues in the customs and the traditions of the
Amerindian people who still live there today. Spanish is the official language, or the
lingua franca, but Indigenous languages are widely spoken and dominate in the rural
areas and remote villages. Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia make up the core of the Rural
Amerindian Region of South America. There have been border disputes among the three
countries, and also with their neighbors. Nevertheless, they all share the Andes and have
many things in common.
The physical geography of the Central Andes includes more than just the high
Andes Mountains, although they dominate the landscape. The coastal region to the west
of the Andes is generally warmer than the cooler climate of the mountains. The interior
equatorial region is rather humid. The coastal region in southern Peru is dry and arid
because of the ocean currents and the rain shadow effect of the Andes, which creates the
Atacama Desert that extends up from northern Chile. Southwest Bolivia has some of the
world’s largest salt flats in this dry and barren region. In the interior, on the eastern side
of the mountain ranges, is the huge expanse of the Amazon Basin. Tropical and humid
with heavy precipitation is generally the climate rule. Rainforests and jungle fauna can be
found on the eastern slopes. The Altiplano region has the high-elevation Lake Titicaca.
The variations in physical terrain provide extensive biodiversity in animal and plant
species. It also supports a variety of economic activities to exploit the bountiful natural
resources.
The region’s main income comes from exports of minerals, fossil fuels, and
agricultural products. Oil is the number one means of gaining national wealth in Ecuador
and Peru; natural gas is the number one export of Bolivia. Gold, silver, tin, and other
minerals are also abundant and are being exploited as conditions allow. The Spanish
opened up a large silver-mining operation in Potosí, Bolivia, which continues to be
exploited with modern mining methods. Potosí, one of the earth’s highest-elevation cities
at 13,420 feet above sea level, once had the largest silver mine in the world.
Tourism is expanding to connect travelers with opportunities to explore Incan and
pre-Incan sites, which are the main attractions. One of the main tourist attractions in Peru
is the ancient city of Machu Picchu in the Andes not far from the historical city of Cuzco.
Ecuador’s major tourist attraction is the Galapagos Islands, which aided Charles Darwin
in understanding natural selection and the evolutionary process. Bolivia has a number of
ancient sites that predate the Inca and have become major tourism destinations. The
ancient sites of Tiahuanaco and Puma Punku along with the enigmatic Lake Titicaca are
good examples.
Economics usually drive politics. Accordingly, Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia have
endured some serious ups and downs in their political environment. Corruption,
authoritarianism, and human rights violations have been common accusations toward the
political leadership of the countries. To address the economic condition of his country in
2000, Ecuador’s president announced that the country would adopt the U.S. dollar as its
main medium of exchange. This may have brought some economic stability, but it did not
address the problems of a high national debt and a fluctuation in commodity prices. All
three countries have undergone political turmoil. Large percentages of the populations
live in poverty. Bolivia is considered one of the poorest countries in South America. In
2006, Bolivia elected a socialist president from the MAS (Movement for Socialism) party
who was from an Amerindian minority population rather than a member of the wealthy
elite. In Peru, a number of presidents have been forced to resign, and military coups have
also produced leadership changes.
Population growth is a major factor in the future of Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia.
About one-third of the population of this region resides in rural areas and make a living
from subsistence agriculture. All three countries have large populations in relation to the
production of adequate food. Peru and Bolivia are large countries in physical area but do
not have a high percentage of arable land. Ruralto-urban shift is increasing and the major
cities are continuing to expand, overtaxing public works and social services.
Paraguay is located in the Mixed Mestizo Cultural Region between Brazil,
Argentina, and Bolivia. This landlocked country is not located in the Andes. The
country’s poor economic characteristics and troublesome political dynamics are similar to
those of its neighbors in the Central Andes. These characteristics demonstrate a
peripheral region. Like other Latin American countries, most of the population practices
Catholicism. Spanish is one of the main languages along with Guarani, the local language
of the people. The country’s name comes from the Paraguay River, which flows through
the region and provides hydroelectric dams that provide all the electricity for the country.
Paraguay suffers from a lack ofinfrastructure. The government has not been able to
provide for the needs of a growing population even though the fertility rate has continued
to decline. The fertility rate declined from an average 4.3 births per woman in the late
1990s to about 2 in 2013, and to 1.89 in 2021, as a result of the greater educational
attainment of women, increased use of contraception, and a desire for smaller families
among young women.
As much as 40 percent of the population makes its living from agriculture.
However, conditions in the rural areas are poor: less than 10 percent of the land is arable.
There is not much agricultural growth that could boost the economy. Paraguay is a major
producer of soybeans, and cattle ranching is its other strong commodity. A large portion
of the marshlands have been transformed for agricultural purposes, but this has caused a
loss of wetlands as a habitat.
The economy is afflicted by poverty and an absence of opportunities and
advantages. Connections to global markets are hindered by the lack of an international
port. Corruption and unstable governments are the political system’s legacy. There is a
wide disparity between the social elites, who own a high percentage of the land, and most
of the population, which remains in poverty with poor living conditions. Larger rural
families and rural-to-urban shift has caused rapid growth of the urban areas. Sixty percent
of the population lives in the cities, and they often suffer from insanitary conditions
because of water pollution. The largest slums in the country are found in the expanse of
the capital city of Asuncion, which has almost two million people. In the urban areas,
there is a strong informal market economy that thrives on imported goods being
redistributed to other countries, but there is no formal record-keeping system. An
enormous number of informalmarket goods are brought in and resold to neighboring
countries such as Brazil and Argentina, its two largest trading partners. In such
conditions, crime and illegal activities thrive, and the rule of law is difficult to enforce.
c. Brazil
Brazil, the largest country in South America, is similar in physical area to the
continental United States (i.e., the United States without Alaska or Hawaii). Catholicism
is the dominant religion and Portuguese is the primary language. Once a Portuguese
colony, the country’s culture was built on European immigration and labor of enslaved
Africans, making for a rich mixture of ethnic backgrounds.
In colonial times, Brazil was a part of the Atlantic Trade Triangle, which
functioned as a transportation conveyor, moving goods and people around the regions
bordering the Atlantic Ocean. Colonial merchant ships financed by Europe’s wealthy
elite brought manufactured goods to the coast of West Africa to trade for individuals held
by local powers, who were shipped to the Americas and the Caribbean to provide forced
labor for the colonies. The last leg of the Atlantic Trade Triangle moved agricultural
products such as sugar, tobacco, and rum from the colonies back to the European ports.
The merchant ships never sailed with an empty hold, and their successful voyages
provided enormous profits to the European financiers.
The total number of individuals taken as enslaved people from Africa is unclear
and often debated. It is estimated that more than 10 million enslaved Africans survived
the Middle Passage from Africa to the Western Hemisphere, which is more than the
current population of Bolivia. Slavery supplied cheap labor for the plantations and
agricultural operations in the New World. Brazil took in more enslaved Africans than any
other single country—at least 3 million. Coastal colonial Brazil thrived on early
plantation agriculture. When slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888, the formerly
enslaved people found themselves on the lower end of the socioeconomic hierarchy.
People of mixed African descent now make up more than one-third of Brazil’s
population. The AfroBrazilian heritage remains strong and dominates the country’s east
coast. The African influence is evident in everything from the samba schools of the
Brazilian carnival to the music and traditions of the people. In spite of Brazil being a
culturally diverse country, Africans still have not found themselves on an even playing
field in terms of economic or political opportunities in positions of power in the country.
Brazil’s human development patterns are an example of the core-periphery spatial
relationship. The main economic core area is located in the Southeast region of Brazil, an
area that is home to the largest cities of the realm and acts as the hub for industrial and
economic activities. Political and economic power is held by elites residing in the urban
core areas. The rural northern Amazon Basin is the heart of the periphery, providing raw
materials and resources needed in the core. The periphery has a small population density,
and a small population of Amerindian groups that make a living from subsistence
agriculture, mining, and forestry. Rural-to-urban shift has prompted many of the rural
farm workers to migrate to the large cities.
Founded in 1554 as a Catholic mission, the city of São Paulo rests at the heart of
the core region. Its pattern of development is similar to that of Mexico City. São Paulo is
located about thirty miles inland from the coast of Southeast Brazil. Coffee production
was the early basis of the local economy. São Paulo has grown to be the center of trade
and industry for Brazil, but Rio de Janeiro often receives greater attention because of
tourism. With more than 20 million people, São Paulo is the largest industrial metropolis
south of the Equator, the largest city in South America, and among the largest cities on
the planet.
Just as the megacities of southern Brazil anchor the core of the country, it is the
rural expanse of the Amazon North that makes up the periphery. A region the size of
Europe, the Amazon River Basin is a frontier development area that has been exploited
for its natural resources. Rubber barons of early years traveled up the Amazon River and
established the port city of Manaus to organize rubber plantations for automobile tires.
The Amazon River is large enough for oceangoing vessels to travel to Manaus. Today,
Manaus has a free-trade zone with an entire industrial complex for the production of
electronic goods and an ultramodern airport facility. Smaller ships can continue up the
Amazon River all the way to Iquitos in Peru, which makes Manaus an ideal core city for
economic trade, smuggling, and transshipment of illegal goods and animals.
The other regions of the Amazon Basin have not been as fortunate as Manaus.
Deforestation from cattle ranching, logging, and mining have devastated parts of the
tropical rainforests of the Amazon Basin. The Amerindian populations have also suffered
from encroachment into their lands. Only about 200,000 Amerindians are estimated to
remain in Brazil, and most reside in the Amazon interior. This region boasts one of the
world’s leading reserves of iron ore; as much as one-third of Europe’s iron ore demands
are met through extensive mining southwest of Belém. In this area, a development
scheme known as the Grande Carajás Project was implemented to create the
infrastructure to support the mining complex and aid in the exploitation of the iron ore
and other minerals. A large dam was built to provide hydroelectric power, and a railroad
line was laid down to transport the ore to the Atlantic coast. The availability of
transportation and energy attract other economic activities. Deforestation for cattle
ranching and farming has increased. Many poor settlers have arrived seeking employment
opportunities or a chance to obtain land. The rapidly expanding development activities in
the Amazon Basin have boosted the region’s economic situation, but at the same time,
there is growing concern about the preservation of the natural environment.
The core-peripheral spatial relationship can help us understand the power of
Brazil’s Southeast core and the natural resource base of the country’s peripheral north.
This can explain the basic layout of Brazil’s economic geography, but the northeast, the
Central-West, and the south are three additional regions to consider that contribute to the
geographic understanding of the country. Each has specific qualities that make it unique
in Brazil’s diversity of landscapes.
The Northeast region is anchored along the coast, where plantation agriculture
thrived during the colonial era. Enslaved Africans became the main labor base, and once
freed, they made up most of the population. This agricultural region still grows sugarcane
along the coast and other crops inland where the rainfall is reduced. The inland region
includes parts of the Brazilian Highland, which runs parallel to the coast. Agriculture has
traditionally required a large labor base, and family sizes in rural areas have been larger
than their urban counterparts. This trend has given rise to a regional population of more
than 50 million. However, the agriculture-based economy has not been able to supply the
number of jobs and opportunities required for this large population. Poverty and
unemployment in the northeast are high and have a devastating effect on the people.
Some farms are not large enough for families to make a living on. Individuals in the
northeast have developed a pattern of migration to the larger cities of the core area,
looking for opportunities and employment—a pattern that fuels the self-constructed
housing in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.
The Central-West region has been opening up for development since the last part
of the twentieth century and has experienced enormous advancements in industrial
agriculture. In this region, vast cerrado grasslands are being plowed and converted into
colossal fields of soybeans, grains, and cotton. The northwest portion of the cerrado is the
huge Motto Grosso Plateau, which almost covers the largest state of the region. The
landscape of this plateau is mainly scrub forest and savanna. Traditionally, the savanna
portions have been used for grazing livestock, but in recent years more of the land is
being plowed for growing agricultural crops. The entire Central-West region of Brazil is
a giant breadbasket for the country. Its full agricultural potential has not been reached.
Industrial agriculture requires infrastructure and transportation networks to transport the
harvests to market, but the government has not kept up with the development of
infrastructure at the same rate as the private sector has been developing industrial
agricultural production. This region has enormous potential for agricultural expansion in
the future.
Located on the eastern edge of the Central-West region is the forward capital of
Brasilia. Its creation was prompted by the need to further develop the country’s interior.
Built in 1960 and now a metropolitan center with more than 4.1 million people, the city
was planned and designed to be a capital city. Because of its rapid growth and
development, the city faces issues similar to those found in Rio de Janeiro or São Paulo.
Rural-to-urban shift has brought many rural people to Brasilia in search of opportunities
and employment. Just as Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo have favelas, Brasilia has low
income areas and self-constructed districts, too. Moving the capital to Brasilia moved the
focus from the coastal region of the south to the interior. However, a large percentage of
the interior lies beyond the city of Brasilia. Highways that reach the Amazon can be
accessed from the capital, but large areas of Brazil’s interior remain a frontier
unexploited by development. Developing these areas may bring great opportunities and
benefits to the country; however, recent development activities have also brought
devastation to the tropical rainforests in many parts of the frontier.
The three states of the South region are located well south of the Tropic of
Capricorn and extend south to the border with Uruguay. This extrusion is often called
South Brazil. Brazil was colonized by the Portuguese, but many of the immigrants to the
south were from other parts of Europe, including Germany and Italy. The Italian
immigrants developed a growing wine industry, and the German immigrants raised cattle
and grew other crops. The region’s good soils and moderate climate support many types
of agriculture, which have dominated the early development of the region. Success in
growing rice, tobacco, and raising livestock has brought prosperity to the people who live
here. Brazil has been one of the world’s main producers of tobacco for many years, and
the tobacco from the south is regarded for its high nicotine content.
The south is one of Brazil’s most affluent regions, and it has gained much wealth
from agricultural activities. Farming is only one of the region’s highly developed
economic activities. The area is also blessed with natural resources such as coal that is
shipped north to the main cities where steel is produced. The wealth of the region has
provided support for high-tech industries, which are attracted to the region because of the
supply of skilled labor, access to quality transportation, and communication links.
Computer companies have established software firms that have in turn attracted other
new companies. A technology center similar to California’s Silicon Valley has combined
with the manufacturing complex that has sprouted up along the coast of the south. The
government and the business community have both provided economic incentives for
these and other emerging enterprises.
The attractiveness of the region in terms of both physical geography and
economic stability has prompted some who live there to suggest that the region should
separate from Brazil and become an independent country. Along the same vein, residents
of the region have discouraged immigrants from poorer regions of other Brazilian states
from moving here. Poor migrants seeking opportunities or employment are often rejected
and provided transportation back to where they came from just to keep them from
becoming residents. Nevertheless, many people have migrated to the south. The region is
host to immigrants from Japan and the Middle East. The progressive cities and striking
environmental conditions will continue to attract people to live here.
d. The Southern Cone
The Southern Cone region of South America includes the countries of Uruguay,
Argentina, and Chile. The name is an indication of the physical shape of the southern
portion of the continent. The region is located south of the tropics. The Tropic of
Capricorn runs just north of Uruguay and cuts across the northern regions of Argentina
and Chile. The Southern Cone has more moderate temperatures than the tropics. Type C
climates dominate in Uruguay, the Pampas region of Argentina, and central Chile. The
region has extremes in weather and climate. The Atacama Desert and Patagonia both
have type B climates because of a lack of precipitation, which stems from the rain
shadow effect of the Andes Mountains. Highland type H climates follow the Andes chain
through the region and exhibit their typical pattern of warmer temperatures at lower
elevations and colder temperatures at higher elevations.
The countries of the Southern Cone share similar economic and ethnic patterns.
Agriculture has been a major focus of the region’s early development pattern, but today a
large percentage of the population is urbanized. The European heritage of most of the
population ties this region to Europe as an early trading partner. The global economy has
given cause for these countries to form trade relationships with many countries. The
physical geography has provided many opportunities for human activities. The
mountains, plains, and coastal areas provide a diversity of natural resources that have
been exploited for national wealth. All three countries have primate cities that hold a high
percentage of the country’s population. Primate cities are usually twice as large as the
next largest city and usually are exceptionally expressive of the national feeling and
culture. In this case, all three primate cities are also the capital cities of each country. The
Southern Cone is an urban region with higher incomes and higher standards of living than
many other parts of South America.
Uruguay is located along the South Atlantic coast bordering Argentina and Brazil.
The only South American country smaller in physical area is Suriname. French Guiana is
also smaller than Uruguay but remains a department of France. Uruguay has the location,
natural resources, and global trade connections to provide ample opportunities and
advantages for its people. The agricultural lands of the Pampas extend into Uruguay and
provide for an extensive agricultural industry with livestock, small grains, vegetables, and
dairy. This agricultural base has been the foundation of Uruguay’s growing economy.
South America’s second-largest country is Argentina. In physical area, Argentina
is ranked eighth in the world. The Andes Mountains span its entire western border with
Chile. At the southern end of the continent is Tierra del Fuego. Argentina is a land of
extremes. Mt. Aconcagua is the highest mountain in the Western Hemisphere at 22,841
feet in elevation, and Laguna del Carbon is the lowest point in the Western Hemisphere at
−344 feet below sea level. Parts of the northern region have a tropical climate; the
southern region extends into tundra-like conditions with treeless plains. Argentina also
claims the Falkland Islands, which are now controlled by Great Britain. In 1982,
Argentina’s ruling military junta attempted to retake control of the Falklands, but the
British navy halted the action in what became known as the Falklands War.
Argentina can be categorized into a number of regions that correlate roughly with
the varied physical and cultural landscapes of the country. The main regions include
Chaco, Northern, Mesopotamia, Cuyo, Pampas, and Patagonia. The Northern region of
Argentina has one of the highest average elevations because of the Andes Mountain
Ranges. The Andes ranges widen as they proceed northward to the west of Chaco and are
home to fertile river valleys. The northern ends of the ranges extend into Bolivia and
enter the Altiplano of the Central Andes
Argentina, with a population of about 45 million, is a country of immigrants and a
product of the colonial transfer of European culture to the Western Hemisphere. During
the colonial era, millions of people immigrated to Argentina from Western European
countries such as France, Germany, Switzerland, Portugal, Greece, the British Isles, and
Scandinavia. Additional immigrants came from Eastern Europe and Russia. Eighty-five
percent of the population is of European descent; the largest ethnic groups are Spanish
and Italian. The Mestizo population is only at about 8 percent. A small number of people
from the Middle East or East Asia have immigrated and make up about 4 percent of the
population. Less than 2 percent of Argentines declare themselves to be Amerindians.
Old World European customs mix with New World Latin American traditions to
form a cultural heritage unique to Argentina. This cultural heritage can be experienced in
the metropolitan city of Buenos Aires, where all facets of society and culture can be
found. With a population of about 15 million—one-third of Argentina’s total population
—Buenos Aires is a world-class city. Argentina is an urban country: more than 90
percent of the population lives in cities. The rural side of the culture has often been
characterized as the traditional gaucho (cowboy) image of the self-reliant rancher who
herds cattle and lives off the land. Beef is a mainstay of the cuisine in much of the
country. The urban culture includes the traditional Argentine tango with music and
camaraderie in upscale night clubs. These traditional images may be stereotypes, but the
cultural scene in Argentina is heavily invested in the international trends of the modern
world. The cultural landscape has become integrated with fashions and trends from
across the globe.
The people of Argentina have a good standard of living, and the country is up-
and-coming on a world scale. The main problem has been the instability of the
government during the twentieth century. The Argentine constitution provides for a
balance of powers between the judicial, legislative, and executive divisions, similar to
that of other democratic republics. The political environment has not always been stable.
For many decades in the twentieth century, the state vacillated between a democratically
elected government and military rule. The swings back and forth have been consistent
and regular, which has wreaked havoc on the economy, resulting in everything from
hyperinflation to brutal authoritarian rule.
An example of the national swings in Argentina occurred between 1946 and 1955,
when General Juan Perón was elected president. His wife, Eva (popularly known as
Evita), became a public sensation. “Peronism” started out with populous support and a
shift toward improving working conditions and increasing government spending. At the
same time, censorship, isolationism, and repression of civil rights were elevated to a point
of social unrest. Opposition members were imprisoned or killed. Eva Perón died of
cancer in 1952, and Juan Perón was eventually ousted from office and fled to Spain. He
later returned from exile to gain prominence in politics once again but died in office in
1974. Other presidents came to power only to be deposed or ousted by military coups.
The instability in the political arena created problems for the economic sector, which had
to deal with inflated currency and an unattractive environment for foreign investments.
More recently, there has been some progress in stabilizing both the government and the
economy, but political instability remains a factor. Argentina has abundant natural
resources, adequate infrastructure, and an educated work force. The country has all the
necessary means to launch into the future with a strong economy—as long as it is able to
establish a stable government and a sound economic agenda.
Chile is a long, narrow country on the western edge of southern South America.
Chile is 2,500 miles long and only 90 miles wide on average. This country borders the
Pacific Ocean on one side and the Andes Mountains on the other. Chile has a variety of
environmental zones, administrative districts, and climate patterns. Temperatures are
cooler as one moves south toward Tierra del Fuego, which is split between Chile and
Argentina. Rain has never fallen in select areas of northern Chile, which includes the
Atacama Desert, one of the driest places on Earth and home to one of the world’s greatest
copper and nitrate reserves. The nitrates found in the Atacama Desert are used in plant
fertilizers, pottery enamels, and solid rocket fuel.
The climate is due to the rain shadow effect. In northern Chile and the Atacama
region, prevailing winds reach northern Chile from the east and hit the Andes Mountain
chain, which are some of the highest mountains on the continent. The height of the Andes
causes any moisture from rain clouds to precipitate on the eastern slopes. The western
side of the Andes Mountains at that latitude receives little or absolutely no precipitation,
causing extreme desert conditions in the Atacama region of Chile. Southern Chile
receives a large amount of rainfall because the prevailing winds at that latitude come
from the west. Here the winds, which have picked up moisture over the South Pacific
Ocean, hit the western side of the Andes. The air then precipitates out its moisture as it
rises up the mountainsides of the western slopes of the Andes. Less moisture reaches the
eastern side of the mountains, creating a rain shadow with arid and dry conditions for the
region called Patagonia in southern Argentina. The Andes are not as high in elevation in
the south, which allows some precipitation to fall on the rain shadow side.
The people of Chile are 95 percent European and Mestizo. They have worked to
establish a good education system and an increasing standard of living. The country had a
relatively stable government until the 1970s, when a short revolution brought a military
dictatorship to power until 1989. The 1990s brought about a surge in economic
development that has continued into the twenty-first century. The political situation has
stabilized, and the first woman president, Michelle Bachelet, served 2006–2010 and was
elected again in 2014. The political system is faced with the unequal distribution of
wealth that is common in Latin America and many other countries of the world. Half the
country’s wealth is concentrated in the hands of about 10 percent of the population.
About 50 percent of the population is on the lower end of the socioeconomic scale. Dire
poverty exists in Chile, but it is not as prevalent here as it is in the Central Andes,
Paraguay, or Northeast Brazil. Chile has a stable government, a strong education system,
and a thriving middle class.
Chile has been increasing its trading activities with its counterparts in the Pacific
Rim in Europe and North America. Chile has an abundance of fish in its coastal waters
and copper and minerals in the Atacama Desert and has been exporting timber products
from its southern region. The United States is one of Chile’s main trading partners.
Chile’s main commodity exports to the United States include paper, minerals, metals, and
copper. Major agricultural products that are shipped to the United States include
processed fruits, tomatoes, grapes, vegetables, and wines. There are several good reasons
why the United States trades with Chile even though it is the farthest country from the
United States in South America. International trade and the seasonal patterns of
agriculture have much to do with the benefits. The seasonal variations between the
northern and southern hemisphere create a balance between the two. When it is winter in
the north, it is summer in the south. Each has an opposing growing season for fruits and
vegetables that can complement the other. Chile is an excellent counter to the opposite
growing season in the Northern Hemisphere.
Mexico and USMCA, you will remember that after the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was implemented in 1994, Chile was considered a “silent”
partner. In 1994 during a summit meeting, the president of Mexico, Canada’s prime
minister, and the U.S. president agreed to allow Chile to join NAFTA. Chile’s president
declared his support for his country to join NAFTA. The agreement could not be
completed because of negotiation approval by the U.S. Congress. At that time Chile
entered into independent free trade agreements with both Canada and Mexico. A similar
free trade agreement was later signed between the United States and Chile in 2003. Thus,
Chile has similar independent free trade agreements similar to NAFTA with all three
North American countries now in the upgraded NAFTA called the USMCA. In this
situation, Chile is an associate trading partner and enjoys the privileges of USMCA
membership without technically being listed as a member. The United States was really
looking to counter Chile’s trade with Japan and Europe. Increased trade with North
America diminished Chile’s trade with the European Union or the East Asian
community.
As copper and natural resource prices fluctuate, creating unstable economic
conditions, Chile has been expanding into the manufacturing sector. To retain the highest
value-added profits and expand its economy, Chile will have to enlarge its manufacturing
sector. Today Chile produces modest quantities of basic chemicals and electronic goods.
Chile’s expansion of business and commerce has been endorsed as a model of successful
economic development to be emulated by other Latin American countries.
Chile has strong ties to the economies of North America, but in spite of close ties
with the north, Chile has retained its unique status in the Southern Cone. Chile still has its
own currency even though countries with smaller economies, such as Ecuador, Panama,
and El Salvador, have adopted the U.S. dollar as their medium of exchange. As of 2021,
the USMCA members of Canada, the United States, and Mexico, along with their trading
partner of Chile, all used different currencies. The U.S. dollar is the most widely used
currency in the world and is often a trade currency in regard to items like oil for example.
There has been talk of creating a similar currency within USMCA that would replicate
the European Union’s solution, which was to create a single currency, the euro. World
currencies fluctuate in value, and a stable currency would increase the capacity for
creating larger trading blocs that could do business on a more even economic playing
field. Chile has individual free trade agreements with all three members of USMCA, so
any change in currency with the USMCA countries would also affect Chile. Various
South American efforts have also discussed a single currency along with an
interconnected highway system for the continent.
