Self-efficacy in the context of physical activity

Self-Efficacy and PBC

This section describes self-efficacy and PBC and discusses the concept of self-efficacy

within the context of physical activity. The research gaps are identified at Section 2.6.3.

Since the initial description of TPB, there has been some confusion concerning the

relationship between self-efficacy and PBC (Manstead & Eekelen, 1998). The extent to

which people believe they can perform a given behaviour if they are inclined to do so is

termed as PBC in TPB (Ajzen, 2008). Self-efficacy was defined by Bandura (1995) as

people’s beliefs in relation to their capability to produce performances that influence

events affecting their lives; Ajzen (2005) suggested that self-efficacy is a lower level

individual believes they have about performing a behaviour (Giles-Corti & Donovan,

2002; and Hamilton & White, 2008). There have also been suggestions that PBC and

self-efficacy overlap conceptually (Downs & Hausenblas, 2005a; Manstead & Eekelen,

1998) with self-efficacy being more clearly defined and conceptualized than PBC

(Armitage & Conner, 2001).

There is a growing body of evidence that supports the theoretical difference between

the two constructs (Armitage & Conner, 1999, 2001; Norman & Hoyle, 2004) with

findings showing a strong relationship between self-efficacy and intention (Conner &

Armitage, 1998). In a study on the application of TPB and self-efficacy in the prediction

of intention and behaviour of breast self-examination by Norman and Hoyle (2004), it

component analysis showed that items measuring perception of control and self-efficacy

that it provided support to the distinction between self-efficacy and PBC, and self-

efficacy emerged as the stronger predictor of intention and behaviour.

The concepts of self-efficacy and PBC can also be differentiated by the ways in which

they are measured. PBC is measured by asking direct questions about capacity to

perform a behaviour or indirectly on the basis of beliefs about the ability to deal with any

inhibiting or facilitating factors (Ajzen, 2002). A majority of studies used the direct

measures approach but the indirect measures have the advantage of providing insight

into the cognitive foundation underlying the perception of behavioural control (Ajzen,

2002). As self-efficacy is concerned with the confidence in one’s ability to perform a

behaviour, it is measured by asking participants to rate their confidence in their ability to

1995).

A study to predict intention to perform regular exercise and actual exercise behaviour by

Terry and O’Leary (1995) found that separate measures should be employed for self-

efficacy and PBC. In this study, 146 undergraduates were recruited in a prospective

design with data collected at baseline and at 2-week intervals. The result from

confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that items for self-efficacy and PBC loaded

separately and PBC emerged as a significant predictor of behaviour but not intention. In

contrast, self-efficacy was associated with intention but not actual behaviour.

From the reviews of previous studies, it can be concluded that both PBC and self-

efficacy are distinct but closely related constructs that exert influence on intention and

behaviour. As such, the present study will adopt a separate set of questions to measure

performance accomplishments, social/verbal persuasion, vicarious

experiences/modelling and interpretation of physical/emotional states (Samson &

Solmon, 2011). Examples of past performance are a successful performance of a

behaviour which strengthens the self-efficacy for that behaviour (Yoon et al., 2013).

Verbal persuasion alone has limited influence but it can encourage an individual to

persevere and there are four forms of verbal persuasion: feedback, social support, goal-

setting and self-talk (Samson & Solmon, 2011). In vicarious experiences, observing

others succeed or fail can influence an individual’s self-efficacy and often when we see

what others are able to do, we will use that information to form our own expectation of

that behaviour (Yoon et al., 2013). Physiological information, for example, strength,

& Solmon, 2011; Yoon et al., 2013); this means that people with high levels of self-

efficacy are more likely to pursue their goals and persevere despite setbacks compared

to people with low self-efficacy who tend to give up when challenged with obstacles.

In addition to influencing engagement in physical activity behaviour, self-efficacy can

also affect the enjoyment that one derives from participating in exercise (Samson &

Solmon, 2011; Yoon et al., 2013). Physical activity clearly exerts psychological and

physical demands where the feelings of enhanced physical fitness, reduction of stress