QUANTITATIVE CRITIQUE 1
Research Critique: Quantitative
School of Education, Liberty University
Author Note
I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
QUANTITATIVE CRITIQUE 2
Research Critique: Quantitative
This review seeks to evaluate the research study “The Effectiveness of a Teacher-
Delivered Mindfulness-Based Curriculum on Adolescent Social-Emotional and Executive
Functioning” by Frank et al. (2021). The review provides a summary and critical analysis of the
study. In the closing paragraph, I discuss my professional experience regarding this research
topic.
Summary
Purpose
The purpose of the study conducted by Frank et al. (2021) was to evaluate the impact of
the mindfulness-based curriculum called Learning to Breathe (L2B) in authentic learning
environments. This program, designed to boost emotional regulations and executive functions,
was taught to high school adolescents by trained and certified educators. The L2B curriculum
analyzed the students’ outcomes concerning their social and emotional well-being, mental health,
substance use, and executive function.
Participants/Sample
The study involved 255 participants from two urban high schools in the Northeast. These
students were randomized to either the L2B curriculum or their regular health education class.
131 students were enrolled in the intervention group, while 124 were in the control group. The
final sample consisted of 251 students (4 participants absent), with a diverse racial/ethnic
composition of 50% White, 16% Black, 9% Hispanic, and 5.6% Asian. The mean age was 16
years, with 55% in two-biological-parent families, 19% with stepparents, and 19.5% with single
parents.
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Research Design
The study employed a quasi-experimental control-group trial design, more specifically, a
randomized controlled trial (RCT), since the participants were randomly assigned to either the
regular health education curriculum (control group) or the L2B program (intervention group).
Participants in the control group were taught traditional lessons from the regular health
curriculum, such as health and abuse relationships, bullying, human reproduction, contraception,
and substance abuse. In contrast, the students in the intervention group took part in a series of
lessons primarily based on the BREATHE (body, reflections, emotions, attention, tenderness,
healthy habits, and empowerment) acronym (Frank et al., 2021).
Method of Data Collection
Pre-test assessments were conducted one week before the intervention during the fall
semester. Students undertook a 30-minute online series of self-report assessments and a 30-
minute series of computer-administered executive function evaluations (Frank et al., 2021).
Post-test evaluations were conducted one week after the program concluded at the end of the fall
semester. Both direct evaluations of executive function results at the post-test and student self-
report measures were collected. Scale scores were calculated for participants who answered at
least 80% of the items. Other data was collected throughout the program by using theBChild and
Adolescent Mindfulness Measure(CAMM), theBSelf-Compassion Scale - Short Form (SCS-SF),
theBDifficulties in Emotion Regulation ScaleB(DERS), the Patient Health QuestionnaireB(PHQ-8),
the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7), theBRumination and Reflection
QuestionnaireB(RRQ), Adolescent Stress QuestionnaireB(ASQ) and a modifiedBEmotional Faces
N-back TaskB(EFN-back) to assess working memory, among others.
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Method of Analysis
Main effects were examined utilizing linear regression models for normally distributed
continuous outcomes and generalized linear models for non-normally distributed count
outcomes. The statistical software Mplus 7.2 was utilized for all outcome analyses, and
Cronbach's alpha was employed to evaluate measurement reliability at baseline. Only pre-test
results and a dummy variable that represented school affiliation were included as covariates for
self-report, neurocognitive/behavioral models, and additional tests of moderation (Frank et al.,
2021). A Benjamin Hochberg adjustment was also used to modify p values to account for type
I error brought on by numerous pairwise contrasts.
Results
Before conducting the analysis, variables were examined using SPSS 25.0 to verify
approximate normality, find deviations, homogeneity of variance, or any unusual missing data
patterns at the group or item level (Frank et al., 2021). No anomalous patterns of missing items
or issues with distribution were found. Concerning the impact of L2B on student self-report
measures, the study revealed no significant impact of the intervention on self-report metrics. At
post-test, participants in the intervention group indicated lower levels of lack of emotional
awareness (t =-2.58, p = 0.01, d=-0.28), increased rumination (t = 2.35, p = 0.02, d = 0.23), and
challenges in goal-directed behavior (t = 3.26, p = 0.01, d = 0.37). No significant main effects
were found on substance use outcomes, but illicit substance use was significantly lower among
students in the intervention group, indicating a 43% decrease in substance use. Results also
showed that students who were exposed to L2B demonstrated notable gains on a few elements of
two of the three emotion regulation measures (Frank et al., 2021). In certain tasks, students in the
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intervention group demonstrated a remarkably higher degree of selective attention and inhibitory
control.
Critical Analysis
Further Research
In order to determine the efficacy of the L2B curriculum and be able to make
generalizations on the relevance of social and emotional learning (SEL) programs in educational
environments, future studies should focus on different populations from diverse educational
settings, socio-economic backgrounds, and geographical areas. Concerning the implementation
of mindfulness programs in schools, researchers may look for other curriculum alternatives that
support SEL while fostering improvements in academic performance. Green et al. (2021) state
that an effective system of support that promotes social and emotional competencies and helps
students achieve positive academic, psychosocial, and mental health outcomes can be built upon
a solid universal approach to social and emotional learning in schools. Therefore, educational
leaders and teachers must collaborate and identify strategies that facilitate the successful
implementation of these programs in schools.
Threats to Validity
There are several limitations to this study, such as the fact that not all subscale measures
exhibit optimal reliability, that it was not created with adolescents in mind, and that it only looks
at the effects before and after the intervention. A longer-term longitudinal analysis of the L2B
effects is also absent from the study. Although the study adds to the increasing amount of
research on the impact of mindfulness programs taught in educational settings, the mixed results
point to the need for larger effectiveness trials that closely examine the effects of practice and
dosage. The study also offers conflicting evidence about the possible effectiveness of L2B for
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high school students. The lack of direct effects on self-report measures indicates that adolescents'
social-emotional development or behavior is unlikely to be significantly impacted by just
exposing them to a mindfulness curriculum without assistance in putting it into practice beyond
the classroom.
Original Insight/Criticism
The researchers of this study had good intentions to assess the implementation of the L2B
mindfulness program in an educational setting; however, they neglected certain factors, such as
the possibility of applying L2B strategies beyond the classroom setting, that is, in the
participants’ personal lives. The lack of a more ethnically or culturally diverse sample is also
another disadvantage to this study. Instead of having selected students from only two high
schools, it would have been better to include more educational settings from different socio-
economic backgrounds.
Implications of Findings
Even though the study has mixed results, it is a good starting point for educators or other
educational leaders who plan to implement mindfulness or other SEL programs in K-12
settings. It also provides data for future researchers to analyze and be aware of the possible
drawbacks when implementing programs that are not designed for particular audiences. In this
case, the L2B program was not specifically designed to be implemented with adolescents, but it
was created as a general mindfulness program.
Discussion
Based on my educational experience, the implementation of SEL strategies and activities
has a very positive impact on students’ school performance and personal lives. I have seen how
my current school has implemented a Core Values program that has positively impacted our
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school community. Unfortunately, for some school districts, it is hard to put SEL programs in
place because of a lack of funding. However, I think that content-area educators can be trained
to incorporate SEL strategies and activities in their lessons. This way, schools with no budget to
hire school counselors and social workers can train their current staff to incorporate SEL
strategies into their lessons. Finally, as a Christian educator, it is also my job to provide my
students with tools and opportunities for spiritual growth, self-examination, and reflection, not
just academic content. Psalms 139: 23-24 states, “Search me, O God, and know my heart: try me,
and know my thoughts: And see if there be any wicked way in me, and lead me in the way
everlasting” (King James Version, 1769/2024). These verses offer a profound example of
seeking self-improvement through God’s assistance, emphasizing reflection and guidance for
both spiritual and emotional learning processes.
.
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References
Frank, J. L., Broderick, P. C., Oh, Y., et al. (2021). The Effectiveness of a Teacher-Delivered
Mindfulness-Based Curriculum on Adolescent Social-Emotional and Executive
Functioning. Mindfulness, 12(5), 1234–1251.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-021-01594-9
Green, A. L., Ferrante, S., Boaz, T. L., Kutash, K., & Wheeldon‐Reece, B. (2021). Social and
emotional learning during early adolescence: Effectiveness of a classroom‐based SEL
program for middle school students.BPsychology in the Schools.,B58(6), 1056–1069.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22487
King James Bible. (2024). King James Bible Online. https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/ B
