Module 4
Culturally Competent Career Development
A. Traditional Assumptions of Career Theories in the United States
Ju-Shin, a 28-year-old, first-generation Asian American (her parents were from
Taiwan), presented for career counseling expressing concern about her current career
choice. She was nearing completion of her doctoral degree in counseling. Initially, she
planned on becoming a counselor educator. Recently, she was having second thoughts.
Ju-Shin reported that, lately, her interest in counseling was fading. She also confided that
she had enjoyed her research and statistics courses very much. One of her friends was
enrolled in a doctoral program in educational research, and Ju-Shin was now wondering
if this might be a better choice for her. As she spoke, the career counselor noticed that she
was very anxious. As the session continued, Ju-Shin expressed a substantial amount of
concern over how her parents would react if she were to switch degree programs. In fact,
she seemed convinced that her parents would not approve of such a change. The more Ju-
Shin discussed her concern, the more reluctant she seemed to consider changing her
program of study. Yet, she also continued to note how much she seemed to enjoy her
research-oriented courses.
Although the acquisition of such information would undoubtedly be useful to Ju-
Shin, there are other issues surrounding her career dilemma. Her career decisions play out
within the context of her family. It would be critical for Ju-Shin’s career counselor to
explore this contextual factor in career counseling. Ju-Shin’s career counselor will need
to understand how familial expectations interact with other factors (e.g., her interest in
research) influencing Ju-Shin’s career exploration. It would also be important for the
career counselor to understand the degree to which cultural stereotypes and
discriminatory behavior influence Ju-Shin’s views as to what might be possible for her to
achieve in her career. Individual and cultural interactions exist for all clients, and career
counselors must develop the requisite multicultural knowledge, skills, and awareness for
conducting culturally appropriate career counseling.
Ju-Shin demonstrates the fact that cultural variables rest at the core of the career
intervention process. to construct culturally competent career interventions, career
professionals need to embrace this fact. Career counselors also need to be sensitive to the
tremendous cultural and demographic shifts occurring in society. During the past 4
decades, the United States has been awash in cultural pluralism. According to Lee and
richardson (1991), the concept of cultural pluralism was spawned, in part, from societal,
political, and economic events occurring in the 1960s. It is also the case that the world is
becoming more demographically diverse. For example, throughout the 21st century,
people of color will experience significant growth in numbers while the White population
will decline significantly. According to the U.S Census Bureau (Jones, 2020) the White
population will decrease from 199 million in 2020 to 179 million by 2060. Within the
same years, approximately 32% of the U.S. population will be a race other than White
and the fastest growing group will be individuals who identify as two or more races. the
Black population will increase from 43 million (2016) to 61 million in the year 2060 and
the American Indian and Alaska Native population will increase from 4 million to 5.6
million. the Asian population will also increase from 18 million to 37 million between
2016 and 2020 and the hispanic population will almost double (from 57 million to 111
million). the U.S. Census Bureau projects that in 2060 there will be 74.5 million Black
people, including those of more than one race, and they will comprise 17.9% of the
population. By the year 2060 it is predicted that people of color will represent the
numerical majority in the United States (Byars-Winston, Fouad, & Wen, 2015; Colby &
Ortman 2015; Worthington, Flores, & Navarro, 2005). By the year 2060, it is also
predicted that the U.S. population will increase by 79 million people (Vespa, Medina, &
Armstrong, 2020), life expectancy will increase from 79.7 to 85.6, and those born outside
of the United States will outlive all racial groups born in the United States (Medina,
Sabo, & Vespa, 2020). In 2018, the U.S. hispanic population reached a record 59.9
million, up 1.2 million over the previous year and up from 47.8 million in 2008.
Obviously, the demographic changes experienced in the United States from 2000
to 2020 will continue to shape the composition of the labor force, which increasingly
reflects the cultural pluralism existing within society. the U.S. Department of Labor’s
2010–11 edition of the Occupational Outlook Handbook (U.S. Department of Labor,
2010) offers projected changes in the labor force, which is comprised of those looking for
work and those who are working, for the time period of 2008–18. these projected changes
indicate that among racial groups, White individuals are expected to make up a
decreasing share of the labor force, while Black individuals, Asian individuals, and all
other groups will increase. Among ethnic groups, persons of hispanic origin are projected
to increase their share of the labor force from 14.3% to 17.6%, reflecting 33.1% growth.
the labor force comprised of individuals who self-identify as male is projected to grow by
7.5% from 2008 to 2018, compared with 9.0% for the portion of the labor force who self-
identify as female. today, 52% of the U.S. population and 47% of the labor force self-
identify as women (Byars-Winston et al., 2015). the share of workers ages 16 to 24 is
expected to decrease from 14.3% in 2008 to 12.7% by 2018. the primary workingage
group, those between 25 and 54 years old, is projected to decline from 67.7% of the labor
force in 2008 to 63.5% by 2018. Workers age 55 years and older, by contrast, are
anticipated to increase from 18.1% to 23.9% of the labor force during the same period.
Changing demographics, multiple worldviews, and cultural plurality influence the
career development intervention process. Despite these developments, there continues to
be ample evidence to suggest that the aging population, women, people of color, persons
with disabilities, gay men, lesbian women, and transgender persons continue to encounter
tremendous obstacles in their career development. the average life expectancy is expected
to increase from 79.7 to 85.6 by the year 2060 and the population of individuals 65 and
older will go from 49 million to 95 million. By 2034, the U.S. Census Bureau projects
that this group will outnumber children for the first time in the nation’s history (Vespa,
Media, & Armstrong, 2020). the United States will also have 500,000 more centenarians
(individuals 100 years of age and older) by 2060. Additionally, the 85-and-older
population will also see a significant increase from 6.5 million to 11.8 million by 2035.
What does this mean? Well, people will work longer and need to find purpose in their
lives for a longer period of time. the workplace will be more diverse, not only by race,
gender, or international status, but by age as well.
The wage gap between sexes still plagues the American workforce. the number of
women entering the workforce is increasing, and there has also been an increase in hourly
wage for women. the Pew research Center found that from 1980 to 2018, the average
hourly wage went from $15 to $22 for women (a 45% increase) and went from $23 to
$26 for men (a 14% increase). Additionally, the wage gap between men and women has
narrowed from 0.67 to 0.85, making it 15 cents to the dollar. Women account for 52% of
workers in jobs that require fundamental and social skills (i.e., teaching or counseling),
and employment has doubled in jobs in those areas. For jobs that require analytical skills
(i.e., accounting or criminology), the presence of women has increased from 27% to 42%
between 1980 and 2018 (Kochhar, 2020). Despite the gains we have seen for women in
recent years, they still face a number of challenges in the workplace. Women in SteM
careers are more likely to experience discrimination related to gender, and one of every
five women who are working outside the home have experienced sexual harassment in
their place of work (Funk & Parker, 2018). Of the 23 countries that belong to the
Organization for economic Cooperation and Development (OeCD), the United States has
the seventh-largest gender earnings gap. the gender wage gap in the United States is
21.6%, well above the OeCD average of 18.5% (OeCD, 2015). Despite the fact that
women will soon comprise the majority of the labor force in the United States, the
preponderance of evidence indicates that there are still substantial challenges to address if
we are to achieve gender equity in career development.
Despite legislation aimed at protecting their rights (e.g., Public Law 93-112,
rehabilitation Act of 1973; Public Law 94-142, education for All handicapped Children
Act of 1975; Public Law 95-602, rehabilitation, Comprehensive Services, and
Developmental Disabilities Amendment of 1978; Public Law 101-476, education of the
handicapped Amendments of 1990; Public Law 101-336, Americans with Disabilities
Act of 1990), Americans with disabilities have fared no better (e.g., Dipeolu, Sniatecki,
Storlie, & hargrave, 2013; Lindstrom, Doren, Post, & Lombardi, 2013; Siperstein, Parker,
& Drascher, 2013). Persons with disabilities experienced an unemployment rate of 14.5%
in 2011 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). About 56.7 million people in the United
States in 2010 had a disability. According to the National Council on Disability (2000),
350,000 people between the ages of 18 and 25 receive Social Security income support
(and, therefore, are not employed). Widen the age range to include all adult persons with
disabilities and the data are no more positive. In 2013, 17.6% of people with a disability
were employed. this contrasts with 64% employment for those without a disability.
In recent years, the following issues have received increased attention in U.S.
society: lower graduation rates for underrepresented groups, the lack of diversity and
inclusion in certain work environments, and wrongful treatment of diverse groups. early
college high schools were created to allow students from underrepresented groups to
complete high school with their diploma along with an associate’s degree or 2 years of
college credit at little to no cost. In 2002, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation began to
support these schools, and at the time of this writing, 300 early college high schools exist
in the United States. these programs aim to create a culture that focuses on attending
college and have been effective in helping students earn their college degree, but students
in these programs also face challenges. For example, these students enter 4-year
institutions with an associate’s degree and are younger than the majority of their
classmates. their socialization may look a bit different and they may have challenges
connecting to their peers. Learning more about this option for students and thinking about
ways to address those challenges are important to the success of those programs and the
students who attend them.
Visibility is a key element of dignity for all, and Laverne Cox, a transgender
individual, starred on the show Orange is the New Black and became the first openly
transgender person to be nominated for an emmy Award. In 2016, the movie Hidden
Figures was released. the movie focused on Katherine Johnson, Mary Jackson, and
Dorothy Vaughan, three Black mathematicians who were crucial to NASA’s early space
missions. the film takes place in the 1960s and shows not only women of color in SteM
careers but also their experience working during a time when segregation was still in
place and women were not as respected in the workplace. the movie The Intern was
released in 2015 and focused on a 70-year-old White retired widower who makes the
decision to go back to work as an intern for a popular fashion website owned by a young
woman in her ‘30s. the film takes us through the journey of a retired man feeling
overwhelmed in a world he is not familiar with and ends with him being the person the
young employees look to for direction and guidance. The Good Doctor (2017) is a
television show with a diverse cast; its main character is a young White surgeon with
autism and savant syndrome. We see his struggles in trying to be understood by his
colleagues and in communicating with them and his patients. Another television show,
The Resident, is a medical drama that includes many diverse doctors and medical staff
working in the city of Atlanta. these kinds of movements and actions show that we may
see more of an effort to increase diversity and inclusion in the workplace. Career
counselors and coaches can also do their part to make sure the interventions they create
and facilitate promote diversity and inclusion.
Clearly, career practitioners must possess strong multicultural competencies that
include not only understanding the impact that discriminatory processes have on career
development but also knowing how to intervene effectively when working with clients
experiencing such processes. thus, these competencies include and extend those typically
included in multicultural counseling. Axelson (1985) defined multicultural counseling as
a helping process that places the emphasis for counseling theory and practice equally on
the cultural impression of both the counselor and client. Ivey, D’Andrea, Ivey, and
Simek-Morgan (2009) emphasize the important role that cultural background plays in
shaping a person’s view of reality. these perspectives provide excellent starting points for
career practitioners relative to cultural competencies. Important factors to address in
designing and delivering culturally competent career development interventions include
the degree to which interventions address universal and/or culturally specific variables,
the degree of ethnocentrism embedded in career interventions, the client’s level of
acculturation, and the client’s identity development. Of course, the career development
practitioner must be aware of how these same factors influence his conceptualization of
the clients and the identification of appropriate career interventions.
As identities combine, they influence how a person experiences oppression,
privilege, and power. Additionally, intersectionality shapes self-perceptions and how
likely (or unlikely) one views possibilities in career development. As Cooper (2017)
points out, one can experience a position of privilege and an oppressed identity
simultaneously, depending upon the specific intersection of those identities. As we
discuss identity development models, it is important to consider the ways in which
different identities could intersect. More specifically, you should reflect upon your own
experience with intersectionality as well as how intersectionality influences the self-
understanding and worldview of your clients. Chan, Cor, and Band (2018) highlight the
importance of factoring intersectionality into counselor education and counseling
intervention processes. Specifically, they note that “two or more cultural identities are
difficult to be treated as separate constructs, considering their relationship with each other
(e.g., race and gender) and the process of identity development that occurs in tandem”
(2018, p. 61). Understanding the person’s interconnecting identity processes and how
they influence the person’s consideration of career possibilities is especially relevant
when at least one of those identities connects to being oppressed and marginalized. Ways
in which such connections influence the person’s career development process can
influence the need for the career counselor to provide greater emotional support and
empowerment, the need to challenge false conclusions about the client’s specific
perceptions of particular career possibilities, the need to advocate against oppressive
employment policies and practices, and so on. We recommend that you use the lens of
intersectionality as you look at the different models of more siloed identity development
models we present in this chapter. We agree with Chan, Cor, and Band that more research
is needed to understand intersectionality’s influence in the career development process.
Historically, career development theories and interventions, especially in North
America, have emphasized a psychological perspective highlighting the role that
intraindividual variables (e.g.,Mmotivation, internal locus of control, perseverance, ability)
play in shaping one’s career. Gysbers, heppner, and Johnston (2014) point out that career
development interventions in the United States, having arisen out of a specific context,
tend to favor five tenets reflecting a european American perspective: (a) individualism
and autonomy, (b) affluence, (c) structure of opportunity open to all, (d) the centrality of
work in people’s lives, and (e) the linearity, progressiveness, and rationality of the career
development process. these tenets reflect specific assumptions that do not represent the
contextual experiences many people encounter. Stead (2004) notes deficiencies in most
extant career theories for their ethnocentrism and challenges the appropriateness of
attempts at simply adapting existing theories to other cultures. he contends that from their
beginnings culturally sensitive theories need to be grounded in specific cultural contexts
to be relevant for those respective contexts. Young, Marshall, and Valach (2007)
reinforce Stead’s viewpoint by noting the variance in meaning attached to the word
career, even in english-speaking, Western industrialized countries.
B. Universal Versus Culture-Specific Models
Many statements pertaining to multicultural career development interventions
reflect the tension between etic (i.e., universal) and emic (i.e., culturally specific)
approaches to counseling. etic perspectives maintain that career development
interventions for members of minority groups should be the same as the career
development interventions used for those representing the majority. As such, proponents
of etic perspectives contend that current career theories and techniques are robust enough
to have universal applicability. emic perspectives, on the other hand, highlight the
importance of designing career development interventions that are specific to the client’s
culture. Wohl (1995) suggests that “culturally specific approaches are psychotherapeutic
methods designed to be congruent with the cultural characteristics of a particular ethnic
clientele, or for problems believed to be especially prominent in a particular ethnic
group” (p. 76). By extension, then, culture-specific career development theories are
required to provide more comprehensive and accurate descriptions of the career
development process for diverse groups.
Fischer, Jome, and Atkinson (1998) contend that researchers have focused a
significant amount of attention on culturally specific (emic) counseling interventions,
perhaps “at the expense of attention to common factors in multicultural counseling and
research” (p. 528). Proposing a common factors perspective in multicultural counseling,
Fischer and her associates suggest that “the curative properties of a given psychotherapy
lie not in its theoretically unique components (e.g., insight for psychoanalytic approaches,
modification of cognitions for cognitive approaches) but in components common to all
psychotherapies” (pp. 529–530). thus, Fischer and her associates identify four factors that
appear to be “the universal elements of healing in all cultures” (p. 532). these factors are
(a) the therapeutic relationship, (b) shared worldview, (c)Mclient expectations, and (d)
ritual or intervention. A cornerstone of the therapeutic relationship is the establishment of
trust and rapport between the counselor and client. Fischer et al. cite the strong research
support indicating that the establishment of an effective therapeutic relationship is a
significant predictor of therapeutic outcome.
A key aspect in establishing the therapeutic relationship is a shared worldview
between the counselor and client. this common factor reflects rogers’s (1957) notion of
empathic understanding, which he defined as “trying to experience the client’s world as if
it were your own without losing the ‘as if’ quality” (p. 97). Fischer et al. (1998) suggest
that understanding each other’s worlds enables the client and counselor to establish the
therapeutic relationship and sets the stage for positive expectations regarding counseling
outcomes. empathic understanding also minimizes the probability that counselors will
operate on the myth of cultural uniformity, “which assumes that all individuals regardless
of race, ethnicity, sex, age, and social class” have values and goals that are similar to the
counselors’ values and goals (Leong, 1993, p. 32). thus, achieving this type of
understanding is critical for providing effective multicultural career development
interventions and requires the counselor to have adequate knowledge, skills, and
awareness of the client’s culture. Obviously, counselors must also be aware of their own
cultural biases and assumptions within this process.
The third common factor identified by Fischer et al. (1998) is client expectations.
“Counselors and healers raise client expectations and gain credibility through the setting
in which they conduct therapy, the training and degrees they possess, working within a
shared worldview with the client, and developing a therapeutic relationship with the
client” (p. 538). When clients have positive expectations for their counseling experience,
there is a greater likelihood that positive outcomes will occur. the first three common
factors set the stage and are preconditions for the fourth common factor, which is ritual or
intervention. Fischer et al. (1998) point out that “an intervention that is relevant and
effective for one client may not be as relevant for another client, depending on the degree
of relationship, shared worldview, and positive expectation” (p. 540). All of these factors
are relevant to the career development intervention process, regardless of the career
practitioner’s theoretical orientation. Providing appropriate interventions requires career
counselors to be aware of several important additional issues: ethnocentrism,
acculturation, and identity development.
C. Ethnocentrism and Acculturation
When career counselors assume that one value system (their own) is superior and
preferable to another, they engage in ethnocentric behavior that is insensitive to their
clients’ worldviews. ethnocentrism can easily occur in career development interventions
when counselors assume that individualistic and self-sufficient actions are preferable to
collectivistic actions reflecting interdependence and group loyalty. Individualists use
individual attitudes, private interests, and personal goals to guide their behavior, whereas
collectivists rely on shared interests, group norms, and common goals to inform their
decision making (hartung, Speight, & Lewis, 1996). For many people the emphasis on
individualism found within numerous theories of career development generated in the
United States does not mesh with worldviews in which the family or group is the
principal arbiter of appropriate occupational choices.
ethnocentrism can more easily be understood when we discuss White racial
identity development. Helms’s (1992) White racial Identity Model breaks this process
down into six parts or stages. During the contact stage, individuals accept a colorblind
perspective (“I don’t see color”) and do not consciously display racist behavior. they may
view the discussion of race as of minor importance and do not move on to the next stage
until they have an experience that reveals the privilege that is associated with whiteness.
In the disintegration stage, individuals begin viewing the world through a new lens and
may feel guilt or shame due to previously being unaware of their privilege. If these
feelings persist, the next stage, reintegration, emerges and individuals may begin to
blame minority and minoritized groups and think that their own privilege is deserved. In
the pseudo-independence stage, the feelings of guilt and shame change into a desire to
engage with minority and minoritized groups to learn more about racism and about being
nonracist. the next stage, immersion/emersion, is more internal and focuses on
individuals getting in touch with their White identity and engaging in discussions with
other White people in an effort to understand their own identity and what it means to be
antiracist. In the last stage, autonomy, individuals have a more positive and healthy view
of their White racial identity and think about their role in areas of social justice.
Although knowing that specific cultures are oriented toward individualism (e.g.,
european Americans) or collectivism (e.g., Asian Americans) is useful, it is also
inappropriate to apply this knowledge to clients in a stereotypical fashion (e.g., “All
european Americans are individualistic,” “All Asian Americans are collectivistic”). thus,
another important variable to assess in understanding the client’s worldview is that of
acculturation. Acculturation can be defined as “the process of adopting the cultural traits
or social patterns of another group” (Stein, 1975, p.M10). results of acculturation research
conducted in the United States have indicated that englishlanguage proficiency is one of
the best measures of acculturation (Fouad, 1993). however, acculturation is a complex
and multifaceted process.
Early models of acculturation (e.g., Park & Burgess, 1921) were based on
assumptions that reflected an either/or perspective toward acculturation (e.g., one either
accepted the “new” culture and rejected the “old,” or one rejected the “new” and
maintained acceptance of the “old” culture). Inherent in such models is the notion of the
marginal person (Park, 1928). the marginal person is someone who is psychologically
caught between two cultures. Marginal persons hold negative views toward both their
own culture and the host culture, such as when a Chinese American woman is unwilling
to give unquestioned obedience to the traditional values of her Chinese parents but also
finds it difficult to accept many of the values inherent in a european American culture
associated with racist attitudes and behaviors (Leong & Brown, 1995). Such instances
often result in the experience of an identity crisis characterized by chronic restlessness,
self-consciousness, and feelings of inferiority (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1993). Berry’s
(1980) widely used and adapted acculturation models focuses on four modes of
acculturation: (1) assimilation, (2) separation, (3) integration, and (4) marginalization
(see table 4.1). Acculturation mode is defined as “an individual’s desired contact with the
host culture as well as the home culture”.
More recent models of acculturation reflect a bicultural perspective toward
acculturation. Such models embrace the notion that individuals can be highly acculturated
to multiple cultures—a sort of both/and approach versus the earlier either/or models.
Nguyen and BenetMartinez (2013) conducted a meta-analysis examining the relationship
between biculturalism and adjustment. their analysis included 83 studies with a combined
total of 23,197 participants. results indicate a strong, significant, and positive relationship
between biculturalism and adjustment (both psychological and sociocultural). Moreover,
the link between biculturalism and adjustment is stronger than the association between a
singular orientation with one culture and adjustment. these results invalidate those who
viewed the bicultural person as a marginal person “caught between the conflicting values
of two cultures and consequently feels little commitment to either” (Atkinson et al.,
1993). In contrast, the bicultural person “feels committed to both cultures and selectively
embraces the positive aspects of each culture” (p. 23). thus, the client’s level of
acculturation is an important within-group variable that must be addressed to provide
appropriate career interventions.
It is important that counselors do not assume that the client’s level of
acculturation is at the same level as the client’s family. Differences in this regard are
important to address in the career development intervention process—especially for
young people attempting to crystallize initial occupational preferences. Grieger and
Ponterotto (1995) noted that it is not uncommon for firstgeneration, U.S. college students
to experience cultural or bicultural strain and, consequently, conflict when their families’
level of acculturation is at variance with their own. this could have been the case with Ju-
Shin had she been oriented to more Western notions concerning the career decision-
making process rather than the values inherent in his culture of origin.
D. Identity Development Models
Identity development models provide useful frameworks for understanding the
process of identity development as it relates to key cultural variables, the individual, the
environment in which the individual lives, and the ongoing interaction effects between
the person and the environment. Models of racial identity help us understand that the
status of racial identity (for both counselors and clients) can influence the career
development intervention process at several levels. For example, Atkinson, Morten, and
Sue (1989, 1993, 1998) describe five stages of racial identity development, each with
corresponding counseling implications: (a) conformity, (b) dissonance, (c) resistance and
immersion, (d) introspection, and (e) synergistic articulation and awareness.
Individuals in the conformity stage adhere to the dominant culture’s value system,
including its perception of racial/ethnic minorities. their self-perceptions, as well as their
perceptions of others, are viewed through the lens of the dominant culture. they tend to
deny the existence of racism and discriminatory treatment on the part of the dominant
culture and have a strong desire to “assimilate and acculturate” (Atkinson et al., 1993, p.
29). Moreover, their attitudes toward members of their own group may be very negative.
In other words, individuals in the conformity stage may experience feelings of racial self-
hatred as a result of cultural racism. Because of their strong identification with the
dominant culture, individuals in the conformity stage may express a preference for a
career counselor from the dominant culture. In the career development intervention
process, they may display a high level of compliance and a need to please the counselor.
Atkinson et al. (1993) suggest that these clients are likely to present career concerns that
are most amenable to career development interventions focused on problemsolving
approaches.
Individuals often move gradually into the dissonance stage, but the occurrence of
significant events can serve as a catalyst for propelling a person into the dissonance stage.
In either scenario, the process of movement into the dissonance stage typically occurs
when the individual in the conformist stage encounters a person or situation that runs
counter to conformist-stage beliefs (e.g., when an Asian American in the conformist
stage, and thus adhering to negative stereotypes regarding the Asian culture, encounters a
person who expresses pride in her Asian heritage, or when Black person in the conformist
stage experiences racism on a personal level). InMsuch instances, information is acquired
that suggests alternative views toward the culture of origin (e.g., that there are positive
aspects in cultural traditions, values, and customs) and the dominant culture (e.g., certain
behaviors and practices in the dominant culture are discriminatory). Such information
causes denial to break down and opens a window to further identity development.
Specifically, individuals moving from conformity to dissonance may increasingly engage
in self-exploration regarding self-concepts, identity, self-esteem, and group affiliation
(Atkinson et al., 1989). Career development practitioners working with individuals in the
dissonance stage need to have a thorough understanding of the individual’s culture of
origin.
As individuals begin to experience discomfort with the rigidly held beliefs
characterizing the resistance and immersion stage (e.g., “All White people are bad”), they
begin to focus on greater individual autonomy. that is, as they move into the introspection
stage they begin to entertain the notion that perhaps not everything in the dominant
culture is negative. Instead of holding on to blind adherence to positive or negative views
toward cultural systems, there is a greater need to examine the merits of any particular
cultural system on a more personal level. this notion emerges as a greater sense of
security is experienced with one’s own racial identity. As the individual becomes more
autonomous, a more personal value system is developed. Atkinson et al. (1993) suggest
that the emerging need for personal freedom in the face of a preponderant identification
with their culture of origin often leads individuals to seek counseling to sort through the
growing tension created by these conflicting dynamics. In such instances, career
counselors who are similar to clients in race and ethnicity are often preferred; however,
counselors from other cultures may be accepted if they share an appreciation for the
client’s cultural dilemma. Atkinson et al. suggest an approach that emphasizes self-
exploration and decision making when working with clients in the introspection stage.
The final stage of the Atkinson et al. (1989) model is synergistic articulation and
awareness. Individuals in this stage objectively examine the cultural values of their own
group as well as those espoused by the dominant group. they accept or reject cultural
values based on their experiences in earlier stages of identity development. they
experience a genuine desire to eliminate all forms of oppression in society.
Stereotypically, this influence reinforces competition and skill mastery in boys and
relationships and connectedness in girls (Gilligan, 1982). As men and women enter the
workforce, sexrole socialization continues as women are often confronted with
discrimination in selection and promotion practices. Such practices not only limit the
opportunity for women to advance in the workplace, but they also limit opportunities to
receive mentoring because women are excluded from the informal social networks often
used by men to advance in their occupations. the influence of socialization is not felt only
by women, however. Men are expected to achieve and to be ambitious in their
occupational pursuits. A 2017 study found that men in the millennial generation are more
likely than men in older generations to feel pressure to have more sexual partners, engage
in the conversation when women are being discussed in a sexual way, and punch another
person if they have been provoked (Parker, horowitz, & Stepler, 2017). Many consider
those men who are striving to achieve a balance in their life roles as lacking in ambition
and the desire to work hard to achieve success. Moreover, men employed in occupations
typically populated by women (e.g., men working as daycare providers, nurses, or
clerical workers) are often viewed as overly feminine. Many men who place a high value
on family involvement and career achievement experience increased rates of depression
as they struggle to fulfill roles in both of these life domains.
To address inadequacies in career theories as they relate to the career
development of women, Cook, heppner, and O’Brien (2002) propose using an ecological
perspective to help illuminate the dynamic interaction between the person and the
environment. Cook and her associates suggest that an ecological perspective is
particularly useful in addressing the White, male, and Western experiences and
worldviews implicit in career counseling models. they note that an ecological perspective
encourages greater sensitivity to ways in which environmental factors do not support the
career development of women. Specifically, Cook et al. note the need for career
counselors to address the following assumptions that are implicit in career development
models: (a) the separation of work and family roles in people’s lives, (b) the emphasis on
individualism and autonomy, (c) the view that work is the central activity in people’s
lives, (d)Mthe notion that career development is a linear and rational process, and (e) the
White, male bias existing in the occupational opportunity structure. In addition, Cook and
her colleagues emphasize the need for career counselors to address ways in which female
clients experience the macrosystem imperatives concerning caring for others (i.e., how
the client assigns importance to the needs of significant others and family members in her
career development); how women might be able to influence their microsystems (e.g., the
workplace) through learning or refining negotiation skills to enable them to ask for what
they need (e.g., more flexible work hours, salary increases); how to identify and access
quality child care; how to empower women to handle sexual harassment in the
workplace, and, therefore, lessen the likelihood of victimization; and how to help women
to access mentors. Of course, each of these issues provides opportunities for macrosystem
(e.g.,Madvocating for equitable workplace policies and treatment) and microsystem (e.g.,
within the career counseling relationship) interventions. Focusing on the career
development experience of young women, Frome, Alfeld, eccles, and Barber (2006)
investigated why some young women who espouse occupational aspirations within male-
dominated fields during adolescence relinquish these aspirations by the time they attain
young adulthood. their findings from a longitudinal data set indicate that the desire for a
flexible job, the high time demands of an occupation, and the low intrinsic valuing of
physical science predicted shifting occupational aspirations out of male-dominated fields.
Concern for balancing family and career combined with a lower value for science-related
domains (and perhaps a lack of societal and/or familial support) continue to influence
women away from occupations in traditionally male-dominated fields, where, in fact,
their abilities and goals may reside.
Although much of our world continues to view individuals within the lens of
gender binary, or the idea that gender equates to man or woman, major advances have
been made to expand our idea of gender. the discussion of gender involves everyone, and
it is important to understand how individuals identify. Identities include cisgender (an
individual whose gender identity is the same as the sex they were assigned at birth),
nonbinary (an individual who does not view their gender within the gender binary of
male or female), agender (a person who does not identify as having a gender), and
transgender (an individual whose gender identity is not the same as the sex they were
assigned at birth). It is important for career professionals to learn more about the
challenges of individuals beyond the gender binary and learn more about their career and
personal journeys.
There has been little research in the career development of lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transgender, and queer people (LGBtQ) (the Q in the acronym can also mean
questioning). Because each of these groups experiences oppression, Morgan and Brown
(1991) suggested using minority career development theories to describe the career
development experiences of persons who are LGBtQ. Although there is undoubtedly
significant overlap due to oppressive environmental conditions, this suggestion offers, at
best, a temporary solution to the lack of theory and research pertaining to these
populations. however, as with racial and gender identity, the assessment of identity
development levels of LGBtQ clients represents a crucial element in the career
counseling process (Chung, 2003; Datti, 2009; Morgan & Brown, 1991; Paul, 2008;
Pepper & Lorah, 2008; Pope, 1995; Pope, 2018). When working with LGBtQ clients,
Orzek (1992) noted that counselors must understand the meaning that their clients attach
to their sexual identity to construct career development interventions that mesh with their
clients’ stages of identity development.
Chung, Williams, and Dispenza (2009) investigated the validity of Chung’s
(2001) work discrimination and coping strategy models for sexual minorities. Chung’s
Work Discrimination model describes work discrimination using three dimensions: (a)
formal versus informal, (b)Mperceived versus real, and (c) potential versus encountered.
Formal discrimination refers to official policies that affect an employee’s employment
status (e.g., being fired, promoted). Informal discrimination refers to the existence of a
hostile workplace. Perceived discrimination refers to one’s perceptions that behaviors are
discriminatory. real discrimination is based on actual experiences. Potential
discrimination refers to possible discrimination that would occur should a person’s sexual
identity become known. “encountered discrimination involves discriminatory acts that the
person experiences. Collectively, these three dimensions (2 × 2 × 2) describe eight types
of work discrimination (e.g., perceived-potential-formal discrimination, real-encountered-
informal discrimination)”.
Chung’s third coping strategy model is Discrimination Management, which
involves how a person responds to discrimination when it is encountered. Strategies here
include quitting, remaining silent, drawing on social support, and confronting the
discrimination directly. the Vocational Choice and Identity Management models deal
with formal and informal potential discrimination. Discrimination Management focuses
on responding to formal and informal discrimination. Coping strategies are selected based
on the discrimination encountered. ChungMetMal. (2009) offer three important
recommendations for career counselors working with clients who are sexual minorities.
Specifically, they note that it is important to help clients understand that discrimination
can be formal and informal regardless of nondiscrimination policies. Chung and his
associates also suggest that it is important to help clients achieve realistic and accurate
perceptions regarding discrimination and to help them develop the capacity to accurately
assess potential and encountered discrimination. Career counselors can help clients
explore various options for coping with workplace discrimination using the strategies that
Chung (2001) identifies. While engaging in such exploration with a client, it is very
important that career counselors remain sensitive to the client’s pace of identity
development and cultural context. that is, career counselors should not push clients
toward more self-affirming and assertive coping strategies if they are not ready for such
strategies.
In recent years, more research has been conducted concerning transgender
individuals and their career struggles. During their transition process, transgender
individuals may face challenges in the workplace such as depression, loss or gain of male
privilege, feelings of being isolated from coworkers, and the impermissibility of using the
restroom that matches their gender (Barclay & Scott, 2006; Dickey, Walinsky, rofkhar,
richardson-Cline, & Juntunen, 2016). After transitioning, individuals may feel the need to
change jobs in order to have a fresh start in a new environment (Barclay & Scott, 2006;
Sangganjanavanich & headley, 2013). Pope and Barret identify several intervention
strategies for career counselors working with gay and lesbian clients. For example, as a
first step for career counselors, Pope and Barret stress the importance of counselors
taking a personal inventory of ways in which subtle or unconscious biases may influence
career counseling (e.g., when a heterosexually oriented career counselor attempts to move
a young man toward becoming more masculine in his behaviors). Pope and Barret also
stress the importance of becoming more familiar with gay and lesbian culture (e.g., by
attending workshops, reading relevant literature, etc.). they note the ethical necessity for
career counselors who cannot be gay/lesbian affirmative to refer clients to a career
counselor who has experience with sexual minorities and can work with clients in a more
affirming manner. With regard to “client-focused” career interventions, Pope and Barret
highlight helping clients to cope effectively with issues such as “coming out,” dealing
with workplace discrimination, negotiating dual-career couples’ concerns (e.g., benefits
issues, relocation issues), and the selection/use of assessment instruments. In addition to
client-focused interventions, Pope and Barret discuss program-focused interventions.
recommended interventions in this category include sharing information on existing
gay/lesbian community resources, offering special programming such as talks by
gay/lesbian professionals, arranging career-shadowing opportunities with gay/lesbian
workers, maintaining a list of “out” gay/lesbian individuals who are available for
information interviews, facilitating experiential opportunities (e.g., internships,
externships) with gay/lesbian-owned or operated businesses, and establishing mentoring
programs with gay/lesbian mentors. Finally, Pope and Barret stress the importance of
career counselors engaging in social justice and advocacy interventions. For example,
positive advocacy for gay and lesbian clients could include lobbying for the inclusion of
sexual orientation in nondiscrimination policies of local employers.
Persons with disabilities represent another group that commonly experiences
discrimination in career development One in four U.S. adults have a disability that
impacts their daily life functioning (CDC, 2018). For the 65-and-older population, two in
five individuals are affected by a disability. “Individuals with disabilities lag behind those
without disabilities in virtually every indicator of economic activity” (ettinger, 1996,
p.M239). For example, only 31% of persons with disabilities who were also college
graduates were employed in 2009 (compared with 81% of those who did not have
disabilities and possessed only high school degrees) (Innovative Placements, 2010). the
average annual income for a person with disabilities is about $33,000 compared to
$44,269 for persons without disabilities. Despite these facts, career development
researchers pay little attention to the career experiences of persons with disabilities. For
example, an examination of the last ten reviews of the literature contained in the
December 2014 issue of The Career Development Quarterly, considered by many career
experts to be the most thorough annual review of the career development literature,
revealed that more often than not, little attention is paid to the career literature pertaining
to persons with disabilities.
The ADA stipulates that employers can consider only essential job functions
when hiring or promoting employees. employers may require prospective employees to
demonstrate how they will perform specific job-related functions. Although employers
can make employment decisions based on job-related qualifications, they cannot make
employment decisions based on reasons that are related to the person’s disability. the
Individuals With Disabilities education Improvement Act of 2004 focuses on services for
educational/vocational transitions from childhood through adulthood. the legislation
requires that all students with disabilities have an individualized education program and
access to services that help with the transition from high school to postsecondary
education or the community. In 2014 the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act was
passed and states that all vocational rehabilitation (Vr) agencies allocate 15% of their
funding to youth in transition with disabilities. these laws prohibit discrimination against
people with disabilities in their education and in the workplace.
Zunker (2006) identifies several career development issues that typically confront
persons with disabilities. Specifically, he notes that issues related to adjusting to
disabilities (as when people experience physical trauma and then have difficulty adjusting
to and accepting their disability) include confronting attitudinal barriers based on
misinformation and discriminatory beliefs; overcoming generalizations formed as a result
of being labeled “disabled” or “handicapped”; having a lack of role models and norm
groups; coping with issues associated with the age of onset of disability; developing
social/interpersonal skills; developing a positive self-concept; and developing skills for
independent living. these issues each require specific career development interventions to
facilitate the career development of persons with disabilities. For those lacking role
models, exposure to employed individuals with similar disabilities can serve as an
important source of self-efficacy enhancement (Bandura, 1986). Cook (1981) noted that
those having difficulty adjusting to their disability due to physical trauma might need
assistance in coping with grief associated with losing their prior level of functioning.
Zunker (2006) notes that those experiencing a disability at an early age may require
assistance in developing assertiveness and independence, and those experiencing the
onset of a disability in adulthood may need to be reintroduced to the overall career
development process. Supported employment opportunities (e.g., sheltered workshops)
may help persons with disabilities gain exposure to role models, experience enhanced
self-esteem through work-related accomplishments, and develop important interpersonal
skills.
Cummings, Maddux, and Casey (2000) note that much of the career literature
related to persons with disabilities focuses on persons with physical disabilities and that
little attention is directed toward those with learning disabilities. Persons with learning
disabilities often experience challenges that negatively influence their career
development. Some common challenges include a failure to understand how personal
characteristics relate to career choice, low selfesteem, an inability to engage in self-
advocacy, difficulties in establishing routines, difficulties in accurately observing and
effectively imitating the work habits of role models, challenges related to information
processing, and a tendency toward passive learning styles. Cummings and her associates
identify several strategies that career practitioners can use to more effectively address the
concerns of persons with learning disabilities. First, and foremost, they note the need for
career practitioners to help secondary school students with learning disabilities engage in
more systematic transition planning as they move from high school to postsecondary
experiences. to achieve this goal, counselors must work to improve the coordination
between high schools and postsecondary education and community agencies. Although
the Individuals with Disabilities education Act (IDeA) requires that each student’s
transition plan include information regarding postsecondary services (e.g., vocational
rehabilitation, independent living options), linkages to these services are often not
identified for students with learning disabilities. Because college students with learning
disabilities often experience lower career decision-making self-efficacy and a more
pessimistic attributional style for career decision-making than their peers without
disabilities (Luzzo, hitchings, retish, & Shoemaker, 1999), the need also exists to provide
more systematic and adequate transition planning to students with learning disabilities
who are moving from high school to postsecondary education. Finally, Cummings and
her colleagues advocate for taking a K–12 approach to transition planning. In this regard,
Levinson (1998) argues for a threelevel transition assessment program for students with
learning disabilities. Specifically, Levinson suggests a Level 1 assessment during the
elementary school years that focuses on identifying the student’s needs, values, abilities,
interests, interpersonal skills, and decision-making skills. Assessment outcomes at this
level should be connected to transition goals/objectives that focus on career exploration
and self-awareness. Level 2 assessments should occur during the middle school years and
should involve formal and informal measures related to interests, aptitudes, work habits,
and career maturity. Assessment outcomes should be linked to additional career
exploration moving toward a narrowing of tentative career options and goals. Level 3
assessment should include work samples and situational assessments and additional
emphasis on identifying the student’s skills, interests, and career goals. empowering
persons with learning disabilities to engage in effective self-advocacy is also essential.
Persons with disabilities encounter specific obstacles in their career development
that are often due to a lack of awareness and sensitivity on the part of employers,
educational institutions, and the general public. Many employers adhere to the false (and
stereotypical) beliefs that persons with disabilities will be absent more often, less
productive, and less invested in their career development than their peers without
disabilities. evidence exists to suggest hiring discrimination is most often directed toward
persons with physical or sensory impairments (McMahon etMal., 2008). the provision of
effective career development interventions requires practitioners to possess the requisite
knowledge, skills, and awareness for adequately addressing the career concerns of
persons with disabilities. Many times, this requires career development professionals to
play an advocacy role with prospective employers and coworkers to dispel discriminatory
myths.
E. Assessment
Our discussion of career development interventions for persons with disabilities
leads to some important points to consider in conducting career assessments with diverse
client populations. Fouad (1993) notes that career counselors must be mindful of the fact
that the client’s culture plays a significant role throughout all phases of the assessment
process. For example, analyzing the client’s needs requires counselors to understand a
client’s worldview. empathizing with the client from the client’s perspective requires
counselors to be aware of their own cultural backgrounds and how the client’s culture
may influence the assessment process. When encouraging clients to discuss their
understanding of the assessment results, career counselors must be sure that the client’s
cultural context is factored into the review process. For example, because the history of
American Indian identity is typically maintained through oral tradition, an American
Indian client is likely to define words as powerful and value-laden. thus, the tendency to
use words casually may be avoided at all costs (Sage, 1991) and silence may predominate
in sessions. Such silences should be allowed to occur naturally and should not necessarily
be determined as client resistance. In this regard, many of the points raised by Fischer et
al. (1998) concerning multicultural counseling also pertain to conducting culturally
appropriate career assessments.
When selecting a test, career counselors must ensure that the instrument is valid,
reliable, and appropriate for the client’s cultural and linguistic context. Fouad (1993)
identified several important issues that must be considered in conducting career
assessments across cultures. Specifically, Fouad noted that career counselors must
determine whether a test is functionally and conceptually equivalent for the client’s
culture. Functional equivalence relates to “the role or function that behavior plays in
different cultures” (p. 8). Conceptual equivalence “refers to the similarity in meaning
attached to behavior or concepts” (p. 8). Fouad also identified metric equivalence (i.e.,
whether the scales of a test measure the same constructs across cultures) and linguistic
equivalence (i.e., whether the translation of items results in equivalent language across
cultures) as important areas to address in test selection. Fouad (1993) also urges career
counselors to consider whether systematic bias exists in any test being considered for use
in career counseling. For example, content bias exists when test items are more familiar
to members of one group than they are to another group. Lack of familiarity with item
content obviously places a test taker at a significant disadvantage and leads to spurious
test results. Internal structure bias exists when the relationships among items are not
consistent across cultural contexts. Finally, selection bias occurs when a test has
differential predictive validity across groups.
To conduct culturally competent career assessment, career counselors need to
possess general counseling skills, multiultural counseling competencies, and career
counseling competencies. Flores, Spanierman, and Obasi (2003) note important
professional and ethical considerations for conducting career assessments with diverse
client populations. Specifically, they remind career counselors that it is important to
engage in information gathering, both formally and informally, that is culturally
encompassing. Data that career counselors gather through assessment should help not
only to identify the client’s presenting career concerns but also help the career counselor
understand the client as a cultural being. Gathering data regarding culturally specific
variables— such as racial/ethnic identity, acculturation, worldview, socioeconomic
status, gender-role expectations, primary language, family expectations, and so on—will
help set the cultural context for understanding the client’s situation and concerns.
The CiCl draws on social cognitive career theory (SCCt) and multicultural
counseling to directly address essential spheres of influence in living and makes clear
from the start that these topics are important in considering career concerns. Gibbons,
hughes, and Woodside (2015) examined the influence that culture has on career
development and incorporated CiCl interviewing. the participants included seven women
and seven men, ages 26 to 55. researchers asked them four questions: (1) What
occupations were you aware of growing up?; (2) Can you tell me a little about your
cultural or ethnic background?; (3) how important is religion/spirituality in your life and
how is it related to career goals?; and (4) how has your family influenced your career and
do your career goals match your family’s expectations? themes discussed included
limited career exposure as a child, stories surrounding familial beliefs around schooling, a
sense of community related to religion and spirituality, and career exploration
encouragement (Gibbons et al., 2015). the CiCl interview format allows for more insight
into various influential factors of career and career development.
Degges-White and Shoffner (2002) describe how the theory of work adjustment
can be used effectively to provide career counseling with lesbian clients. Casella (2002)
describes how Super’s theory can also be used to help lesbian clients advance in their
career development. Additional interventions—such as those from postmodern
theoretical perspectives (e.g., career laddering, “my life as a book,” life-role salience
questions that incorporate family and societal expectations)—can also be used to
acknowledge the central role of culture in shaping identity and career development.
Among the many different identities, values, and perspectives that career clients
comprise, spiritual and religious dimensions should not be overlooked. First, it may be
helpful to distinguish the differences, as well as the areas of overlap between spirituality
and religion. Spirituality can be viewed as a more encompassing term than religion in that
it includes many different beliefs and practices that can be quite personal and individual.
According to Cashwell and Young (2005), it includes “one’s beliefs, awareness, values,
subjective experience, sense of purpose and mission, and an attempt to reach toward
something greater than oneself” (p. 13). Due to the highly individualized nature of the
construct, spirituality and spiritual experiences can be difficult to define using strict
categories and delineations.
The counselor preparation section allows counselors to explore their own
multicultural counseling competencies. Counselors cannot assume anything about the
client’s journey, experience, racial identity, or ethnic identity. the checklist also
encourages counselors to look at themselves in relation to the client. exploring one’s own
identity development with the development of the client is important and enhances
empathy and understanding. the exploration and assessment section of the checklist helps
counselors work through racial and ethnic issues with the client. Counselors can learn
more about why the client is seeking counseling; how gender, race, and ethnicity may
have impacted career choice; and which assessments may be useful to the client and hr
development. the last section, negotiation and working consensus, is helpful in working
through career questions and concerns after focusing first on racial and/or ethnic
concerns.
F. Recommendations for Culturally Competent Career Counseling
A helpful tool to deepen understanding of one’s own identities, clients’ identities,
and the ways in which the two may interact is by using the ADDreSSING framework
(hayes, 2002). Briefly, the ADDreSSING framework stands for Age and generational
influences, Developmental or acquired Disabilities, Religion and spiritual orientation,
Ethnicity, Socioeconomic status, Sexual orientation, Indigenous heritage, National origin,
and Gender. hayes highlights the importance of paying close attention to our own
dominant group identities and the ways in which power imbalances based on these
dominant group memberships may negatively impact a client. Because race- and culture-
related conflicts can have pernicious effects on counseling outcomes (Constantine, 1997),
career counselor preparedness for cross-cultural interactions is of utmost importance.
Pope-Davis et al. (2002) note the importance of directly addressing counselor–client
cultural differences. they found that clients are more satisfied with counseling and
perceive their counselors as more multiculturally competent when this occurs.
Career counselors should be aware of their client’s cultural context, but they
should also understand that career counselors are each first and foremost individuals and
only secondarily representatives of their specific immediate and distal cultural contexts.
Chan (1992) found that the salience of clients’ identities fluctuates with the environment.
this means that a career counselor working with a client who has multiple identities has to
be tentative and refrain from prematurely drawing conclusions about the client’s most
salient identities.
Sun (1995) found that when individuals can categorize others into multiple group
memberships, they experience less prejudice toward the other. For instance, if a career
counselor knows her client as “Lori, the young American Indian woman,” she may
neglect to acknowledge other important aspects of Lori’s identity. Lori may be a mother,
a food-service worker, and a woman with a learning disability. With this more holistic
view of Lori, the career counselor will have less tendency to generalize Lori’s experience
into an “American Indian woman” experience and will in turn experience less prejudiced
attitudes toward her and develop a more complete (and accurate) understanding of Lori.
Career counselors should empower clients who experience discrimination to
“reject the rejection” within discriminatory attitudes and behavior. Discriminatory
behavior always reveals much more about the perpetrator than it does about the person
being discriminated against. the deficiencies do not reside in a person’s skin color, sex,
sexual orientation, or ethnicity but in the thinking and behavior of the person committing
the discrimination. Career counselors must be sure that they understand how experiences
with racist, sexist, homophobic, classist, ageist, and discriminatory practices toward
persons who are disabled influence their clients’ career development. Certainly, reading
can facilitate such understanding. Most times, however, career counselors will need to
move to more active attempts at developing their understanding of discrimination.
regardless of their demographic characteristics, most career counselors have areas in
which they need to learn more regarding discriminatory experiences. Participating in
social action activities (e.g., volunteering at a homeless shelter if one has never been
homeless) helps advance understanding in important ways. expanding one’s social
network to include people who look, act, and believe differently can also advance
understanding of differences.
Career counselors should engage in proactive programming to provide
experiential opportunities, information resources, mentoring opportunities, and
psychoeducational activities that are relevant to persons from diverse groups. they should
provide services in nontraditional locations, enlist the support of leaders representing
diverse groups, and implement strategies that make career services more accessible to
more people. Career counselors must engage in social action and advocacy to address
systemic discrimination. Career counselors cannot simply talk about the importance of
society becoming less discriminatory; they must also find ways to become actively
engaged in addressing practices that result in artificial limitations being placed on the
career development of a person and/or group.
Career counselors should engage in programmatic research efforts to develop and
advance theories of career development that apply to diverse groups. Often researchers
rely on samples of convenience, which, most often, are comprised of traditional college
students. Moving beyond samples of convenience requires networking, using the Internet,
contacting groups comprised of diverse persons to invite study participation, and using
other more aggressive strategies for reaching out to potential study participants.
In the past 20 years, many existing career development theories have been
expanded to be more inclusive. New theories with a greater sensitivity toward describing
the career development process for diverse populations are emerging. Career
development practitioners are becoming increasingly sensitive to the fact that treating all
clients in the same way is, in fact, discriminatory treatment because such an approach
ignores the contextual factors shaping the client’s career behavior. Despite these
advances, much more needs to be done. One area of concern in this regard, which has not
received adequate attention, relates to the career development experiences of persons who
are economically disadvantaged. Blustein (2013) is a leading researcher in this area and
has proposed a useful framework that should stimulate more research on the career
development of those who are economically disadvantaged.
Expanding career development interventions to encompass a broader spectrum of
factors is essential for comprehensively addressing the complexities inherent in
individuals' career behaviors. This necessitates a multifaceted approach that considers not
only intra-individual variables—those internal to the individual such as personality traits,
skills, and interests—but also extra-individual variables, which encompass external
influences such as societal norms, economic conditions, and organizational culture.
Within the realm of intra-individual variables, understanding the unique
constellation of traits, abilities, and preferences that shape an individual's career
trajectory is paramount. By delving into factors such as personality, values, strengths, and
interests, counselors can help individuals gain clarity about their strengths and passions,
guiding them towards career paths that align with their authentic selves. Moreover,
interventions aimed at developing skills, enhancing self-efficacy, and fostering resilience
can empower individuals to navigate the ever-evolving landscape of work with
confidence and adaptability.
However, an exclusive focus on intra-individual variables overlooks the broader
socio-cultural context within which career decisions are made. Extra-individual variables
exert a profound influence on career behavior, shaping individuals' opportunities,
constraints, and aspirations in significant ways. Societal norms, cultural expectations, and
systemic inequalities can all impact individuals' career choices and trajectories, often
reinforcing existing power dynamics and perpetuating inequities.
Expanding career interventions to address extra-individual variables involves
recognizing and challenging systemic barriers to career advancement and fulfillment.
This may entail advocating for policy changes to promote workplace diversity and
inclusion, providing resources and support for marginalized populations, and fostering
organizational cultures that value equity and social responsibility. Additionally,
interventions aimed at enhancing career adaptability and resilience can help individuals
navigate external challenges and seize opportunities for growth and advancement.
A comprehensive exploration is imperative to grasp the profound impact that
disparities between the career counselor and the client across dimensions such as
language, social class, ability, status, and culture wield over the career counseling
process. Each of these factors intricately weaves into the fabric of the counseling
dynamic, shaping its contours and influencing its outcomes in nuanced ways. The
significance of language cannot be overstated in the realm of effective communication,
which serves as the bedrock of any counseling interaction. Differences in linguistic
proficiency between counselor and client can erect barriers to understanding, hindering
the fluid exchange of ideas, emotions, and aspirations essential for meaningful progress.
A deeper examination of these language disparities is warranted to discern their
implications and devise strategies to bridge the communication gap.
Similarly, the social class of both parties injects a layer of complexity into the
counseling equation. Socioeconomic status serves as a lens through which individuals
perceive and navigate the world, profoundly shaping their aspirations, opportunities, and
challenges. When the social class of the counselor diverges significantly from that of the
client, it can give rise to disparities in perspective, privilege, and understanding that
necessitate careful navigation to ensure equitable outcomes.
Furthermore, the spectrum of ability encompasses a diverse array of physical,
cognitive, and emotional capacities that inform individuals' career journeys. A nuanced
understanding of these abilities is crucial for tailoring counseling approaches to
accommodate and empower clients across diverse backgrounds and circumstances.
Moreover, societal attitudes towards disability play a pivotal role in shaping perceptions
of career potential and opportunities, underscoring the importance of fostering an
inclusive and supportive counseling environment.
Status, whether derived from profession, education, or social standing, also exerts
a subtle yet significant influence on the counseling dynamic. Power differentials inherent
in status imbalances can impact the dynamics of the counselor-client relationship,
influencing the client's willingness to disclose information, assert their needs, or
challenge recommendations. A deeper examination of these status dynamics is essential
for fostering a counseling environment characterized by trust, respect, and mutual
empowerment.
Most importantly, the influence of culture permeates every facet of the counseling
process, profoundly shaping individuals' values, beliefs, communication styles, and
career aspirations. Cultural differences between counselor and client can give rise to
misunderstandings, biases, or overlooked opportunities that impede progress and hinder
the attainment of professional goals. Recognizing and embracing these cultural nuances is
paramount for fostering a counseling environment that honors and respects the diverse
perspectives and experiences of each client.
In summary, a thorough exploration of the disparities between career counselor
and client across dimensions such as language, social class, ability, status, and culture is
essential for gaining insights into their profound influence on the counseling process. By
fostering a deeper understanding of these dynamics, counselors can cultivate a more
inclusive, empowering, and effective approach to guiding individuals towards their career
aspirations.
