The Efficacy of Interpersonal Skills on Sales Production Among Ph

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Sales efficiency was discussed as early as 1913 when Münsterberg outlined the

importance of organizational efficiency in sales. Cougle (1975) recognized that

interpersonal (IP) skills contribute to a salesperson’s sales volume and argued that if

employers focused on training IP skills, sales volume would increase. Cougle believed

this practice would increase sales and serve to motivate employees more effectively than

the current system of commissions and sales-based compensation.

The absence of IP skills training may be based on the difficulty of transference or

retention of the skills rather than neglect (Laker & Powell, 2011). Laker and Powell

(2011) reported that employees were much more likely to retain hard skills from training

than soft skills, such as IP or intrapersonal skills. They went as far as to call soft-skill

training “an extremely costly waste of time, energy, and money” based on the poor

training transfer (Laker & Powell, 2011, p. 112). The authors suggested additional

research was needed to discern how training transfer could become more operative.

Borg and Freytag (2012) offered a comprehensive approach to studying IP skills

regarding how business personnel interact with others. They examined IP skills from four

perspectives: (a) environment, (b) firm, (c) sales cycle, and (d) sales characteristics. The

environment refers to the work environment that employees come from and the

environment where they practice their sales skills (Borg & Freytag, 2012). For example,

the pharmaceutical salesperson spends much less time behind a desk and more time in

medical environments, such as hospitals or doctors’ offices. The firm refers to the

organization’s setup, how sales compensation is structured, and the general way that its

employees do business (Borg & Freytag, 2012). Borg and Freytag incorporated sales

cycle data based on whether the sales were seasonal, built around certain cycles dealing

with increased demand from short-term advertising, or issues in trends. Last, sales

characteristics involve the general nature of the sales. Pharmaceutical salespeople are

compensated very differently than car salespeople (Borg & Freytag, 2012). Borg and

Freytag cited the need to understand all four dimensions to carry out correct and

conscientious IP communications. Additionally, they suggested that company managers

should adopt their own sales perspective and train their employees to utilize a wide sales

spectrum in their IP interactions.

Background

The pharmaceutical industry is a multibillion-dollar industry boasting three

companies on the Forbes 500 list at numbers 4, 8, and 13 (Solomon, 2013). Leaders of

the massive organizations have relied heavily on pharmaceutical salespeople to endorse

their products to individuals primarily responsible for their dissemination in the health

care field (i.e., doctors, physicians assistants, nurse practitioners, and support staff

members; Solomon, 2013). Solomon (2013) related that based on the unique position of

pharmaceutical salespeople, current researchers have not aptly provided direction for

their special niche of sales interactions (AlDosiry et al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka,

2003; Huggins et al., 2016; Wisker & Poulis, 2015). The success of pharmaceutical

salespeople has depended greatly on their interactions with others; therefore, their sales

volume has been largely dependent upon their ability to communicate, disseminate

information about their products, and their proficiencies in relating to the wants and

needs of the medical staff members whom they influence (Teven & Winters, 2007).

Pharmaceutical sales associates work with a large degree of autonomy in

initiating and conducting sales meetings designed to promote the products (Michaelidis &

Dracou, 2011). The salespeople’s primary target group is physicians, a difficult body of

individuals to influence (Milyavsky et al., 2017; van Zanten et al., 2007). Leaders of

organizations, such as Merck, Johnson & Johnson, and Pfizer, depend upon

pharmaceutical salespeople for a significant portion of their sales, employing more than

1.2 million pharmaceutical salespeople worldwide (Cegedim Strategic Data, 2014).

The current sales zeitgeist is an interesting interpretation of sales theories (Borg &

Freytag, 2012; Corelli, 1999; Harris, 2010). Many salespeople are encouraged to be

aggressive and tenacious, often leading to an abrasive encounter between the salesperson

and the client (Harris, 2010). Other salespeople may take a more timid approach and wait

for the customer to reach out (Borg & Freytag, 2012). These poor interactions can lead to

an unpleasant relationship between the clients and the organization (Corelli, 1999).

Corelli (1999) also observed that the poor relationship must be remedied before the

individuals can proceed with their business transactions.

Pharmaceutical salespeople are among the most highly paid within the sales

profession (MedReps, 2016). The organizational leaders who employ pharmaceutical

salespeople usually utilize their own ranking systems and reward salespeople based upon

performance (Umar, 2010). Pharmaceutical salespeople encounter many different sales

environments and associate with a large degree of variation among profiles and

personalities (Michaelidis & Dracou, 2011). Whereas doctors are their primary contacts,

who have become notorious for their lack of people skills in such instances, the

salespeople must navigate the social arena tactfully (Cheraghi-Sohi & Bower, 2008;

Milyavsky et al., 2017; van Zanten et al., 2007). So, the challenge for pharmaceutical

companies becomes how to best equip their salespeople to improve their performance and

use their IP skills to influence physicians to purchase their products.

Problem Statement

An integral part of a company’s success depends on acquiring, maintaining, and

increasing sales (Kirchler & de Rosa, 1998). Understanding sales and the contributing

factors are essential for the growth and solvency of an organization. Salespeople are

responsible for educating consumers about their products, and they also represent their

employers’ reputations through their interactions and professional manners. As Kirchler

and de Rosa (1998) found, an impolite, coarse, or confrontational exchange can leave a

lasting impression.

Based on the vital role of sales, extensive research exists to determine the

qualities that affect a salesperson’s ability to complete a sales transaction, such as

emotional intelligence (EI), adaptive selling, and interactional style (Clarke, 2010;

Fischer et al., 2010; Russell et al., 2010; Scroggins et al., 2009; Weilbaker, 1991).

Sebenius (2004) identified the following traits as the most overlooked in the business

field: (a) a person’s ability to relate to a client’s needs, (b) to help someone feel

comfortable, and (c) to communicate effectively with the person. These abilities were

recognized by Gardner (1983), who referred to them as IP skills. Traditional sales

techniques hinge on catchy phrases, quick questioning, and often aggressive measures

(Harris, 2010).

Company managers seeking talented salespeople often make assessments based

on criteria, such as previous experience, personality, or outward appearance, neglecting a

salesperson’s most essential skills: IP skills (Goleman, 1998; Nicolas & Rodríguez

Herrera, 2011; Yang et al., 2011). Authors of literature studies have failed to suitably

research this vital skill (Bergeron et al., 2013; Deng et al., 2014; Ellingsen-Dalskau et al.,

2016; Slof et al., 2016).

Many participant groups have been involved in studies regarding IP skills,

including managers, doctors, and nurses (Deng et al., 2014; Dreyfus, 2008; Hekman et

al., 2016; Hurrell, 2016; Shen et al., 2014). Kim and Hong (2005) studied pharmaceutical

salespeople and focused on the characteristics of motivation, self-confidence, and job

knowledge; however, they did not delve specifically into the aspects surrounding IP

skills.

Timor and Tüzüner (2006) researched some of the aspects emulated in this

research study by focusing on pharmaceutical companies. They reported that IP skills

were included as one of the evaluation criteria when seeking and interviewing

prospective employees. Kumar and Bhatnagar (2010) studied pharmaceutical sales and

customer service representatives in India, focusing on the turnover margin and identified

“emotional dissonance” as one of the mediating factors (p. 409). Kumar and Bhatnagar

described IP skills as an aspect of maintaining good relationships among fellow

employees and members of management.

Teven and Winters (2007) studied social influence and communication related to

sales performance among pharmaceutical salespeople using a self-evaluation of the 50-

plus participants. The evaluation screened for “nonverbal immediacy, Machiavellianism,

humor, physical attractiveness, responsiveness, caring, competence, motivation, and

adaptive selling” (Teven & Winters, 2007, p. 465). These factors embody many of the

characteristics Gardner (1983) described and that this current study used to assess IP

skills in pharmaceutical salespeople (Spitzberg, 1995). The researchers found many

correlations among these characteristics and enhanced performance in the total sales

income and “adaptive selling” (Teven & Winters, 2007, p. 468).

Researchers have revealed a shortage of information regarding the possible

correlation between IP skills and sales performance (Borg & Johnston, 2013; O’Reilly,

2015; Wihler et al., 2017). While other research has only lightly touched on this element

of relating sales performance to IP skills adequacy, Wihler et al. (2017) suggested social

skills should be studied when considering sales performance and the other more common

elements of extraversion conscientiousness.

Sales performance has been studied in many ways. For example, research has

looked past personal interaction and focused on marketing techniques, such as social

media (Rodríguez et al., 2016). Hill and Fouts (2005) studied the relationship between IP

skills and work ethic, finding that the two shared a positive correlation. Finally, Hopkins

and Duke (2004) examined the success of business school students and their IP skills.

They cited IP skills as one of the most valued skillsets among students, showing a

positive relationship to creativity, teamwork, and overall communication.

EI’s perceived effect on sales performance has been studied frequently (AlDosiry

et al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003; Huggins et al., 2016; Wisker & Poulis,

2015). Chakrabarty et al. (2014) studied the effects of insurance salespeople who use a

technique termed interpersonal mentalizing, described as “taking a bird’s-eye view,

shaping the interaction by creating a positive ambiance, detecting nonverbal cues, and

rapport building” (p. 112). Chakrabarty et al.’s description contained aspects of Gardner’s

(1983) IP skills, but they failed to encapsulate exactly what I sought to understand in the

current study, whether a relationship exists between a salesperson’s ability to use these

soft skills appropriately and the execution of a sales transaction. Wihler et al. (2017)

identified a gap in the current research regarding the relationship between IP skills and

sales performance.

An in-depth study needed to be conducted concerning the differences between EI

and IP skills because in all the research I reviewed, the essential factors of IP skills were

missing. Additionally, a study was needed to explore the relationship between IP skills

and sales performance. By addressing the gap in the research, I attempted to use the

findings of this study to illustrate the need for further training and programs designed to

implement IP skills in salespeople’s approaches. This helps individuals seeking a career

in sales to identify which characteristics help their performance and which ones need

improvement. Additionally, pharmaceutical salespeople could use the findings of this

study to be more adept at communicating with physicians to help them move toward a

sales transaction. Overall, the results could be used to yield better-trained employees able

to complete their duties more efficiently.

Purpose Statement

In this study, I investigated the relationship between IP skills and sales production

in terms of total sales income. These sales transactions are embodied by IP interactions;

therefore, a correct understanding of this proficiency was of utmost importance.

Understanding IP skills and the applications to sales could potentially have have a large

impact in the sales field. The goal is to enable organizational leaders to allocate time and

resources more effectively toward training sales personnel to increase sales volume.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

I used the following research questions (RQ) and associated hypotheses (H) to

address the identified gap in the literature:

RQ1: Does pharmaceutical salespeople’s IP skills level, as measured by the

Conversational Skills Relations Survey (CSRS), significantly predict their sales

performance in terms of total sales income?

Ha1: Pharmaceutical salespeople’s IP skills level predicts their sales

performance.

H01: Pharmaceutical salespeople’s IP skills level does not predict their

sales performance.

RQ2: Does pharmaceutical salespeople’s tenure predict their sales performance in

terms of in terms of total sales income?

Ha2: Pharmaceutical salespeople’s tenure predicts their sales

prerformacne.

H02: Pharmaceutical salespeople’s tenure does not predict their sales

performance.

RQ3: Does the number of large group sales meetings pharmaceutical salespeople

attend predict their sales performance in terms of in terms of total sales income?

Ha3: The number of large group sales meetings pharmaceutical

salespeople attend significantly predicts their sales performance.

H03: The number of large group sales meetings pharmaceutical

salespeople attend does predict their sales performance.

Theoretical Framework

The idea of intelligence has been frequently discussed over many generations and

from many different perspectives (Murdoch, 2007). Murdoch (2007) wrote at length

about the long-accepted idea of assessing intelligence using the Stanford-Binet IQ test.

Low intelligence has been linked to crime, poor socioeconomic status, and frequency of

arrest (Becker et al., 2019; Schwartz & Beaver, 2019).

Howard Gardner (1983) proposed a different angle on intelligence with the theory

of multiple intelligences (MI) in the book, Frames of Mind. Gardner was the first to be

credited with the idea of MI. Frustrated by the narrow view of existing psychometric

tools measuring IQ, Gardner and others developed the idea that there are many different

intelligence types (Walters & Gardner, 1984). Walters and Gardner (1984) suggested that

the intelligences could be psychometrically identified and used to facilitate learning.

According to MI theorists, students who were previously identified as being

unintelligent were simply not being recognized for the intelligences they possessed

(Gardner, 1983). Gardner (1983) identified eight different intelligences. First, musical

intelligence was identified as individuals who have a natural ability to play musical

instruments, internalize tone, and understand musical theory possess musical intelligence.

Second, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence was identified as coordinating and controlling

body movements with great skill, such as naturally athletic individuals. Third, individuals

who can reason and quantify subjects possess logical/mathematical intelligence.

According to Gardner, logical/mathematical intelligence was most closely identified with

traditional IQ testing. Fourth, linguistic intelligence, which is often skillfully portrayed by

poets, exemplifies an individual’s ability to express themself and skillfully communicate

knowledge. Fifth, spatial intelligence involves a firm understanding of an individual’s

surroundings and orienting, like that of a seasoned navigator’s or a sculptor’s

proficiencies. Naturalistic intelligence identifies someone capable of understanding

nature and its ecology. Interpersonal skills are the seventh intelligence exemplified by the

ability to relate, communicate, and interact well with others. Finally, intrapersonal

intelligence was described by Gardner as an individual’s ability to understand themself.

This intelligence is often exemplified by problem-solvers who can see past personal

biases and preferences to quickly find an issue’s underlying cause (Gardner, 1983).

The theory of MI was used to develop the world of education and learning by

asserting that many different personal strengths and intelligences could be harnessed to

help people learn more efficiently and become more successful in the classroom (Walters

& Gardner, 1984). Individuals who struggled with the traditional educational systems

now understood how to adapt their learning in the most effective way to a larger degree.

This learning style allows individuals to pursue more education and carry the skills

forward into the workforce (Meers & Wiseman, 2002).

The ideology within MI theory has been used to encourage other research

questions regarding applying these intelligences (e.g., interpersonal, musical, verbal-

linguistic, logical-mathematical; Gardner, 2006; Gardner & Moran, 2006). If

performance in the classroom is greatly improved, then research should be initiated to

discern whether performance can be improved in the workplace and continue the research

hypotheses of Meers and Wiseman (2002). Green et al. (2005) suggested that employees

trained to understand their strengths and how to harness them would be much more likely

to perform at a higher level, especially if the training helped employees understand how

to improve their weaknesses.

While there are many MI theory proponents, some have identified faults in the

theory (Visser et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2010). Some of the critics struggled with the

notion of “Everybody is a genius,” insinuating that the other intelligences do not carry as

much weight as the original characteristics screened for in the traditional IQ tests, such as

the prevalent Stanford-Binet intelligence scale (Williams et al., 2010, p. 1075). The

critics believed everyone should develop the same learning style, so the same type of

education could be administered to all (Williams et al., 2010). Gardner and Moran (2006)

responded to the criticisms by stating that the opponents had oversimplified their findings

and that the literature was not examined closely.

Other researchers, including Visser et al. (2006), opposed the theory superficially

by citing the minor differences between Gardner’s intelligences, such as IP and

intrapersonal intelligences. Visser et al. incorporated a visual exam to test whether

individuals exhibited spatial intelligence. Gardner (2006) noted the difference between

visual acuity and spatial intelligence and also asserted that individuals who lacked vision

entirely still had the capability for spatial intelligence. Furthermore, Visser et al. attacked

the idea of intrapersonal intelligence collectively, stating that self-concept was more

dynamic and formed by external circumstances rather than a developed matter of

intelligence. Gardner rebutted by stating that self-concept was an aspect of personality,

not intelligence. In each case, Gardner refuted Visser et al.’s points and found additional

evidence to support MI theory.

The core of the struggle against MI theory seems to be in understanding the idea

of intelligence. Gardner (1983) understood it as a developed capacity, while other

researchers viewed it as a static attribute. Gardner encouraged development, while others

focused more on discovering the characteristics (Williams et al., 2010). No expert in the

literature argued the innate capability of some people to develop certain aspects easier

than others; nevertheless, the attributes that embody the theory of MI are

characteristically and naturally aspects of intelligence (Gardner, 1983).

MI theory has been used as a framework for additional research. Kornhaber et al.

(1990) modified the theory of MI with their normative theory of intelligence (INT), in

which they focused on society’s role in developing the intelligences. The INT proponents

stressed all the dynamics involved in developing the theory of MI in everyone. Kornhaber

et al. compared the United States and Japan, concluding that experts in the United States

placed too much emphasis on psychometrics instead of the factors that develop the

intelligences in children. Additionally, Kornhaber et al. believed earlier testing could be

valuable in providing a greater examination of a person’s natural intelligences.

While an active participant in INT development, Gardner would likely be opposed

to the idea that many aspects of MI theory are simply innate. This ideology citing natural

instincts or abilities blurs the line between personality and intelligence (Kornhaber et al.,

1990). Gardner seemed to identify with the idea that intelligence is an aspect of people’s

lives developed through hard work and discipline, where personality is simply a matter of

people’s inborn preferences and inclinations (Kornhaber et al., 1990).

The literature involved the principle termed IP skills in many different ways. In

the current study, I defined IP skills as an individual’s ability to communicate with

others, feel and show empathy, and seek the other person’s best interest (see Gardner,

1983). IP skills involve making a person feel comfortable in all situations, understanding

how to deal with a person’s emotions properly, and radiating respect and care for others

(Gardner, 1983). The capability has many names. Some researchers who have

investigated the ability have used terms such as soft skills, people skills, and social

intelligence (Baumgartner, 2009; Dawes, 2003; Doğan & Çetın, 2009; Mitchell et al.,

2010). In the current study, all the different terms were reconciled using Gardner’s (1983)

terminology of IP skills.

While Gardner (1983) was the first to identify IP skills as something tangible that

could be identified and taught, IP skills have been a topic of training for leaders of many

organizations (Hottel & Hardigan, 2005; Johnston, 2005). Researchers have frequently

reported that the benefit of this training is felt on many different levels, such as general

productivity, job satisfaction, and low employee turnover (Covert, 2007; Patton, 2010).

Gu and Siu (2009) termed IP skills in the workforce “the major deficit affecting the labor

force” (p. 561).

Significance of the Study

Salespeople are required to facilitate a comfortable environment while showing

understanding and empathy (Wisker & Poulis, 2015). The ability to communicate with a

client effectively has been identified as vital to a salesperson’s success (Sprowl & Senk,

1986). In this study, I examined IP skills among pharmaceutical salespeople. A positive

relationship between IP skills and sales performance suggests that social change could be

far-reaching. The findings could be used to influence how sales agents are recruited and

trained to become more effective. Furthermore, the findings could be used to help

individuals determine whether a career in sales is a suitable fit. Additionally, the findings

could be used to refine existing programs and design specific platforms to train

employees in IP skills. Millions of dollars have been spent annually training employees in

various aspects of the job field, and IP skills training may potentially reap the greatest

return on investment and yield the highest impact on sales (Gandolfi, 2009). Lastly, the

overall consumer experience can be improved because sales representatives could use

their increased understanding of IP skills to shift their focus to the consumers’ needs and

make the sales transaction a better experience for both parties.

The research literature showed a dearth of training concentrating solely on IP

skills, with the majority of the current researchers focused on EI and performance

indicators (AlDosiry et al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003; Huggins et al., 2016;

Wisker & Poulis, 2015). Additional research measuring sales performance exists, but the

researchers failed to identify the correlation between sales performance and IP skills (Lee

et al., 2015; Rodríguez et al., 2016; Teven & Winters, 2007; Wihler et al., 2017). IP skills

have been measured against several variables, such as the performance of managers,

students, and physicians (Bergeron et al., 2013; Deng et al., 2014; Ellingsen-Dalskau et

al., 2016; Slof et al., 2016). In this study, I sought to address the lack of research

regarding the relationship between IP skills and sales performance.

Nature of the Study

In this quantitative study, I assessed the salesperson’s IP skills level using the

CSRS (see Spitzberg, 1995). Although the instrument was not specifically designed for

salespeople, it is an excellent measure of IP skills focusing on individuals’ interactions

during a conversation to ensure appropriate speech, conduct, and behavior. For this study,

the predictor variables were IP skills, the number of large group meetings, and tenure.

The criterion variable was total sales performance of the pharmaceutical salesperson in

terms of the total sales income. The relationships among the predictor and criterion

variables were examined using multiple regression analysis.

Pharmaceutical representatives currently working as salespeople were the subject

group. They were a valuable option because of the nature of their sales position and the

growth of the pharmaceutical industry (see Fischer et al., 2010). I sent the participants an

email invitation from SurveyMonkey, inviting them to contribute to the study. Their

participation was voluntary.

Definition of Terms

Many different terms were essential to this research. In this section, I clarify the

terms and definitions used in this study.

Adaptive selling: The ability to change one’s selling techniques to match the

consumer’s social style. Implicit in this is the ability to perceive those different social

styles and preferences (Teven & Winters, 2007).

CSRS: A psychometric tool developed by Spitzberg (1995) designed to determine

which factors are key to success in social and conversational settings. The CSRS asks

questions regarding specific behaviors that facilitate a comfortable, warm, and mutually

beneficial conversation.

Doctors and physicians: Medical providers who can legally prescribe medications

(Solomon, 2013). The primary audience for pharmaceutical salespeople is medical

doctors. Their target audience could occasionally include psychologists, physician

assistants, physical therapists, chiropractors, nurse practitioners, and rarely dentists.

EI: The ability to control one’s own emotions to facilitate proper behavior in

social situations (Carragher & Gormley, 2017).

IP skills: The ability to perceive others’ needs, create an appropriate social

environment, and communicate effectively and comfortably for all parties. The definition

embodies the principles of empathy, compassion, and kindness (Gardner, 1983). Gardner

(1983) noted that someone with strong IP skills might be a leader or a follower. Often,

individuals seek careers such as managers, politicians, or salespeople.

Large group sales meetings: Any setting where the pharmaceutical salespeople

address more than one or two doctors at a time (J. Birrell, personal communication,

August 17, 2015). It is a common practice of pharmaceutical salespeople and could

potentially lead to more sales in a shorter amount of time.

People skills, soft skills, social skills, social competence, social intelligence, and

interpersonal intelligence: These terms were used interchangeably in the literature to

identify the characteristics identified by Gardner (1983) and were essentially considered

to be the same as the term IP skills as previously defined.

Pharmaceutical salespeople: Sales representatives whose primary purpose is to

disseminate knowledge to clinicians who are, in turn, responsible for prescribing those

medications to patients who will then purchase the medications (Michaelidis & Dracou,

2011).

Sales transaction volume: The number of sales produced from a pharmaceutical

salesperson’s territory in terms of prescriptions placed from specific physicians

(Solomon, 2013).

Tenure: The amount of time someone has been in a position or working for a

company (Solomon, 2013). The assumption is that someone with more tenure may be

paid on a higher scale.

Assumptions

I made several assumptions related to this study. First, it was assumed that the

current payment structure utilized by pharmaceutical companies is fair and equitable and

provided accurate data for the purposes of this study. Consideration needed to be given to

the factors affecting compensation, such as the term of employment, large group

meetings, company bonuses, or other factors.

Second, I assumed that certain factors may contribute to the success or failure of

the employees who were not accounted for in this study. Elements, such as personal

hygiene, grammar, and geographical area, may have had a major role in the results of this

study, but it was assumed that salespeople in this industry were capable of appropriate

levels of personal hygiene.

Scope and Limitations

The scope of this study was limited to pharmaceutical salespeople. I chose this

group because of the nature of their business interactions, working primarily with

physicians who struggle to maintain a high level of IP skills (see Frey, 1999; Milyavsky

et al., 2017). The CSRS is a self-report test, which carries with it several limitations. Bias

can enter the scoring if participants seek to answer to increase their score. For this reason,

the test was anonymous, hoping to encourage the participants to answer openly and

honestly, as explained in the Privacy section of the Informed Consent document.

Summary and Transition

Sales are a significant part of a company’s success. In the large pharmaceutical

industry, there is a heavy reliance on pharmaceutical salespeople. I conducted this study

to examine the relationship between sales performance and IP skills among

pharmaceutical salespeople and to identify the importance of IP skills in several venues.

There have been many studies concerning the measurements of sales

performance, but the research has failed to identify whether a correlation exists between

sales performance and IP skills (Borg & Johnston, 2013; O’Reilly, 2015; Wihler et al.,

2017). In this study, I chose the participant group because of their considerable effect on

their company’s total sales income transactions and their presence in the sales industry.

To predict the significance of IP skills on sales performance, I measured the relationship

between tenure and the number of large group sales meetings on sales volume as well.

In Chapter 2, I will examine the literature on the topic extensively to review the

existing research regarding IP skills and their many derivatives. This chapter also

contains a description of the gap in the research that I sought to fill in this study.

In Chapter 3, I will cover the research design and methodology used to determine

the relationship between IP skills and sales performance and how that relationship was

mitigated by the number of large sales meetings and tenure of the employees. The chapter

also includes a discussion of the CSRS’s psychometric properties, the informed consent

process, and the appropriate measures taken to ensure the highest ethical standards in the

study.

Chapter 4 will contain a presentation of the results and data analysis along with

pertinent charts and figures. In the descriptive statistics, I will analyze the results of the

107 participants, who were not required to submit demographic information. The

assumptions of linearity, normality, homoscedasticity, and multicollinearity will be

explained. I will also provide the results of the multiple linear regression. The findings

will be discussed regarding each research question with accompanying statistics.

Chapter 5 will be focused on the interpretations and implications of these

findings. I will discuss the limitations of the study and the recommendations for further

research as well as the theoretical and social implications. In this concluding chapter, I

will also examine how to pursue further action in lieu of these findings and how to utilize

these findings to promote positive social change.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

In this chapter, I review the current literature on IP skills; the many terms used in

conjunction with IP skills, such as social intelligence, IP competence, and people skills;

IP skills relationship to sales performance, and the compensation of pharmaceutical

salespeople. The review of the literature on this topic is framed by Gardner’s (1983)

theory of MI. Chapter 2 also contains an examination of the current literature to identify

the areas where the research was lacking. I begin the chapter with a discussion of the

literature search strategy.

Literature Search Strategy

For this literature review, I examined the extant research on IP skills and their

relationship to sales performance as well as Gardner’s (1983) theory of MI. The primary

focus was on research articles defining the concept of IP skills in the way Gardner

originally defined it (i.e., a person’s ability to understand another’s social style and how

to communicate with others effectively, discern how an individual may be feeling, and

create the proper social atmosphere). This social intelligence allows others to show

empathy, place others’ needs first, and simply carry on a comfortable conversation.

Arnold et al. (2012) provided their own definition of IP skills, describing characteristics

of people “who are able to interact with others in such a way that their behavior has a

maximum positive and minimum negative outcome for the interactional partners” (p. 1).

The important skill of social competence (i.e., IP skills) has applications to every aspect

of life; however, the direct impact on the sales volume of pharmaceutical salespeople is

unknown. Therefore, I focused on this relationship in the current study.

I primarily used EBSCO to search for research articles from databases, such as

Academic Search Complete, Business Source Complete, Cochrane Methodology

with Tests in Print, Opendissertations, PsycBOOKS, PsycEXTRA, PsycINFO,

PsycTESTS, Regional Business News, Research Starters-Education, Social Work

Abstracts, and SocINDEX with Full Text. The search terms used were IP skills, social

intelligence, sales and productivity, IP skills and EI, IP competence, people skills, social

competence and IP skills, people skills, social competence and IP skills, people skills and

sales, people skills and sales, people skills and productivity, interpersonal skills and sales

volume, and pharmaceutical salespeople compensation.

Interpersonal Skills

The value of IP skills has been recognized by several organizations that have

begun incorporating IP skills training (Johnston, 2005). Johnston (2005) cited the vast

importance of IP skills with productivity, client relations, lawsuit avoidance, employee

turnover, employee satisfaction, and retention. The author recognized that the effort starts

with the management members but is vital for every organizational member, stating,

The ability of one’s managers to manage interpersonal risks—by creating a

climate of fairness and trust, by consistently and quickly addressing employee

problems, and by understanding and complying with legal and ethical

responsibilities, is the single best predictor of how likely one’s organization is to

maximize its profits and minimize its costs. (p. 69)

A review of the literature showed that some researchers have begun to recognize

the importance of IP skills in the business field. Williams and Stumpf (2008) found IP

skills essential to training students in management classes at Cornell University who were

given special scenarios that they may encounter as managers. The students were coached

on how to deal with the scenarios appropriately using the proper IP skills. Additionally,

Slof et al. (2016) found a positive correlation regarding the impact of IP skills on student

performance with their peers in the Netherlands. The effects of IP skills were an

especially strong indicator of performance in group work forums.

Litigation has become more prevalent in commerce in modern society (Lunseth,

2001; Malm & Krolikowski, 2017; Merten & Pezzello, 2011). As early as the mid-1980s,

Bernzweig (1985) recognized the need for IP skills to avoid lawsuits. Currently, the same

issues have been seen with poor IP skills being closely associated with litigation (“Order

for counseling, social skills,” 2014). Substantial evidence exists that an IP skills deficit

impedes peoples’ progress, leading to lawsuits and/or dismissal (Hirko, 2009; Teh, 2009).

The evidence for IP skills in improving employee turnover seems less substantial

(Covert, 2007). Covert (2007) studied the effect of IP skills on certified nursing assistants

at a nursing home to discerning whether an increase in IP skills would decrease turnover

and the use of sick days. The researcher found no significant effect over the course of 4

weeks; consequently, a greater period may be necessary to make the assumption

adequately.

Russell et al. (2010) furthered Covert’s (2007) work by conducting a study

regarding turnover rates among elementary teachers using a 360-degree approach to

examine management, pay, and health care. The researchers found that managers’ or

colleagues’ IP skills ranked very low among teachers who considered leaving their work

location. However, in other studies, researchers have suggested a positive correlation

between the practice of IP skills and employee job satisfaction (Hottel & Hardigan, 2005;

Patton, 2010). Research regarding company trainers showed that IP skills were

paramount in teaching new trainees (Ghosh et al., 2012; Monnier, 2015; Tews & Tracey,

2008). The trainees reported higher satisfaction and more desire to continue training and

learning when proper IP skills were practiced (Ghosh et al., 2012).

As IP skills have gained more importance among researchers, such as Johnston

(2005), leaders of several organizations have started training on IP skills more frequently.

Tews and Tracey (2008) evaluated 75 managers from a large fast-food franchise to

evaluate what type of IP skills training was most effective: classroom training or

classroom training coupled with self-coaching that included feedback from supervisors.

Tews and Tracey recognized that any type of attention to IP skills was important and

improved workplace atmosphere; however, they failed to correlate IP skills directly to

specific aspects of the atmosphere. Furthermore, the authors did not show any correlation

between sales performance and IP skills.

Borg and Freytag (2012) researched IP skills in conjunction with EI in business-

to-business sales. Borg and Johnston (2013) admitted, “the field’s understanding of the

concept [i.e., IP skills] is limited, sporadic, and seemingly conflicting” when discussing

sales performance (p. 39). Mast and Latu (2016) discussed IP accuracy as a social skill

and its impact on workplace tasks. They mentioned the ability to complete sales in

passing in their study, but it was not focused on. Li et al. (2017) described political skill

as a social skill that influences sales outcomes and job satisfaction. The focus was

similar, but political skill, as Li et al. described it, lacks the personal approach and ability

to discern another’s mood and temperament as Gardner (1983) described with IP skills.

Therefore, current researchers have neglected to show the correlation between

sales performance and IP skills among pharmaceutical salespeople. Many groups have

been studied to show the impact IP skills carry for doctors and nurses, managers,

students, and many other groups, but existing research lacks the description of IP skills as

Gardner (1983) characterized them and has failed to show the correlation between sales

performance and IP skills (AlDosiry et al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003;

Huggins et al., 2016; Li et al., 2017; Wisker & Poulis, 2015).

Bergeron et al. (2013) studied the effects of IP skills training on high school

students identified as being “at-risk,” according to test scores, dropout rates, attendance,

and suspension rates. Their pre- and posttraining results showed a strong and significant

change in the student behaviors and their likelihood of success beyond high school. The

authors asserted that the same results would be evident in organizations where leaders

employed IP skills training.

Researchers have regarded IP skills as the most important and most poorly used

asset of the workplace (Gu & Siu, 2009). While some experts have understood the

importance of IP skills, others seemed unaware of the applications that IP skills have for

an organization (Borg & Johnston, 2013; Gardner & Moran, 2006; O’Reilly, 2015;

Wihler et al., 2017). Nearly every aspect of business involves personal communication

and interaction among individuals (Naguib, 2007). The principles comprising IP skills are

most crucial to leaders of a corporation; yet, in the existing studies, researchers suggested

IP skills were being highly neglected by leaders of organizations that were largely

dependent on sales, such as the pharmaceutical industry (Tews & Tracey, 2008; Wallach,

2009). IP relationships were also identified as one of Piotrowski’s (2016) most neglected

areas of scholarly research. Instead, topics such as personality testing, conflict

management, or EI inventories were more commonly examined (Clarke, 2010; Jameson,

2001; Scroggins et al., 2009).

The same turbidity surrounding the precise definition of IP skills that confused

many of Gardner’s critics remains prevalent in modern research. According to the

literature, IP skills have many different names (AlDosiry et al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz &

Sojka, 2003; Huggins et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2015; Rodríguez et al., 2016; Teven &

Winters, 2007; Wihler et al., 2017; Wisker & Poulis, 2015). People skills, social

intelligence, soft skills, interactional skills, assertiveness, self-esteem, social or IP

competence, and many other terms have been used to describe what Gardner (1983)

sought to label (Bayer et al., 2012; Dawes, 2003; Doğan & Çetın, 2009; Mitchell et al.,

2010; Monnier, 2015). Bayer et al. (2012) argued that the researchers had not displayed

any clear delineation between the terms. Furthermore, EI has occupied much of the

research when reviewing comparisons to performance (Monnier, 2015). The differences

between IP skills and EI are examined further in this literature review. The literature

showed that IP skills have been studied among many different groups, such as managers,

health care staff, students, and engineers. While these terms collectively embody

Gardner’s (1983) definition of IP skills, none of them encompasses the concept I was

trying to discern in the current study, namely the correlation between IP skills and sales

performance.

IP skills have been examined in many ways regarding their influence in the

workplace. It seems logical that positive interactions between individuals with whom a

person works and does business with would be paramount to an organization (Gu & Siu,

2009). The effect of IP skills on employee productivity is monumental (Hottel &

Hardigan, 2005; Levin, 2012). IP intelligence has not been as highly regarded by some,

who compared it to routine task-oriented items in terms of importance (Dyche, 2007).

Other experts have regarded IP intelligence as the major deficit affecting the modern

labor force (Gu & Siu, 2009; Wesley et al., 2017). In a workplace study, Yang (2010)

showed IP skills ranked above technical skills, industry knowledge, and experience.

Amid globalization, the importance of IP skills has increased exponentially because

technology allows people to communicate internationally (Blomkvist et al., 2017;

Greenockle, 2010; Lee & Johnston, 2001).

A significant portion of the literature on IP skills has involved management.

Managers have a significant role in organizational productivity and have commonly been

studied to determine how their performance can be improved (Ellingsen-Dalskau et al.,

2016; Greenockle, 2010; Johnston, 2005). Managers set the pace within most

organizations and maintain a large role in determining the satisfaction of employees and

clients. Managers also greatly affect the turnover and liability of an organization

(Johnston, 2005). Therefore, high IP intelligence is vital to a manager and, consequently,

to an organization’s success (Riggio, 2014). Johnston (2005) determined that a manager’s

ability to interact effectively while resolving employees’ concerns and thereby avoiding

litigation is “the single best predictor of how likely one’s organization is to maximize its

profits and minimize its costs” (p. 69).

Interacting with employees and resolving concerns is only a small aspect of the IP

skills principle (Gardner, 1983). IP sales has many useful applications in the workforce,

as Ellingsen-Dalskau et al. (2016) pointed out. Every institutional manager would like to

see fewer disputes and less litigation (Ellingsen-Dalskau et al., 2016; Malm &

Krolikowski, 2017). Research has shown that IP skills are at the forefront of

accomplishing the goal of fewer disputes. Understanding how to implement IP skills

properly in any organization can be advantageous on many different levels; this has

become more important as litigation has increased over the years (Grundfest & Huang,

2006; Merten & Pezzello, 2011).

The idea of comparing performance to IP skills is not new. Hill (2015) worked

closely with students seeking to ensure their success using several approaches. Among

the attributes designated as significant aspects to improving and maintaining performance

was IP skills. Trinka (2005) researched managerial productivity and organizational

structure, revealing that the highest level of productivity was achieved when an

organization could promote a performance-based approach where the supervisors acted as

coaches rather than commanders. Trinka cited one essential element of the formula: IP

skills. If the managers could incorporate the model with an adequate amount of IP skills

training, the organization operated much more smoothly (Trinka, 2005). Substituting

principles of autonomy for micromanagement principles has been proven to accelerate

the efficiency of a business (Alpkan et al., 2010; Van Yperen et al., 2016). The proper

implementation of such a policy requires substantial IP communication and dissemination

of expectations and job requirements (Johnston, 2005).

Dreyfus (2008) conducted a long-term study of managers in large government

institutions. They found that leadership skills and interpersonal sensitivity were the two

primary characteristics contributing to a group’s success. The study also found that strong

IP skills in managers could be developed through training but were more likely to be

developed early in life (Dreyfus, 2008). Dreyfus showed that individuals are trained most

effectively according to their individual learning style. Based on the discovery, Dreyfus

magnified the fundamental philosophy of Gardner’s MI theory. The author suggested that

someone who has an inclination toward musical intelligence would most likely learn

about IP intelligence by approaching it from a musical perspective rather than a

logical/mathematical or spatial intelligence approach. Therefore, in this study I sought to

discern the impact or relationship of potentially training employees, such as the

participant group of pharmaceutical salespeople, while considering their existing

intelligences (Dreyfus, 2008; Johnston, 2005). For example, if a pharmaceutical

salesperson already possesses a strong physical intelligence, then the training could be

formatted to train the representative to improve their IP intelligence in a way that

associates the existing intelligence with the intelligence to be learned.

Rajan (2014) studied pharmaceutical salespeople and their sales effectiveness by

examining several factors, including IP skills. Rajan also cited technical skills and

salesmanship skills. Rajan proposed that IP skills’ level is positively correlated to each

associate’s amount of sales experience. This research was compelling, and on the surface,

seemed to occupy many of the same factors of this research. Further analysis shows that

while IP skills were an aspect of this study, they were only a small part of several

different factors studied here (Rajan, 2014). The author did not employ a psychometric

tool to quantify IP skills. To measure effectiveness, the author examined “specific

objective-based outcomes, skill sets controlling the salesperson’s behavior, performance

results in terms of sales units/volume, revenue generated, profitability, new accounts

created, etc” (Rajan, 2014, p. 1). Such a large spectrum of performance indicators made it

more ambiguous to identify the effects of IP skills.

Islam et al. (2016) studied the performance of sales associates in a salon located

in Bangladesh against soft skills that align with Gardner’s definition, namely, “listening

skill, optimism, empathy, buyer-seller relationship and skills regarding managing

perceptions” (p. 77). Their study employed a multiple regression analysis and showed a

positive correlation between the “IP relationship” of the salon representatives and the

associated receipt of sales, concluding that if a sales representative wants to see an

increase in sales, they should work on IP skills. Islam et al.’s study used a face-to-face

interview to survey the salon employees concerning several items and used a Likert scale

to quantify their responses.

IP skills were studied by Basir et al. (2010) alongside marketing, technical, and

salesmanship skills in a Malaysian telecommunications company. Their study showed a

positive correlation for IP skills, but none of the other variables impacted sales

performance. Basir et al.’s research tried to identify the positive correlation and the need

to study further and understand IP skills’ implications on sales performance.

The science of IP intelligence comprises more than simply being nice and

courteous to peers (Johnston, 2005; Patton, 2010). The key is to properly understand an

individual’s “social style” and create a proper social atmosphere (Patton, 2010, p. 46). A

study of optometrists and their office staff members showed that productivity was greatly

enhanced when the office staff members were trained on proper IP skills and interacting

appropriately with the clients and each other (Patton, 2010). The result was a better place

to work and heightened productivity, according to Patton (2010). When the workplace

was perceived as a conscientious and friendly atmosphere, the turnover rate decreased,

and there was an increase in job satisfaction overall (Patton, 2010). Patton indicated IP

communication in most organizations is often much higher among the employees than the

clients. Thus, when employees become empowered by properly understanding IP skills,

the workplace becomes more enjoyable (Patton, 2010). Hottel and Hardigan (2005)

similarly concluded that a client-friendly atmosphere naturally occurs when employees

understand and properly implement IP skills.

This example of the optometry office can also support the argument that IP skills

can be trained, taught, and learned by employees to improve many workplace factors

(Patton, 2010). IP skills are commonly found on the lists of researchers evaluating

performance (AlDosiry et al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003; Huggins et al., 2016;

Wisker & Poulis, 2015). Hopkins and Duke (2004) have found IP skills to be among the

success indicators for business school students. While their study was used to examine

the students’ general success in a business environment, it failed to look closely at IP

skills and their impact on sales performance (Hopkins & Duke, 2004).

The need for IP skills among nurses was identified by Huynh et al. (2008).

Among the many duties of a nurse, Huynh et al. focused on one characteristic termed

emotional labor as one of the most important aspects of a nurse’s job (p. 195). Huynh et

al. described it as a nurse’s ability to deal with difficult situations and how well nurses

could express themselves during these circumstances. While Huynh et al. did not delve

deeply into the mechanics of IP skills, they did identify the need for a “work persona”

where the nurses were able to find a way to express themselves and work through the

social rigors associated with nursing (p. 195). Huynh et al. concluded that nurses need to

find an outlet and need to be supported by their organizations in finding a healthy way to

defuse their emotions. No mention was made about the training of IP skills or developing

the proper work persona through training (Huynh et al., 2008).

The importance of a nurse’s ability to maintain high levels of social-emotional

intelligence has been studied globally (Carragher & Gormley, 2017). When nurses can

accomplish this, it results in a higher standard of care and a better experience for patients

and nurses alike. According to Carragher and Gormley (2017), the proper forum of IP

relations was embodied most effectively when employed by the leadership. Further,

Carragher and Gormley suggested that EI and social intelligence training should begin as

early as undergraduate education.

Leaders in many organizations assign mentors to play a very valuable role in the

productivity of organizations and individuals (Sambunjak et al., 2010). Mentors are

commonly used to help decrease the learning curve and bring people up to speed in

organizations. In the research conducted among academic clinicians, Sambunjak et al.

(2010) found one key indicator underpinning these mentors’ success: IP skills. Even

among individuals who boasted decades of education and a profound level of experience,

IP skills still manifested a very important presence (Febrianita & Hardjati, 2019;

Sambunjak et al., 2010). Sambunjak et al. stressed the importance of the organization’s

support in encouraging strong IP skills for the mentor and the mentee alike.

Many employers have considered work ethic the most important characteristic of

an employee (Hill & Fouts, 2005; Robles, 2012). An employees’ ability to persist until

the job is complete is undoubtedly a valuable skill. Hill and Fouts (2005) showed that the

impact of a strong work ethic was magnified when it was coupled with strong IP skills.

Hill and Fouts cited a clear and vital association between the two. Hill and Fouts

examined 373 individuals from all different age groups and different employment

statuses (i.e., unemployed, part-time, and full-time employees). Hill and Fouts found that

a large percentage of the employees who demonstrated a strong work ethic consistently

showed good IP skills. On the surface, the two aspects would seem completely unrelated.

Hill and Fouts suggested several more questions about how the individuals possessing

both a strong work ethic and proficient IP skills acquired these principles.

Yoder (2015) also emphasized the importance of preparing the upcoming

workforce with a strong work ethic but expressed his concern that social and emotional

skills, which are much more vital, were being left behind. Yoder thought school district

officials needed to greatly increase their focus on the skills and encourage changes in

policies to accomplish that goal. Similar changes have already been made in more than

six large school districts around the United States (Yoder, 2015).

IP skills embody many of the important characteristics of successful companies

and diligent employees. Certainly, there is a close relationship to many important aspects

of a work environment. While many have contended the importance of work ethic, others

have argued for the importance of maintaining a low turnover rate (Hill & Fouts, 2005;

Taute, 2007). Officials at one of South Africa’s largest hospitals reported turnover rates

as high as 23%. When Taute (2007) researched the facility, he found that the hospital

workers struggled to cope in the social environment. The workers had little satisfaction

with life and were generally dissatisfied (Taute, 2007). Taute made the determination,

“Developing your IP skills is not only beneficial in helping you satisfy the demands of

the employer. It can also greatly reduce work stress, increase your productivity, and

ultimately enhance your reputation, perhaps your position within the firm” (p. 97).

Taute’s findings were perhaps the most noteworthy. Taute focused on the employees’

pursuit to find balance on an intrapersonal level and how this balance could translate into

the improvement of IP relationships. According to Taute, individuals who gained this

capability would find more satisfaction within the job, would appease their employer

more easily, and would increase the possibility of promotion (Patton, 2010; Riggio, 2014;

Russell et al., 2010).

Deeter-Schmelz and Sojka (2003) suggested a research model to examine EI and

its impact on sales performance. Their quantitative study involved in-depth interviews

designed to target factors consistent with strong IP skills. Several trends were identified

that indicated a positive correlation between the two (Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003).

When sales agents communicated more effectively with potential clients, they were more

likely to complete a business transaction or sale. Furthermore, when the sales associates

were able to perceive and recognize the clients’ feelings and desires, their performance

was much improved. Deeter-Schmelz and Sojka regarded the research as preliminary

because there was a dearth of psychometric tools that could determine the relationship

with scientific significance.

The effect of IP skills on sales performance was studied by Singh and Venugopal

(2015) in the context of customer orientation. Their study focused on sales agents in India

and their interactions with prospective clients. Singh and Venugopal described these IP

skills as salesmanship and the regulation of emotions. Their study showed a positive

correlation with the salespeople’s ability to exude strong IP skills. The authors suggested

training to help sales agents understand and incorporate these skills.

IP skills increase productivity and decrease turnover (Gu & Siu, 2009; Salas &

Weaver, 2016; Taute, 2007). They are vital for managers, nurses, and salespeople

(Greenockle, 2010; Huynh et al., 2008; Johnston, 2005; Li et al., 2017; Manna & Smith,

2004; Mast & Latu, 2016). IP skills correlate with work ethic, loyalty, and demonstration

of initiative (Hill & Fouts, 2005). The literature illustrated the importance of

understanding and implementing IP skills training in the workforce to accomplish

institutional managers’ goals and desires (Hill & Fouts, 2005).

Social Intelligence, Sales, and Productivity

In previous studies, the correlation between productivity and IP skills has been

very clear and substantiated by much research (Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003; Golhar,

2016; Salas & Weaver, 2016). Recent researchers have suggested that perhaps the same

clarity lacks social intelligence (Suliman, 2010). Whereas IP intelligence was defined by

Gardner (1983) as the ability to relate and communicate well with others, the literature

surrounding social intelligence indicated a slightly different concept. Suliman outlined an

individual’s ability to discern and act appropriately in many different societal situations

as social intelligence. Suliman’s definition aligned with aspects of Gardner’s definition of

IP skills.

Salas and Weaver (2016) studied Google to learn more about the company’s

model of success and ever-increasing productivity. Among Google’s many progressive

concepts was an in-house, advanced educational facility that rivaled many universities. In

the facility, employees are encouraged to continue their education in various technical

fields. Employees are also encouraged to study soft skills, such as IP intelligence. The

study of soft skills is used to facilitate the more technical aspects of the job, where

Google employees are encouraged to work in teams and spend one day each week

researching topics of personal interest (Salas & Weaver, 2016).

Nowrouzian and Farewell (2013) worked with biomedical and natural science

students. They suggested an on-the-job or problem-based approach to learning IP skills.

Nowrouzian and Farewell originally acknowledged the improved productivity and

capabilities of group work environments. As they studied the groups, a need was

identified for the teams to work well together using IP skills. This need was essential

before any real progress could be made on their biomedical group studies.

Korean researchers established a research design targeting pharmaceutical

salespeople (Kim & Hong, 2005). Kim and Hong (2005) studied competencies among

457 pharmaceutical representatives established in their careers and had proven track

records. Kim and Hong found that when several key competencies increased, sales

performance increased accordingly. While the authors did not explicitly study IP skills,

they focused on several key aspects related to some of Gardner’s MI, namely “motive

and traits, self-concept, and knowledge and skills” (p. 261). Gardner’s (1983) explanation

of IP intelligence certainly aligns with Kim and Hong’s description of self-concept and

motive. In this research the authors examined forms of soft skills, but they only bear a

likeness to what Gardner described as IP skills. In this research they failed to show how

those skills could help others relate, show empathy, and pursue a comfortable

conversation (Borg & Johnston, 2013; Li et al., 2017; Mast & Latu, 2016).

Cárdenas et al. (2010) proposed a model of integrating social intelligence into

academic institutions that would serve many organizations. Cárdenas et al.’s projected

model included resolutions that involved both the students and the educators adopting a

model to incorporate a high level of social intelligence. Cárdenas et al. termed this the

“social intelligence design paradigm” that would result in “collaborative learning” (p.

247). Cárdenas et al. found this type of environment encourages an open, warm

interchange where maximum performance can be accomplished, and problems associated

with a lack of diversity appreciation and workforce conflict could be avoided. The

collaboration seems to be instrumental in determining the successful use of social

intelligence according to Cárdenas et al. Organizational leaders seeking a high level of IP

intelligence should consider a similar framework where peers and managers “collaborate”

to accomplish mutually beneficial success (Johnston, 2005). The design does require an

understanding and implementation of social intelligence and the related skills to

implement a successful training module (Cárdenas et al., 2010; Doo, 2006; Gundlach,

Martinko & Douglas, 2003; O’Sullivan et al., 2008; Tews & Tracey, 2008).

Hughes et al. (2009) noted the profound influence of high social and EI in

schools, businesses, and organizations. Their Handbook for Developing Emotional and

Social Intelligence: Best Practices, Case Studies, and Strategies enumerated the

advantages. Hughes et al. effectively described how to develop social intelligence

principles personally, as supervisors, executive coaches, or other related venues. While

Hughes et al. offered no scientific tests on validity, they cited the praise of the executives

who utilized their techniques. Researchers proposed a similar model termed conscious

oversight (CO; Roberts, 2002). CO is a suggested model designed to measure and

identify the possible correlation between productivity and leadership styles (Roberts,

2002). The CO model has been used to identify correlations in performance and social

intelligence like Hughes et al. (2009).

Interpersonal Skills and Emotional Intelligence

The association between IP skills and EI has been long established in the fields of

psychology and management (Bar-On, 1997, 2004; Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Borg &

Johnston, 2013; Brown & Moshavi, 2005; O’Reilly, 2015; Riggio, 1986; Sheridan et al.,

2006; Weisinger, 1998; Wihler et al., 2017). In much of the current research, academics

described them ambiguously, making it difficult to discern between the two (AlDosiry et

al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003; Huggins et al., 2016; Monnier, 2015; Wisker

& Poulis, 2015).

Monnier (2015) examined the differences between EI and what he coined social

competence a term used synonymously with IP skills. Boyatzis (2009), Makolandra et al.

(2009), and Monnier defined EI as more of an intrapersonal pursuit describing a person

who can control their inner-feelings, reactions, and thoughts. EI is ultimately measured

by how the inner thoughts and feelings manifest themselves through interactions with

others. Therefore, an intersection of EI and IP skills is seen. In this study I focused on the

IP aspect, examining a salesperson’s ability to interact with others looking further than

beyond their self-control.

Much of the confusion may stem from how the research was conducted. Arnold et

al. (2012) explained that three primary approaches exist when studying individuals to

discern whether they embody the characteristics of EI or IP skills. First, a self-evaluation

is used. Second, a peer-centered evaluation is used, such as a 360-degree evaluation. Last,

a third-party observation is needed, as presented by Steedly et al. (2008). Steedly et al.

argued that IP skills should be left to open evaluation and observation by a third party,

where EI is an ability that is better handled by self-evaluation.

Many different assessments concerning EI and IP skills exist (Bar-On, 1997,

2004; Bar-On & Parker, 2000; Borg & Johnston, 2013; Brown & Moshavi, 2005;

O’Reilly, 2015; Riggio, 1986; Sheridan et al., 2006; Weisinger, 1998; Wihler et al.,

2017). The possibility exists that the methodology and evaluation processes may have

given rise to much of the confusion. For example, Boyatzis et al. (2013) chose to

combine EI and social competence. In 2006, the Emotional Competency Inventory was

changed to the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory, comprising both the

emotional and social aspects of intelligence. Boyatzis (2009) cited the reason for the

change describing how his numerous studies sought to measure the effects of EI on an

individual’s performance under many different scenarios. Most often, Boyatzis reported

that their EI was manifested in how people acted socially toward others. This finding

helped to discern the difference between IP skills and EI.

While there is a discernable relationship between emotional and social

intelligence, the literature still has failed to delineate a clear difference between the two

(Johnson, 2015). Johnson (2015) followed medical students and focused on how their EI

levels affected their social interactions with patients. Johnson described the need for

medical students to have high EI to act in an appropriate social manner and suggested EI

training as an integral part of their medical training.

Golhar (2016) studied social intelligence under EI’s banner and its effect on a

salesperson’s success. Golhar’s advice for engendering the attributes of EI included being

approachable, being sociable, communicating well, being empathetic, and being a good

listener. Golhar cited these and other attributes as essential to improving productivity.

Again, many of the attributes described by Golhar characterized an individual with strong

IP skills as defined by Gardner (1983).

Some experts favored merging the two ideas (Bar-On, 2010). However, the vast

differences between the two and the importance of discerning between them cannot be

ignored. Perhaps the ideology of EI aligns more closely with Gardner’s earlier identified

intelligence of intrapersonal skills, defined as a person’s ability to understand oneself

(Gardner, 1983). Zins et al. (2007) argued that the marriage of social skills and emotional

competence would give individuals, such as students, the desired improvement in

behaviors and the skill sets that assist in their success.

Borg and Johnston (2013) sought to discern the difference between IP skills and

EI using a model they developed, the IP Skills-Emotional Intelligence Quotient Model.

Their model was used to turn the tables by viewing EI as part of the larger set of IP skills

instead of the more common alternative (Borg & Johnston, 2013). According to Borg and

Johnston (2013), a salesperson operates on a high level if they have strong IP skills.

However, if the salesperson couples the skills by bolstering their EI as well, they become

an even stronger sales representative (Borg & Johnston, 2013).

Wisker and Poulis (2015) sought to discern whether a real correlation existed

between sales performance and EI. They found that one of the moderating concepts was

adaptive selling, referred to as relationship selling or customer-oriented selling. Wisker

and Poulis’ primary focus seemed to be more on how the salespeople interact and less on

the IP relationship. According to Wisker and Poulis, a salesperson with the ability to

change their sales techniques will be more effective. Little was said concerning the

conclusions that lead to such a judgment.

The ability to adapt to certain situations, even social situations, has shown a

positive correlation in a salesperson’s success (Anglin et al., 1990; Chen & Jaramillo,

2014; Wang et al., 2016). In congruence with other research work, Anglin et al. (1990)

focused their research on the salesperson’s ability to adapt but did not provide much

detail about what the person was adapting to specifically. The underlying assumption was

that salespeople were adapting to the client’s social style, but no clear evidence was given

(Anglin et al., 1990). Weilbaker (1991) described adaptive selling as the ability to

communicate effectively to the client and seeking to understand their needs. The

salesperson moves from being a conductor to a consultant. In other words, instead of

setting the pace, they stand by and wait to facilitate the customer’s needs (Weilbaker,

1991).

Interpersonal Competence

The term IP competence was found in literature as early as 1967 by Clark and

Gary (1967) to assess the ability of subjects in “perceiving which cues are relevant,

inferring from these what is occurring, and determining what social responses would be

most appropriate” (p. 21). IP competence still appears frequently in literature, often

correlating with appropriate business practices (Garcia, 2018; Greenockle, 2010; Kivunja,

2014). Brundiers and Wiek (2017) explored IP competence in conjunction with

professional skills and how to reinforce those principles over a sustained period.

Greenockle (2010) identified the need for leadership infused with the principles of IP

competence to avoid “emotional havoc, social discord, and decreased productivity” (p.

260). Havoc can occur in any organization unless handled appropriately. Productivity

decreases proportionally if the favorability of the managing director decreases, according

to Greenockle.

New employees who had just recently graduated from college were examined for

the necessary skills to compete in the global economy (Kivunja, 2014). IP competence

was high on the list of necessary skills. Leaders of the business world are becoming

increasingly diverse; therefore, leaders require their employees to have increased skill

levels to embody the abilities to communicate and facilitate commerce in a comfortable,

friendly environment. Kivunja (2014) specified IP competence or people skills are

needed for these new graduates to grow and make a place for themselves in their new

workplaces.

The need for professional evaluators to show IP competence was identified by

Garcia (2018) who showed that the evaluators are involved in many different social

situations. To maintain a bias-free, professional aptitude about their work, they needed to

have the vital skill of IP competence. In combination with social awareness, the

evaluators who projected a higher IP competence were better reputed to have greater

expertise and knowledge in their career field. IP competence embodies the same

principles as Gardner’s (1983) IP skills. The research on IP competence aligns with IP

skills research showing its importance in a professional environment and sales

transactions.

People Skills

Researchers often make no distinction between IP skills and people skills

(Levasseur, 2009; Robles, 2012; Sabapathy & Vanderbilt, 2016). Indeed, people skills

seem to be the colloquial term for what scientists refer to as IP skills. Many researchers

have used the terminology in their studies when describing various IP skills components

(AlDosiry et al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003; Huggins et al., 2016; Wisker &

Poulis, 2015). When organizational leaders seek development and/or change, they

sometimes feel like “fuzzy people issues” stand in the way (Levasseur, 2009, p. 370). In

earlier research, Levasseur (1991) cited difficulty in organizations obtaining and

maintaining proper social interactions. Employees must first become aware of their own

personal skills before the change can begin to occur. In later research, Levasseur (2009)

discussed specific communication skills, perceptions of others’ attitudes and feelings, and

proper maintenance of professional borders. Levasseur (2009) cited a greater difficulty in

obtaining the proper people skills among those who work in the technical field and

conducted additional research along those lines. Levasseur (2009) identified specific

characteristics as integral to IP skills. The importance of those skills has been reiterated

many times (Ahmed, 2012; Gundlach, Martinko & Douglas, 2003; Li et al., 2017; Mast

& Latu, 2016).

Gundlach, Martinko and Douglas (2003) discussed the effect of a corporate

“lopsidedness” where managers are knowledgeable and adept at the technical part of their

professions but are interpersonally incompetent when it comes to dealing with coworkers

(p. 1). The author described the issue as the largest factor in determining company

productivity and, consequently, sales success. Gundlach believed the skills could be

learned and emphasized the even greater need for small businesses to employ them.

In the modern, unique, economic, global climate, a decrease in workforce size,

and increased workforce diversity have occurred (Norris, 2009). When proper IP skills

are implemented successfully, the results are astounding (Basir et al., 2010; Norris, 2009;

Singh & Venugopal, 2015). Norris (2009) noted IP skills have been shown to improve

leadership, workforce production, and job satisfaction among employees. Additionally,

Norris cited the need for training modules concerned with increasing IP skills, just as

others have done (Doo, 2006; Gundlach, Martinko & Douglas, 2003; O’Sullivan et al.,

2008; Tews & Tracey, 2008).

Experts assume people skills have a natural connection with the profession

someone chooses (Gardner, 1983). Individuals who work with computers do not utilize

salespeople’s IP skills just as certified public accountants do not use therapists’ people

skills. Regardless, research has been conducted to improve social interaction and IP

communications among these groups (Ahmed, 2012; Naguib, 2007).

Ahmed (2012) evaluated the common employee characteristics of software

engineers. In a rapidly growing technological society, soft skills can often be neglected in

the face of high demand for output and productivity. However, Ahmed described a need

for greater emphasis on this skill that ranks low in importance among most companies.

When employees have strong IP skills, it lends way to workplace activities that foster

greater productivity, such as teamwork or group work, leading to a more balanced and

successful job experience for the software engineers (Nowrouzian & Farewell, 2013; Slof

et al., 2016).

Naguib (2007) focused his research on the interactions that take place between

engineers. The research showed that training in proper people skills with an emphasis on

EI improved workforce productivity and ensured a more sustainable career as an engineer

(Naguib, 2007). The principles may be adopted and applied to other professionals. In this

study I highlighted a trend that company managers seem to hire those they believe will fit

into their organization’s social realm and tend to promote individuals they would like to

remain in the system (Dyche, 2007). When considering the principles, researchers need to

adopt a method or manner of training customized to bring forth the best results. Gardner

(1983) noted that the principles are universal, but all individuals learn differently.

Specialized research, such as the study of engineers, shows that various learning styles

are often grouped by profession (Naguib, 2007).

Social Competence and Interpersonal Skills

The original definition of social intelligence dates to 1920, when Thorndike and

Stein (1937) described it as “the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys

and girls, to act wisely in human relations” (p. 278). Vernon (1933) defined it more

precisely as the “ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in

society, knowledge of social matters, susceptibility to stimuli, as well as insight into the

temporary moods or underlying personality traits of strangers” (p. 178).

IP intelligence is currently more frequently referred to in terms of social

competence. The Perceived Social Competence Scale was compared to other social skills

tests by Anderson-Butcher et al. (2016), and validity was established. In much of the

literature, the term was used synonymously with the other terms described with the

fundamental idea aligning with Gardner’s definition of IP skills (Leganés-Lavall &

Pérez-Aldeguer, 2016; Spivak & Farran, 2016; Stichter et al., 2016). If any variation

between social competence and the other terms exists, it is perhaps that social

competence is often the term used when studying individuals who struggle behaviorally

or who have difficulty in social environments. The psychometric tool identified for this

study, the CSRS (Spitzberg, 1995), uses the term IP competence to describe the

characteristics embodied by Gardner (1983) in their work on IP skills.

A further distinction was made by Warnes et al. (2005), who defined social skills

as the ability to make a comfortable and open atmosphere and social competence as a

person’s ability to interact socially as perceived by a third party. AlDosiry et al. (2015)

studied EI and sales performance among car salespeople in Kuwait. The research showed

only a mild positive effect among those salespeople who embodied a higher level of IP

skills on overall sales productivity (AlDosiry et al., 2015).

People Skills and Sales

The relationship between salespeople and clients has been studied often (Borg &

Johnston, 2013; O’Reilly, 2015; Wihler et al., 2017). Although performance and IP skills

have been researched, a precise study focused on IP skills and sales performance has not

been recorded (Borg & Johnston, 2013; O’Reilly, 2015; Wihler et al., 2017). Manna and

Smith (2004) examined people skills in conjunction with EI for a possible correlation

with sales success. The researchers targeted a group of 515 salespeople in the Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania area from well-established companies. The salespeople were then asked

about different sales aspects and rated their performance. Their survey showed that

salespeople recognized the crucial role of people skills in sales and the need for EI’s

closely related principle. Manna and Smith’s research design was used to create a

powerful argument for the importance of IP skills and sales performance. The large

sample size made the results more efficacious. Their study was also directed specifically

at salespeople who were well-established and well-versed in what it takes to succeed in

their profession. Furthermore, the questioning was very direct and focused on the

professionals’ skills as important in their years of experience (Manna & Smith). In many

ways, the research by Manna and Smith can be used to support the hypothesis of the

current research study, based on the similarities between their subject group members and

pharmaceutical salespeople, both of whom are required to be well-educated and

proficient at explaining their complex products.

Much of the research today intermingles the terms people skills and IP skills

(Borg & Johnston, 2013; Furnham, 2008; O’Reilly, 2015; Wihler et al., 2017). The

current research used a quantitative analysis. Manna and Smith (2004) utilized a

qualitative analysis based on self-reporting by the salespeople. This manner of research

methodology can give way to bias by the participants and can skew the reports. Using a

quantitative rather than a qualitative approach, the data can be clarified, and the findings

should be less biased (Collier & Mahoney, 1996).

People Skills and Productivity

People’s major role in productivity has been recognized increasingly (Kivunja,

2014; Levasseur, 1991; Row, 2016). People skills have become more of a necessity as

technology improves and society’s urbanization continues to increase (Bacolod et al.,

2009). Bacolod et al. (2009) examined workers’ skills across many U.S. cities. The

authors revealed that larger cities with considerable urbanization valued people skills

more highly than technical skills. Furthermore, increased productivity was reported in

conjunction with increased people skills, a common trend linking people skills and IP

skills once again (Bacolod et al., 2009). Researchers seemed to be studying the same

skills and characteristics using different names (i.e., people skills, soft skills, and IP

skills).

Further, Bacolod et al. (2009) seemed to indicate strong people skills as an

essential factor that sets people apart in many instances. It is common for company

leaders to require a minimum skills requirement before hiring an individual. However,

company leaders rarely require that a certain level of IP skills be met for employment

(Albanese, 2004). Using a minimum skills requirement is a substantial way for

employees to set themselves apart in an organization (Naguib, 2007). Research has

shown, IP skills make the likelihood of an individual being hired, maintaining

employment, and being promoted much greater.

Dreyfus (2008) considered IP skills and people skills as interchangeable. When

identifying the most effective managers’ common characteristics, IP skills, and group

management capabilities were considered most important (Dreyfus, 2008). Comparing

the two factors showed that IP skills were deemed considerably more important to the

managers’ success (Dreyfus, 2008). Dreyfus noted several essential points: (a) IP skills

can indeed be developed; (b) IP skills learning is influenced by learning style;(c) IP skills

are learned in several ways, not solely through training.

Interpersonal Skills and Sales Volume

The literature lacks research regarding IP skills and sales volume. Cuadra-Peralta

et al. (2017) studied the effects of social skills training in a large national organization to

determine management’s effect. The study showed an improvement in the level of IP

skills among managers and noted an increase in sales volume as an unanticipated result

but did not focus on any significant relationship between the two factors. Blickle et al.

(2012) conducted a two-part study designed to research the effect of “political skill” (p.

301). This skill was described as a type of conflict resolution and IP skill combination.

The author cited that in positions where IP skills were not required, political skills had no

effect. Further, Blickle et al. showed an improvement in sales volume with insurance

companies where higher political skill levels were employed. The IP skill and sales

volume correlation was absent. These articles noted a connection but failed to directly

study the relationship between the two (Blickle et al., 2012; Curada-Peralta et al., 2017).

Pharmaceutical Salespeople Compensation

Reports have shown that compensation for employees of pharmaceutical

companies can vary based on the size of the company, the title an individual holds, the

length of time the sales representative has been with the company, and the amount of

time an employee travels (Cegedim Strategic Data, 2014). The survey indicated an

individual with the title of sales director would receive about 15% more in compensation

than the next-lower-level sales management person (Cegedim Strategic Data). The

decrease was even more significant for the next level down from sales management to

business development, reporting an income of nearly 34% less. Similar trends were found

among more experienced pharmaceutical salespeople (Payscale, 2017). A pharmaceutical

representative employed for more than 20 years showed an average salary of $154,000,

where a representative employed between 11 and 20 years showed an average of $20,000

less. The trend was mirrored when pharmaceutical salespeople were represented by their

age (Medreps, 2016).

The company’s size does not appear to matter when going from large to medium-

sized companies (Medreps, 2016). However, a significant decrease occurred for smaller

companies showing an income of approximately 17% less. The amount of travel of

pharmaceutical representatives did show a significant increase, with representatives who

traveled 50% of the time, showing an income nearly 38% higher than those who did not

travel. Many pharmaceutical sales representatives use large group sales functions, such as

luncheons, to reach their clients and use the opportunities to inform their clients about the

products they are selling (J. Birrell, personal communication, August 17, 2015).

However, the activity seems to be a difficult area to define in terms of its impact on sales

volume because no research articles or informative commentaries cited any relationship

between income generated and the meeting or venue.

Summary and Transition

The literature review showed that IP skills have been studied in several ways

using many names, such as social intelligence, EI, IP competence, people skills, social

intelligence, or social competence. Much of the research considered IP skills and these

terms as though they exist synonymously (Bayer et al., 2012; Dawes, 2003; Doğan &

Çetın, 2009; Mitchell et al., 2010; Monnier, 2015). Other researchers spoke of them as if

they were only distantly related (AlDosiry et al., 2015; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003;

Huggins et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2015; Rodríguez et al., 2016; Teven & Winters, 2007;

Wihler et al., 2017; Wisker & Poulis, 2015). IP skills were defined by Gardner (1983) as

the ability to understand other people, to relate empathetically to how they are feeling,

and to have the ability to communicate while helping people feel comfortable in any

given circumstance.

Many groups have been studied to show the impact IP skills carry for doctors and

nurses, managers, students, and others (Ahmed, 2012; Cheraghi-Sohi & Bower, 2008;

Deng et al., 2014; Dreyfus, 2008; Hekman et al., 2016; Hurrell, 2016; Naguib, 2007;

Shen et al., 2014). The current research failed to correctly characterize IP skills as

Gardner (1983) defined them and failed to show the correlation between sales

performance and IP skills (Borg & Johnston, 2013; Li et al., 2017; Mast & Latu, 2016).

Much of the research is focused on EI. The literature revealed a lack of research

on sales performance and EI (AlDosiry et al., 2015; Bar-On, 1997; Boyatzis et al., 2013).

It also identified a gap in the studies that examined the relationship between emotional

regulation and sales performance but were missing the impact of the sales experience on

the client as well as information pertaining to sales volume (Bar-On, 1997, 2004; Bar-On

& Parker, 2000; Blickle et al., 2012; Borg & Johnston, 2013; Brown & Moshavi, 2005;

Curada-Peralta et al., 2017; O’Reilly, 2015; Riggio, 1986; Rodríguez et al., 2016;

Sheridan et al., 2006; Weisinger, 1998; Wihler et al., 2017).

In Chapter 3, I will cover the research design and methodology used to determine

the relationship between IP skills and sales performance and how that relationship was

mitigated by the number of large sales meetings and tenure of the employees. The chapter

also includes a discussion of the CSRS’s psychometric properties, the informed consent

process, and the appropriate measures taken to ensure the highest ethical standards in the

study.