Cultural Factors and Community Participation
According to Lerberg, (2014) culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of
anthropologist E.B. Tylor, it is “complex whole which comprises information, belief, art, ethics,
law, tradition and any other abilities and behaviors acquired by man as a member of society." Else,
in a present variant, "Culture is a communal territory that stresses the performances, dialogues and
material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social
meaning of a life held in common.
Health of women and girls is sensitive specifically to cultural influences. Cham, Sundby and
Vangen, (2005) say that in communities where women are allowed to make decisions, specifically
about their education and choices of reproductive health, they have longer life expectancy, lower
rates of fertility and above all, better health. When political dictatorship and religious fanatic try to
flourish, women as the recipient of oppression usually suffer oppression extremely compared to
men, and this can badly disturb their wellbeing and long life.
Walraven, (2000) adds that wellbeing of women and girls can greatly be harmed by the patriarchal
values. These beliefs may have prevalent effect in numerous situations, mostly in traditional
agricultural settings, and also in some urban markets. Lack of sunlight can impair coetaneous
synthesis of vitamin D, causing a deficiency of this vitamin and putting women at risk of rickets,
especially in strict Islamic societies where women and girls are separated and allowed to appear in
public only when covered from head to toe.
Transmission of disease can severely be encouraged by cultural setting context. (Barasa, & Jelagat,
2013) suggests that a terrible example is spread of human immunodeficiency virus/acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), mainly in Africa, where choices that are dangerous to
health are shapes by economic necessity.
According to Hoestermann,(1996) marks that like many other Sub-Saharan African countries,
Gambia has long been overloaded with maternal health problems. The densely populated West
African nation, with a population of approximately 1.8 million, has been ranked among countries
with the highest levels of maternal mortality. The country’s’ maternal mortality ratio (MMR) is
estimated at 400 deaths per 100,000 live birth which has fallen by 46% over the last 20 years.
Although, women were generally worried about their health, the cultural background of gender
roles blinded them from recognizing their right to maintaining good health, as reported by a
Cameroonian women study. They considered right to good health as subject to satisfying their
purpose of taking care of and satisfying needs of “others” for instance, their spouses at the cost of
their own physical health and well-being, King, (2015)
(Hansford, Anjorim, and Pittore,2014), write in a study among Hausa of Northern Nigeria, that
most significant causes contributing to maternal deaths include an Islamic culture that belittles
women; an perceived societal needs for women’s reproductive health abilities to be under firm
male control and the practice of seclusion, which limit women’s medical care; nearly complete
female illiteracy; early marriages and pregnancy regularly happening earlier than maternal pelvic is
complete and dangerous outdated medical practices among others. Agha and Carton, (2011), also
says that a study in Benin Republic also stated that issues like husbands’ endorsement and money
for treatment had harmful effects on maternal health seeking behavior. These finding displays the
absence of decision-making autonomy and economic independence of women. Practice of men
abandoning older wives for younger ones is leading to a vicious cycle of abuse of women, where
multiple partners are considered part of masculinity in Rwanda, which is a common marital
practice of polygamy, in many African countries, and which is deeply engrained in Rwanda culture.
King (2015), argues that some of the aspects of women's role in society are the main determinants
of the clinical causes of maternal mortality: hemorrhage, eclampsia, obstructed labor, and pelvic
infection, with occur disproportionately in girls under 18 and in women over 34. Female illiteracy
and ignorance, and also in older men and women who have power over them, results in self-neglect
and low self-esteem in women. Sex discrimination in all areas, but especially food and health care,
directly affects maternal health by contributing to obstructed labor and its mismanagement.
Kilpatrick (2009) suggests that the hard labor of women that produces 60-90% of all food,
child care and transport of water and firewood, is added to malnutrition. African customs
related to sexuality constrain women to demonstrate fertility before marriage, undergo
circumcision and its obstetric risks, and participate in polygamy, are all witness to women's
vulnerability, White, (2013),
In most of Africa, particularly Muslim cultures, women marry young without individual
choice, and do not use contraception. Consequent early childbearing increases the risk of
obstructed labor, vesico-vaginal fistula, hemorrhage, toxemia, and death. African culture
and son preference demand unlimited childbearing, so that women spend 16-20 years
bearing children, ending at age 35-38, under pain of abuse, loss of status, or ostracism
Namasivayam, (2012). White, (2013),says that traditional practices involving childbirth
such as dietary restrictions or excesses, religious rituals at delivery that preclude medical
assistance, frequent vaginal exams, use of harmful herbs or caustics, and punishments for
long labors, add to maternal morbidity and mortality. In Kenya culture plays a role of
significance in maternal health in a way, as household chores have not been taken by men as
their responsibility, maybe as they cannot simply see the need for household chores because
of the way they are acculturated, or simply, their competing social responsibilities don’t
warrant them to these household duties Kitui County is predominantly Kamba people of the
Abantudialic. Culture and traditional medicine men and women play a big role in terms
diagnosing, healing, and treatment.
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