BIOL 101
STUDY G : C UIDE ELLS TO RGANISMS O
7. Information and Its Expression in the Cell
7.3 The Expression of Biological Information
A Context for Understanding Gene Expression
1. When the organism expresses a set of genes, the result is the
characteristics of that organism. These characteristics are called its
Phenotype.
2. The term “transcription” means the process of reading a base sequence
in DNA to generate a complementary base sequence in RNA.
3. Why is the word “translation” used for protein production?
It is the process of reading a sequence of bases in RNA and generating or
"translating" an encoded sequence for the protein production.
Translate RNA to protein.
4. Information from DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then
transported to ribosomes. This phrase describes the role of Life in
Information expression.
5. Describe 2 major problems that transcription solves for the cell.
Expressing information selectively & finding space to express it.
Transcription: Using Some Genes Now and Some Not at All
6. In the process of transcription, the base sequence in the molecule DNA
is read by the molecule polymerase (RNA) , an enzyme that makes RNA
molecules.
7. Which RNA product helps the ribosome to recognize how and where to
begin working?
Ribosomal RNAs - rRNAs
8. Following the transcription event, list 4 separate parts of the overall
processing of pre-mRNA in the cell’s nucleus.
1. A guanine ribonucleotide containing several phosphate groups is attached to the
front end of the mRNA. This cap will help the front end of the RNA to get properly
aligned on the ribosome for its translation. *capping the transcript*
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2. A poly-adenine “tail” (poly(A) tail) is added to the message to control its
longevity in the cytoplasm . *adding a poly-adenine tail*
3. Introns and some exons are excised from the message leaving only the exons
that will encode the desired protein product. (splicing enzyme) * removing all
introns and a selection of exons from the pre-mRNA message*
4. Splicing together exons from pre-mRNA message.
9. In the cell nucleus, a pre-mRNA has its introns removed by Splicing
enzymes.
Translation: Making Proteins
10.In the translation process, tRNA molecules are also called “adapter”
molecules. Why? What is their function?
*Transfer amino acids to ribosome for incorporation into growing peptide chain.
Work of a sequence of nitrogen bases in mRNA to form of a sequence of amino
acids in a protein.
**changes languages from bases to amino acids
Amino acids bond to adaptor molecule to make high energy bond for expressive
amino acid polymerization.
11.There are more than four kinds of amino acids in proteins. Each kind of
amino acid must be coded for in mRNA. Thus, a short sequence of
mRNA bases called a(n) is used to code for each amino acid in the Codon
translation process.
(short sequence of bases)
12.What is a general name for a three-dimensional, folded molecule shaped
like an “L,” with an anticodon at one end and an amino acid attachment
site at the other end?
*tRNA- translator molecule
Anticodon (sequence of 3 adjacent nucleotide bases in tRNA)
13.Transferring correct amino acids to the ribosome during elongation is a
good description of the role of in the cell cytoplasm. tRNA
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process driven by GTP (instead of ATP)- phosphate bond energy
14.What is the role of tRNA synthetase in the cell’s cytoplasm?
Each synthetase recognizes just one kind of amino acid and only the tRNAs
specific use for that amino acid.
15.Peptide bonds are formed during the stage of translation.elongation
16.The role of the ribosome or its subunits: creating a channel for mRNA to
enter and exit.
17.The role of the ribosome or its subunits: helping tRNA to -codons anti
bind to mRNA .codons
18.The role of the ribosome or its subunits: comparing nti-codons tRNA a
against corresponding mRNA codons.
19.The role of the ribosome or its subunits: binding together to amino acids
form a polypeptide chain.
20.This sequence best represents the overall flow of in a cell: information
transcription, pre-mRNA processing, translation, protein processing,
export.
21.List all of the organelles involved in the flow of information from
archival DNA to its expression as a resulting glycoprotein.
Nucleus, ribosomes, cytoplasm, ribosome subunits.
Protein released to cell membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi.
22.In order to elongate mRNA, RNA polymerase must unwind and open
double-stranded DNA helix.
23.In order to elongate mRNA, RNA polymerase must sense correct
Ribonucleotides and incorporate them into the new RNA strand.
24.In order to elongate mRNA, RNA polymerase must dislodge the RNA
strand from its temporary pairing with DNA.
25.In order to elongate mRNA, RNA polymerase must the RNA proofread
strand to remove and replace copying errors.
The Genetic Code
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26.The Genetic Code is often represented as a chart in which a specific
sequence of bases in mRNA (a codon) is used to represent each amino
acid building block found in the world of proteins.
27.The genetic code is said to be degenerate. What does this mean?
Most of the amino acids are specified by more than one codon.
8. Informational Continuity in Cells
8.1 A Thin Skin of Life Chasing Death
28.What are the 3 essential resources that a daughter cell must get from a
parent cell or from nature in order to succeed in living life?
Monomers of life, an energy source, & information.
29.Life perpetuates itself at the cellular level by acquiring monomers and
energy sources at the microscopic level and by carrying out absorption,
processing and growing “for” the organism.
8.2 Cell Division: A Requirement for Life
30.When DNA is replicated, the two strands are first separated through
breakage of Bases (hydrogen bonds between bases) ; each strand then
becomes a against which two new strands are made. template
8.3 Cell Division Is Part of a Cycle: The Cell Cycle
31.List the 4 symbols/names for the 4 stages of the cell cycle.
G1 [G0] \Synthesis (S)phase -> interphase G2 /Mitosis
(M) phase
32.The “S” phase of the cell cycle represents the activity of DNA Synthesis.
(it is where all the cell’s chromosome is replicated).
33. Moving ahead with cell division is controlled by the interaction of
hormones with cell surface proteins, interaction of receptor Receptor
proteins with intermediates, interaction of cyclins withRegulatory kinase
proteins, and interaction of kinase proteins with inactive kinase proteins.
8.4 Mitosis
34.List in order the stages of mitosis.
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Prophase- microtubular connections
Metaphase- midline alignment of chromosomes
Anaphase- pull apart chromosomes to poles
Telophase- back to chromatin fibers
35.The nuclear membrane of the cell disintegrates during which mitotic
period of the cell cycle?
Prophase- nuclear membrane disintegrates and microtubules extend between
chromosomes (makes mitotic spindle)
36.The mitotic stage of metaphase is most clearly defined by what organelle
activity with what result?
Microtubules (kinetochore binds to chromosomes at middle and provide anchor for
kinetochore microtubules)
37.The de-condensation of visible chromosomes back into chromatin fibers
is a defining feature of which phase of the cell cycle?
Telophase
8.6 Cancer: Mutation Threatening Design
The Unifying Basis of Cancer
38.List the 2 principal characteristics of the disease cancer.
Cells that divide in an uncontrolled fashion (Expression) & cells that no longer
respect their role or confinement within their tissue of origin (Mutation).
39.A Oncogene is a mutated form of a gene that normally directs the
activation of regulatory pathways moving a cell toward division.
(proto-oncogenes are normal; not mutated)
40.What would you call genes that normally direct the inhibition of cell
division regulatory pathways?
Tumor suppressor genes
A Tale of Two Cancer Genes
41.In healthy cells, what is the normal function of the activated ras
protein?
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Is an intermediate in the control pathway that moves a cell from phase in the cell
cycle past a checkpoint and on into S phase.
It is a regulatory protein that stimulates a cascade of regulatory alterations- moves
cell from G1 to S phase (passes checkpoint).
9 Complexity IV: From Cell to Organism
9.1 Development: Decoding a Master Plan
What Can Be Done with a Fertilized Egg?
42.Information for developing an animal comes from within the animal.
This is a major difference between animal development and automobile
development.
Getting from One Cell to You or to a Tree
43.List the recognized organ systems to be found within the human body.
Nervous system - Organs: brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sensory organs
Function: senses internal & external stimuli; coordinates responses to stimuli; controls
other organ systems
Endocrine system- Organs: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas & other hormone
secreting glands Function: cooperates with nervous system to control body function
using hormonal signals.
Muscular system- Organs: skeletal, cardiac, & smooth muscle Function: movement
of limbs and parts of internal organs; heat generation.
Skeletal system- Organs: bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage Function: support &
protection of body; leverage for muscle contraction; blood cell production.
Integumentary system- Organs: skin, sweat glands, hair, nails Function: protection
from dehydration, pathogens, injury; temperature control; waste excretion.
Circulatory system- Organs: heart, blood vessels, blood Function: services body
cells with nutrients, oxygen, & waste removal; temperature & pH stabilization.
Lymphatic/ Immune system- Organs: lymph nodes, lymph ducts, spleen, thymus
Function: filters tissue fluids monitors & protects against disease.
Respiratory system- Organs: lungs, diaphragm, trachea & other airways Function:
oxygen delivery to tissues; waste CO2 removal; pH regulation
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Digestive system- Organs: pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas,
rectum, anus ingestion of food; mechanical & chemical breakdown of food; Function:
nutrient absorption; waste elimination.
Excretory system - Organs: kidneys, bladder, ureter, urethra Function: controls
volume & composition of internal fluids; removes excess water & metabolic wastes.
Reproductive system- Female Organs: ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, mammary
glands Male Organs: testes, sperm ducts, accessory glands, penis production Function:
& union of sex cells; supports embryonic development; hormonal control of some body
systems.
44.Summarize the structure and function of the endocrine system.
Main organs- pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, hormone secretory gland.
Function- works with nervous system to send hormone signals to control the body.
9.3 Development of a Human Being
Early Events
45.A sequence of human cell divisions accompanied by some growth and
cell differentiation convert an early, solid ball of cells called a morula
into a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst .
Embryonic Differentiation of Organ Systems
46.List and distinguish all the terms that would be used to describe aspects
of the three-dimensional adult form.
Anterior - front end
Posterior - hind end
Dorsal - back or upper side
Ventral - belly or underside
47.In the three-dimensional form of the adult Dalmatian dog, what would
the “front” end of the animal be named?
Anterior
48.Your primordial (early) began as a fusion of two endocardial tubesheart
near your midline.
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Organogenesis of the Brain
49.List the 5 pre-specialized (early) regions of the brain found in a 7-week-
old human embryo (fig. 9.4 b).
Telencephalon & Diencephalon - forebrain
Mesencephalon - midbrain
Metencephalon & Myelencephalon- hindbrain
50.Successful differentiation of early brain regions requires that cells
destined to form these regions have surface receptors for both the wnt
and SHH signal proteins.
*cell signaling
51.What is the role of the adult cerebrum?
Controls all of your sensory & motor functions, & is the locus of your thought &
memory .
52.Heart rate and respiratory inhalation rate functions in the mature
human adult are controlled by the Medulla oblongata *heart rate &
breathing
53.Which part of the mature adult brain exerts a dominant control over
the endocrine system?
The more ventral hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
54.The brain, and the peripheral are an organ the spinal cord nerves
system---the nervous system.
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