Chapter 1 Epithelial Tissue
(I) True or False Questions
1. Histology is the science that studies the structure and function of the body.
2.PAS reaction (periodic acid Schiff reaction) can show proteins in tissue cells.
3. In situ hybridization is a nucleic acid molecular hybridization tissue chemistry that can
determine the presence and relative amount of nucleic acids in cells.
4. Transmission electron microscopy mainly observes the surface structure of tissue
cells, while scanning electron microscopy mainly observes the microstructure inside cells.
5. The classification of covering epithelium is based on the morphology and arrangement
of epithelial cells.
6. The single layer of squamous epithelium distributed on the surface of pleura,
peritoneum and pericardium is called mesothelium.
7. The bladder cavity surface is transitional epithelium, and the esophageal cavity surface
is single-layer columnar epithelium.
8. The cell coat refers to the sugar chains extending outward from the glycoproteins and
glycolipids that make up the cell membrane.
9. Desmosomes can prevent macromolecular substances from entering tissues from
outside cells through intercellular spaces, and often form the basis of various barriers in
the body.
10. The plasma membrane folds expand the area of the cell base surface, which is
beneficial to the transport of water and electrolytes.
(II) Explanation of terms
1. Gap junction:
1) Also known as communication connection, it is spotted.
2) Under the electron microscope, it can be seen that the cell membranes between two
adjacent cells form intermittent connection points. Freeze-etching studies have shown
that there are many regularly distributed columnar particles on the adjacent cell
membranes, called connexons (each connexon is composed of six subunits, with a small
tube in the center).
3) It functions as a channel for the exchange of ions and molecules between cells, and
also facilitates the transmission of impulses.
2. Basement membrane
The layer next to the connective tissue is called the reticular lamina, which is composed
of reticular fibers and matrix (produced by fibroblasts).
3) Its function is to support and connect, and it has the properties of a semi-permeable
membrane, which facilitates the exchange of substances between epithelial tissue and
connective tissue. 1) It is a thin membrane between the epithelial basal surface and the
connective tissue.
2) It can be divided into two layers under electron microscopy. The layer close to the
basal surface of the epithelial cells is called the basal plate (formed by epithelial cells);
(III) Short answer questions
Briefly describe the general characteristics, classification and functions of epithelial
tissue.
1. General features:
Many cells, densely arranged in layers, with little intercellular matrix①
Polarity (different surfaces of cells have obvious differences in structure and function),②
divided into free surface, basal surface and lateral surface
Generally no blood vessels③
Rich in nerve endings④
2. Classification: Epithelial tissue is divided into covering epithelium, glandular epithelium
and sensory epithelium
3. Function: protection, absorption, secretion and excretion, etc.
Chapter 2 Connective Tissue Proper & Cartilage & Bone
(I) True or False Questions
1. Connective tissue (CT) originates from the mesenchyme during the embryonic period
2. Fibers that are tough and can withstand strong tension are elastic fibers
3. Reticular fibers can be dyed black using silver staining, so they are also called silver-
loving fibers.
4. Plasma cells originate from monocytes in the blood
5. Mast cell granules contain heparin, histamine, eosinophil chemotactic factor and
leukotrienes
6. Dense connective tissue is characterized by thick collagen fibrils, large numbers and
close arrangement.
Relatively less matrix
7. External growth is caused by the continuous division and proliferation of osteoblasts in
the outer layer of the perichondrium, which differentiate into new cartilage.
Osteocytes
8. The structural characteristics of fibrocartilage are that it contains a large number of
collagen fibrils in the intercellular matrix.
9. Bone plates are parallel arranged bone glue fibers bonded together by a small amount
of matrix and have bone salt deposition.
Thin plate structure
10. Osteoid is produced by osteocytes and forms bone after calcification
11. Fibroblasts, chondrocytes, and osteoblasts all have the function of synthesizing fibers
and matrix
II) Explanation of terms
1. Molecular sieve:
1) Formation: It is composed of long-chain hyaluronic acid combined with other
glycosaminoglycans through protein.
A mesh structure with many tiny pores.
2) Function: Water, nutrients, metabolic products, and gases smaller than pores can pass
through
It is conducive to material exchange; macromolecules, bacteria, etc. that are larger than
the pores
Cannot pass through, forming a defense barrier that can locally restrict diffusion.
2. Tissue fluid :
Formation: It is the fluid that seeps out from the arterial end of the capillaries, containing
nutrients, oxygen and
After the small molecules such as electrolytes exchange substances with tissue cells;
The metabolites of the blood flow back to the blood vessels through the tissue fluid from
the venous end of the capillaries to the lymphatic capillaries.
Flows into the blood and lymph.
Function: Tissue fluid plays an important role in maintaining the stability of the internal
environment of tissue cells.
3. Bone
1) It is the intercellular matrix of calcified bone tissue, including organic and inorganic
components.
2) The organic component is composed of a large number of collagen fibers (bone glue
fibers) and a small amount of matrix.
Bone has a certain toughness. The matrix is gelatinous and is a proteoglycan that acts as
a binder for collagen.
The role of fiber.
3) The inorganic component is bone salt, which is hydroxyapatite crystals in the form of
fine needles and is the hard component of bone.
4. Osteone
) Also known as the Haversian system, it is mainly distributed in the compact bone of
long bones, located inside and outside
Between the annular plates
2) It consists of a central canal (Havers canal) and dozens of layers of osteon plates
(Havers plates)
The cylindrical structure is composed of a central tube, which contains blood vessels and
nerves.
The osteon plates are arranged in concentric circles around the central canal.
3) Osteones are the main supporting structures of long bones.
( III) Short answer questions
Describe the general characteristics, origin, function and classification of connective
tissue.
1. General features:
There are few cells and more intercellular matrix, which includes fibers, matrix and①
tissue fluid.
The cells are non-polar and scattered.②
There are abundant blood vessels,③
Widely distributed in the body④
2. Origin: Mesenchyme in the embryonic period
3. Function: Support, connection, nutrition, transportation, protection, defense and repair
functions
3. Classification: It can be divided into intrinsic connective tissue (loose connective
tissue, dense connective tissue, adipose tissue, reticular tissue), cartilage tissue, bone
tissue and blood.
Chapter 3 Blood & Muscular Tissue
1) True or False Questions
1. There are no organelles in the cytoplasm of red blood cells, but they contain a large
amount of hemoglobin.
2. (Reticulocytes account for 0.5% to 2.5% of the total number of red blood cells in adult
blood.
3. When suffering from acute infectious inflammation, the percentage of lymphocytes in
the blood increases.
4. When suffering from allergic diseases and parasitic diseases, the eosinophils in the
blood increase.
5. Basophils and mast cells have similar functions because their cytoplasmic granules
have the same staining characteristics.
6. Platelets are fragments of the nuclei of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.
7. Hematopoietic stem cells have the ability of self-renewal and directed differentiation.
8. Thick filaments are composed of actin molecules arranged in parallel, and thin
filaments are composed of tropomyosin and troponin.
9. A sarcomere is a segment of myofibril between two Z lines. Each sarcomere consists
of 1/2 I band + A band + 1/2 I band.
10. Transverse tubules are small tubules formed by the indentation of the sarcolemma
into the cell. The transverse tubules of humans and mammals are located at the junction
of the light and dark zones.
11. During the contraction of skeletal muscle fibers, the sarcomere shortens, but the
width of the A band and I band remain unchanged.
12. There are secretory granules in the cytoplasm of atrial muscle fibers, which contain
atrial natriuretic peptide.
(II) Explanation of terms
1. Sarcoplasmic reticulum:
1) It is the specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) in muscle fibers;
2) The longitudinal tubules that surround each muscle fiber are arranged longitudinally
between adjacent transverse tubules; the sarcoplasmic reticulum on both sides of the
transverse tubules is enlarged and flattened and is called the terminal cisterna;
3) Function: It can regulate the concentration of calcium ions in the sarcoplasm.
2.闰盘（intercalated disk）
) are the connections between adjacent myocardial cells.
2) Dark steps or horizontal lines in HE-stained specimens under light microscopy;
3) Under electron microscopy, the intercalated disc has intermediate connections and
desmosomes, which make the myocardial fibers
The connection is firm; the vertical part has a gap connection, which plays the role of
conducting electrical signals.
(III) Short answer questions
Comparison of the optical and electron microscopic morphology of skeletal muscle fibers
and cardiac muscle fibers.
1) Under the light microscope, skeletal muscle fibers are long cylindrical, with multiple
nuclei, flat and oval, located below the sarcolemma; there are many myofibrils in the
sarcoplasm that are parallel to the long axis of the muscle fiber and have obvious
horizontal striations.
2) Myocardial fibers are short columnar under a light microscope, with branches
connecting to each other to form a network. There is usually one nucleus, which is oval
and located in the center of the cell. The sarcoplasm is abundant and the transverse
striations are not obvious. Intercalated disks can be seen at the junctions between
adjacent cells.
3) Under the electron microscope, the myofibrils in skeletal muscle fibers are composed
of a large number of thick filaments and thin filaments; the transverse tubules of humans
and mammals are located at the junction of the light and dark zones; the sarcoplasmic
reticulum is well developed, and the transverse tubules and the terminal cisternae on
both sides form a triplet.
4) Under electron microscopy, myocardial fibers have few myofibrils and are of varying
thickness; transverse tubules are located at the level of the Z line; the sarcoplasmic
reticulum is sparse and underdeveloped, with few terminal cisternae and many doublets;
the transverse part of the intercalated disc is located at the level of the Z line, with
intermediate junctions and desmosomes, and the longitudinal part has gap junctions;
secretory granules are found in the sarcoplasm of some atrial myofibers.
Chapter 4 Nerve Tissue & Circulatory System
(I) True or False Questions
1. Both the dendrites and axons of neurons contain Nissl bodies and neurofibrils.
2. Oligodendrocytes are derived from monocytes in the blood and have phagocytic ability.
3. The nerve fibers of the peripheral nervous system are composed of axons and
microglia.
4. The receptors that sense pressure are muscle spindles.
5. Circumferential corpuscles, muscle spindles, and motor end plates are all sensory
nerve endings.
6. The intima of the middle artery is divided into endothelium, subendothelium and
subendocardium from inside to outside.
7. The tunica media of the middle artery contains a large number of fibroblasts that
produce fibers and matrix.
8. The aorta is also called elastic artery because its wall contains a lot of elastic fibers.
9. Peripheral resistance vessels include arterioles and arterioles.
10. The main difference between fenestrated capillaries and continuous capillaries is that
the endothelial cell cytoplasm contains a large number of micropinocytotic vesicles.
Glossary
1. Nissl body:
1) Distributed in the cell bodies and dendrites of neurons;
2) Granular or blocky basophilic substances under light microscopy (blue under HE
staining);
3) Under electron microscopy, the parallel arrangement of rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER) and a large amount of free ribose
Body (Rib) composition;
4) Function: Synthesize neurotransmitters and other proteins.
2. Neurofibril
) are distributed in the cell bodies and processes of neurons;
2) Brown-black filaments in silver-stained sections under light microscopy;
3) Under electron microscopy, it is composed of neurofilaments and microtubules;
4) Function: Constitutes the skeleton of neurons and participates in the transport of
substances within the cell body and processes
Synthesizes proteins such as neurotransmitters.
.Chemical synapse:
1) Transmit information through neurotransmitters, including:
2) Presynaptic components: mainly include presynaptic membrane, synaptic vesicles
containing neurotransmitters) and Mit;
3) Postsynaptic components: mainly include postsynaptic membrane (with receptors on
the membrane) and Mit;
4) Synaptic cleft.
4. Continuous capillaries:
1) It is surrounded by continuous endothelial cells, with tight junctions and other cell
connections between cells;
2) There are many micropinocytic vesicles (pinocytic vesicles) in the cytoplasm of
endothelial cells;
3) The basement membrane is intact;
4) Material exchange through micropinocytotic vesicles.
5. Sinusoid
1) Large cavity and irregular shape
2) There are holes on the endothelial cells and large gaps between the endothelial cells,
also known as discontinuous capillaries;
3) basement membrane is incomplete, complete, or absent;
4) Facilitates the entry and exit of large molecules or blood cells into and out of the blood
(macrophages are commonly seen in the sinus walls or sinus cavities).
Short Answer Questions
1. Compare the similarities and differences in the structure and function of continuous
capillaries and fenestrated capillaries.
Common points:
Endothelial cells are continuous and there are cell junctions between cells①
Integrity of basement membrane②
Differences:
There are a large number of micropinocytotic vesicles in the cytoplasm of continuous③
capillary endothelial cells
The fenestrated capillary endothelial cells do not have nuclei but have pores that④
penetrate the cytoplasm
Continuous capillaries mainly exchange substances between blood and tissues in the⑤
form of micropinocytosis vesicles
Fenelated capillaries mainly exchange substances through the pores on the⑥
endothelial cells
Continuous capillaries are mainly distributed in connective tissue, lungs, and central⑦
nervous system (forming a barrier), and fenestrated capillaries are mainly distributed in
the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, etc.
Short Answer Questions
1. Compare the similarities and differences in the structure and function of continuous
capillaries and fenestrated capillaries.
Common points:
Endothelial cells are continuous and there are cell junctions between cells①
Integrity of basement membrane②
Differences:
There are a large number of micropinocytotic vesicles in the cytoplasm of continuous③
capillary endothelial cells
The fenestrated capillary endothelial cells do not have nuclei but have pores that④
penetrate the cytoplasm
Continuous capillaries mainly exchange substances between blood and tissues in the⑤
form of micropinocytosis vesicles
Fenelated capillaries mainly exchange substances through the pores on the⑥
endothelial cells
Continuous capillaries are mainly distributed in connective tissue, lungs, and central⑦
nervous system (forming barriers), and fenestrated capillaries are mainly distributed in
the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, etc.
2. Compare the similarities and differences in the structure and function of muscular
arteries and elastic arteries.
Commonalities:
The wall of the tube is composed of three layers of membrane: the inner membrane,①
the middle membrane and the outer membrane. The inner membrane is divided into the
endothelium, the subendothelial layer and the internal elastic membrane.
Differences:
Muscular arteries include medium arteries and small arteries, and elastic arteries are②
large arteries.
The media of muscular arteries is mainly composed of smooth muscle, while the③
media of large arteries is mainly composed of a large amount of elastic membrane
The three layers of membrane in the middle artery of the muscular artery are clearly④
demarcated, while the three layers of membrane in the large artery are not clearly
demarcated.
The contraction of smooth muscle in the wall of muscular arteries can regulate the⑤
blood supply to organs and change peripheral resistance; the elastic retraction of elastic
arteries turns intermittent ejection of the heart into continuous blood flow.
Chapter 5 Immune System & Review
(I) True or False Questions
1. After being stimulated by antigens, T cells proliferate and differentiate into plasma
cells, participating in humoral immunity, while B cells participate in cellular immunity.
2. Lymph nodes are few or disappear when there is no antigen stimulation, but increase
in number and size after antigen stimulation.
3. Thymic epithelial cells in the thymus are also called epithelial reticular cells, which form
the scaffold of the thymus.
4. The blood-thymus barrier is located at the junction of the thymic cortex and medulla.
5. The paracortical area is diffuse lymphoid tissue, mainly composed of B lymphocytes,
which can carry out humoral immunity.
(II) Explanation of terms
1. Lymphoid nodule
(1) A form of lymphoid tissue, also known as lymphoid follicles; (2) Spherical or elliptical
bodies with clear boundaries; (3) Mainly composed of B lymphocytes; mainly performs
humoral immune functions; (4) Stimulated by antigens, with germinal centers; can be
divided into dark areas, light areas and nodule caps.
2. Paracortical area:
(1) Located in the deep cortex of the lymph node; (2) Diffuse lymphoid tissue, mainly
containing T cells, is a thymus-dependent area. It can carry out cellular immune
response; (3) Post-capillary venules can also be seen in this area, which are the
channels for lymphocytes to enter the lymph nodes from the blood.
3. Periarterial lymphatic sheath:
(1) It is the diffuse lymphoid tissue surrounding the central artery of the splenic white
pulp; (2) It is the thymus-dependent area, mainly composed of T cells, which carry out
cellular immune responses; (3) It is equivalent to the paracortical area of the lymph node,
but without postcapillary venules.
4. Blood-thymus barrier:
(1) The capillaries in the thymic cortex and the surrounding structures have a certain
barrier function. (2) Its structure is continuous capillary endothelium, basement
membrane, perivascular space containing macrophages, continuous thymic epithelial cell
basement membrane and processes. (3) It can maintain the stability of the internal
environment of the thymus and is conducive to the development of thymocytes.
(III) Short answer questions
1. Briefly describe the structure and function of the splenic white pulp
1) The white pulp appears as grayish white dots on the freshly cut surface of the spleen,
so it is called white pulp. It consists of three parts:
2) Periarterial lymphoid sheath, composed of diffuse lymphoid tissue surrounding the
central artery, mainly composed of T cells, is a thymus-dependent area and can carry out
cellular immune response; 3) Lymph nodules, also known as splenic nodules, are located
on one side of the periarterial lymphoid sheath, mainly composed of B cells, and
participate in humoral immune response; 4) Marginal zone, which is the junction of red
pulp and white pulp, composed of lymphoid tissue mainly composed of B cells and
marginal sinus, is the channel for lymphocytes to enter the spleen from the blood, and is
the first site to contact antigens and induce immune response.
Chapter 6 Endocrine System
(I) True or False Questions
1. Cells that secrete nitrogen-containing hormones contain a large amount of SER, while
cells that secrete steroid hormones contain RER
2. The colloid in the thyroid follicle cavity is thyroxine. Hypothyroidism in infants and
young children can cause dwarfism.
3. Parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin, and the antagonistic hormone is parathyroid
hormone secreted by parathyroid chief cells.
4. Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid hormone that regulates calcium ion concentration.
5. Adrenal cortex zona fasciculata cells can secrete glucocorticoids, and zona reticularis
cells can secrete estrogen
6. Excessive secretion of growth hormone can cause cretinism in infants and young
children.
7. The cells in the middle part of the adenohypophysis can secrete melanocyte-
stimulating hormone.
8. The neurohypophysis is composed of glial cells and myelinated nerve fibers.
9. Neurohypophysis cells can synthesize and secrete vasopressin and oxytocin.
Chapter 7 Digestive Tract
1. True or False Questions
1. There are glands in the submucosal layer of the esophagus and duodenum.
2. The gastric mucosal epithelium is a single-layer columnar epithelium containing
surface mucous cells and goblet cells.
3. The gastric mucosal barrier is composed of tight junctions between cells and contains
a large amount of bicarbonate ions.
Mucus gel composition.
4. Gastric parietal cells can secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor, and gastric chief
cells can secrete pepsin.
5. The mucous cells of the gastric neck secrete acidic mucus.
6. Folds, villi and microvilli can all expand the absorption area of the small intestine.
7. The central lacteals in the midaxis of the small intestinal villi are related to fat
absorption and transport.
8. Villi are the main distinguishing structures between the small intestine and the large
intestine.
9. Colon glands contain Paneth cells
2. Short answer questions
1.Briefly describe the morphology, structure and function of parietal cells.
LM: The cell body is large, round or triangular, the nucleus is round and centrally located,
and the cytoplasm is eosinophilic.
EM: The cell membrane on the free side is concave into the cytoplasm to form branched
tubules, called intracellular tubules (secretory tubules). The lumen of the tubules has
microvilli. Smooth tubules and vesicles can be seen around the tubules, called the
tubulo-vesicular system, and there are also a large number of mitochondria.
Function: Secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
2.Briefly describe the morphology, structure and function of chief cells.
LM: columnar, with a round nucleus at the base, zymogen granules at the top of the
cytoplasm; the cytoplasm is basophilic at the base.
EM: The top of the cytoplasm contains zymogen granules and well-developed Gc; the
basal cytoplasm has abundant RER
Function: Secretion of pepsinogen; secretion of rennet in infancy
3.Briefly describe the structure and function of small intestinal villi.
1) The villi of the small intestine are formed by many tiny finger-like projections protruding
from the mucosal epithelium and the lamina propria toward the lumen.
(2) The surface of the small intestinal villi is a single layer of columnar epithelium, which
is composed of columnar cells, goblet cells and a small number of endocrine cells.
Columnar cells: also known as absorptive cells, they are tall columnar under light①
microscopy, with oval nuclei near the base and striated edges on the free surface; under
electron microscopy, the free surface has microvilli, a cell coat on the surface,
disaccharidases and peptidases for digesting sugars and proteins, carriers for absorbing
amino acids and glucose, and intrinsic factor receptors in the ileum. There are a large
number of mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
and Golgi complex in the cytoplasm.
Goblet cells: secrete mucus to lubricate the intestinal cavity②
(3) Villus central axis: It is formed by the connective tissue of the lamina propria
protruding into the villus. There are longitudinal lymphatic capillaries in the center, called
central lacteals, abundant capillaries, and scattered smooth muscle fibers.
(4) Function: Expand the surface area of small intestine digestion and absorption
Chapter 8 Digestive Gland
1) True or False Questions
1. There are alveolar cells in the pancreatic acini.
2. Hormones secreted by pancreatic B cells can increase blood sugar.
3. The organelles related to the synthesis and secretion of bile in hepatocytes are RER
and Gc
4. The hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells have holes, and the hepatic cells above the
holes have microvilli on the sinusoidal surface. There is no basement membrane outside
the hepatic sinusoidal endothelial cells.
5. The perisinusoidal space is a narrow space between the hepatic sinusoids and the
hepatocytes.
6. In chronic liver disease or cirrhosis, fat-storage cells can transform into fibroblasts.
7. The cell membrane of hepatocytes around the bile canaliculi forms a junctional
complex.
(II) Explanation of terms
1. Pancreatic Islets:
(1) The endocrine part of the pancreas, with clusters of endocrine cells scattered
between the acinar cells, and abundant fenestrated capillaries between them; HE
staining is light
(2) Mainly composed of A, B, D, and PP cells;
(3) A cells secrete glucagon; B cells secrete insulin; D cells secrete somatostatin; PP
cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
2. Perisinus space
(1) Also known as Dissert's space, it is a narrow gap between the sinusoidal endothelium
and the hepatocytes
(2) The interstices are filled with plasma; there are many microvilli extending into the
sinusoidal surface of hepatocytes, which are immersed in plasma;
(3) The place where substances are exchanged between liver cells and blood.
(4) There are also reticular fibers and fat storage cells. Fat storage cells can store vitamin
A and produce fibers and matrix.
3. Hepatic sinusoids:
(1) Located in the irregular spaces between the hepatic plates, connected to each other
through the holes on the hepatic plates to form a network.
(2) The sinusoidal wall is surrounded by a layer of flat endothelial cells, which has a high
permeability and is conducive to the exchange of substances between liver cells and
blood.
(3) Hepatic macrophages reside in the sinusoidal cavity. They are differentiated from
monocytes in the blood and have active phagocytic ability.
(III) Short answer questions
1.Briefly describe the morphology, structure and function of hepatocytes.
LM: large, polygonal cell body, large, round, centrally located nucleus, clear nuclear
membrane, prominent nucleolus; eosinophilic cytoplasm,
EM: There are a lot of Mit that can provide energy, RER, SER, Gc, Ly contains a variety
of hydrolases, participate in the digestion and hydrolysis of liver cell phagocytic
substances and degenerated organelles, microbodies: also known as hydrogen peroxide
bodies, remove the toxic effects of hydrogen peroxide on cells.
Function: 1) Secrete bile to participate in the digestion of lipids; 2) Synthesize a variety of
proteins;
3) Participate in the metabolism of sugars, lipids, hormones and other substances; 4)
Participate in the biotransformation of substances and the detoxification of harmful
substances and drugs; 5) Hematopoiesis (fetal period)
Chapter 9 Respiratory System & Urinary System
What is the difference between ureter and vas deferens?
Tube wall structure Ureter and vas deferens
Lumen star fusion
Mucosal epithelium Transitional epithelium Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
The upper 2/3 of the muscle layer is thick in the inner longitudinal and outer rings, and
the inner longitudinal middle ring and outer longitudinal
Adventitia fibrous membrane
1) True or False Questions
1. The epithelium of the olfactory part of the nasal mucosa is a pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium, which is composed of supporting cells, olfactory cells and basal
cells.
2. The terminal bronchiolar epithelium is a single-layer columnar epithelium containing a
small number of ciliated cells and Clara cells.
3. Most of the wall of the alveolar duct is the opening of the alveoli, and there is no
nodular enlargement at the alveolar opening.
4. Type I alveolar cells are mainly involved in the composition of the air-blood barrier.
5. The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney, consisting of the
glomerulus and renal tubule.
6. The capillaries of the glomerulus are fenestrated capillaries with fenestrations on the
pores.
7. The proximal tubule cells are not clearly demarcated and the luminal surface has no
brush border.
8. The sodium absorption and potassium excretion of the distal convoluted tubule are
regulated by the hormone aldosterone, while the water reabsorption is not regulated by
hormones.
9. Juxtaglomerular cells are specialized vascular smooth muscle cells near the vascular
pole of the afferent arteriole. Juxtaglomerular cells can secrete angiotensin.
10. The macula densa cells can sense the changes in the concentration of calcium ions
in the filtrate and transmit the information to the juxtaglomerular cells, prompting the
juxtaglomerular cells to secrete angiotensin.
(II) Explanation of terms
1. Alveolar septum:
(1) It is the connective tissue between adjacent alveoli;
(2) It is rich in capillaries, elastic fibers, macrophages, septum cells, etc.;
(3) Capillaries are continuous capillaries that participate in forming the gas-blood barrier;
(4) Elastic fibers have the function of retracting alveolar expansion; septal cells are
fibroblasts, which have the function of producing fibers and matrix;
(5) Macrophages originate from blood monocytes and have the functions of engulfing,
presenting antigens and participating in immune responses. After engulfing a large
amount of dust, they are also called dust cells.
2. Qi-blood barrier:
(1) It is the structure through which gas exchange occurs between the alveoli and the
blood;
(2) It is composed of alveolar surfactant layer, type I alveolar cells and basement
membrane, thin layer of connective tissue, capillary basement membrane and
endothelium.
3. Macula densa:
(1) It is formed by the specialized epithelial cells on the side of the distal tubule near the
vascular pole of the renal body;
(2) It is an ion receptor that can sense changes in the sodium ion concentration in the
distal tubule filtrate;
(3) When the sodium ion concentration decreases, the macula densa transmits the
sensed information to the juxtaglomerular cells, prompting them to secrete renin.
4. Filtration barrier:
(1) It is the structure through which blood is filtered through the glomerulus to form
primary urine;
(2) It is composed of a porous endothelium, a basement membrane, and a podocyte slit
diaphragm;
(3) It has dual selective filtration based on molecular size and charge properties.
3. Compare the similarities and differences in structure and function between the
proximal and distal convoluted tubules.
Common points:
1) Both are sections of the renal tubule structure; both are composed of a single layer of
epithelium; both have plasma membrane infoldings and mitochondria on the basal
surface of the cells; and both have sodium-potassium pumps on the basal plasma
membrane.
2) They both have a reabsorption function and can excrete hydrogen ions, ammonia, etc.
Differences:
3) The cell bodies of the epithelial cells of the proximal tubules are relatively large, with
unclear cell boundaries, strongly eosinophilic cytoplasm, brush borders on the luminal
surface, and longitudinal striations on the base. Under the electron microscope, there are
a large number of microvilli, pinocytic vesicles in the cytoplasm, lateral processes on the
cell sides, and plasma membrane infolding and Mit
4) The cells of the distal convoluted tubules are clearly demarcated, with lightly stained
cytoplasm and no brush borders; under the electron microscope, there are a small
number of short microvilli, no pinocytic vesicles and lateral processes, but the involucral
folds of the plasma membrane are relatively developed.
5) The proximal convoluted tubule can reabsorb all nutrients in the primary urine,
including most of the water and ions, and is not regulated by hormones; the distal
convoluted tubule can reabsorb water and is regulated by vasopressin; it absorbs sodium
and excretes potassium and is regulated by aldosterone.
Chapter 10 Male & Female Reproductive System
(I) True or False Questions
1. The seminiferous tubules are the place where sperm are produced, and the
seminiferous epithelium is composed of spermatogenic cells and interstitial cells.
2. After maturation and division, spermatogonia form primary spermatocytes, which are
haploid cells.
3. Primary spermatocytes are the cells with the largest diameter among spermatogenic
cells, and the cells that are difficult to see in the sections are secondary spermatocytes.
4. After the first maturation division, the primary spermatocyte forms two spermatids, and
one primary spermatocyte can eventually form four sperm.
5. After the second maturation division, the secondary spermatocytes form two
spermatids, and the spermatids form spermatozoa through mitosis.
6. Tight junctions between testicular supporting cells participate in the formation of the
blood-testis barrier.
7. Testicular supporting cells have phagocytic function and can also secrete androgens.
8. Testicular interstitial cells are steroid hormone secreting cells.
9. Prostate enlargement in the elderly mostly occurs in the main gland.
10. The follicle is composed of oogonia and follicular cells. The primary oocyte in the
primordial follicle remains in the prophase of the first mitosis.
11. The zona pellucida of the primary follicle has been formed, and the oocyte in the
secondary follicle is the secondary oocyte.
12. Ovulation refers to the process in which the mature follicle ruptures and discharges
the primary oocyte.
13. The primary oocyte completes its first maturation division 36 to 48 hours before
ovulation.
14. Granulosa luteal cells can secrete a large amount of progesterone, and the theca
luteal cells and granulosa luteal cells synergistically secrete progesterone.
15. The follicles develop in the ovaries and the endometrium is in the proliferative phase;
the proliferative phase of the endometrium is also called the luteal phase.
16. The endometrium is in the late proliferative phase when the ovary ovulates.
(II) Explanation of terms
1. Spermatogenesis:
(1) Refers to the process from spermatogonia to sperm formation;
(2) The order of development is spermatogonia, primary spermatocytes, secondary
spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa;
(3) It includes three stages of proliferation and differentiation: mitosis of spermatogonia,
meiosis of spermatocytes and spermatogenesis.
2. Testicular interstitium:
(1) It is the loose connective tissue rich in blood vessels and lymphatic vessels between
the seminiferous tubules;
(2) It contains interstitial cells, which are often distributed in groups. The cells are round
or polygonal, with round and centrally located nuclei, lightly stained, and eosinophilic
cytoplasm;
(3) Under electron microscopy, the cells have the characteristics of steroid hormone-
secreting cells;
(4) Can secrete androgens.
3. Corpus luteum:
(1) After the mature follicle ovulates, the granulosa layer of the follicle wall and the theca
endometrium cells form an endocrine cell mass under the action of LH. When fresh, it is
yellow and is called the corpus luteum.
(2) It is composed of granulosa luteal cells and theca luteal cells;
(3) Both types of cells have structural characteristics of steroid hormone-secreting cells,
namely, abundant SER, tubular crest Mit, and lipid droplets;
(4) Secrete progesterone and estrogen.
4. Primary follicles:
(1) Developed from primordial follicles under the action of FSH;
(2) The primary oocyte enlarges and cortical granules appear;
(3) An eosinophilic zona pellucida appears between the primary oocyte and the follicular
cells;
(4) Follicular cell proliferation changes from a single layer to multiple layers;
(5) The follicle membrane is formed by the connective tissue surrounding the follicle.
(III) Short answer questions
1. Briefly describe the morphology, structure and function of supporting cells
LM: The cells are irregularly long pyramidal, with the bottom attached to the basement
membrane and the top extending into the cavity. The outline is unclear in the slices. The
nucleus is irregular or triangular, lightly colored, and the nucleolus is large and obvious.
EM: There are well-developed Gc, RER, SER, Mit, Ly and glycogen granules in the
cytoplasm
Function: 1) The lateral membranes of adjacent supporting cells form tight junctions and
participate in the formation of
Blood-testis barrier;
2) Support, nourish, and protect spermatogenic cells, and participate in the migration of
spermatogenic cells into ducts.
Luminal surface movement and release of sperm;
3) It can engulf the residual cytoplasm that is shed during sperm formation;
4) Able to synthesize and secrete androgen binding protein;
5) It can secrete anti-mesonephric hormone during the embryonic period.
2. Briefly describe the cyclic changes of the endometrium.
1) Menstrual period: From the 1st to the 4th day of the cycle, the levels of progesterone
and estrogen in the blood drop rapidly. Due to the contraction of the spiral arteries, the
functional layer is ischemic and the tissue cells are necrotic. Then the spiral arteries
dilate temporarily, causing acute congestion and rupture of the capillaries, followed by the
exfoliation of small pieces of necrotic endometrium and excretion from the vagina, which
is menstruation.
2) Proliferative phase: Days 5 to 14 of the cycle. Under the action of estrogen secreted
by the ovaries, the endometrium gradually thickens to 2-4 mm. In the late proliferative
phase, the uterine glands are thick, long, and curved; glycogen granules in the glandular
epithelial cells gather in the subnuclear region, causing the nuclei to move upward; matrix
cells divide and proliferate; spiral arteries proliferate and bend. At the end of the
proliferative phase, the follicles mature and ovulate, and the endometrium enters the
secretory phase.
3) Secretory phase: On the 15th to 28th day of the cycle, the corpus luteum gradually
forms in the ovary and secretes progesterone and estrogen, causing the endometrium to
continue to thicken by 5-7mm. The uterine glands are obviously curved, the glandular
cavity is enlarged, and filled with secretions; the glycogen in the glandular cells
increases, and the glycogen granules move to the supranuclear area and are discharged
into the acinar cavity; the matrix cells continue to proliferate, and in the late secretory
period, some cells become larger and rounder, and the cytoplasm is filled with glycogen
and lipid droplets, which are called pre-decidual cells; some cells are smaller and have
granules containing relaxin, which are called endometrial granular cells; the spiral
arteries are more curved and reach the surface of the endometrium; edema appears in
the lamina propria.
3. Compare the similarities and differences between the structures of primary follicles
and secondary follicles.
Common points:
1) Both are growing follicles; their growth and development are regulated by FSH;
2) They all have structures such as primary oocytes, follicular cells, zona pellucida, and
theca. The primary oocytes are in the early stage of the first maturation division.
Differences:
3) Secondary follicles develop from primary follicles and are larger in size.
4) A follicular cavity appears between the follicular cells surrounding the secondary
follicle, and a cumulus is formed in the secondary follicle
5) The follicle membrane in the secondary follicle differentiates into two layers, the inner
and outer layers, and theca cells and granulosa cells cooperate to secrete estrogen.
Chapter 12 Female Reproductive System & Sensorium
1) True or False Questions
8. The outer segment membrane disc of rod cells contains rhodopsin, which senses
strong light.
9. The outer segment membrane disk of the cone cell is separated from the cell
membrane and can fall off. The membrane disk contains visual pigments that sense
weak light and color.
10. The cause of night blindness is related to vitamin A deficiency.
11. The macula of the retina contains only cones and is the area with the sharpest vision.
12. The ampullary ridge can sense the position of the head when it is at rest, and the
position maculae can sense the stimulation of linear motion.
13. The spiral organ is an auditory receptor.
Key teaching objectives of histology experiment section tutoring:
1. Cells: motor neurons, bundle cells, parietal cells, chief cells, goblet cells, hepatocytes,
dust cells, primary spermatocytes, Leydig cells, primary oocytes;
2. Structure: lymph nodes, splenic white pulp, thymic corpuscles, thyroid follicles,
intestinal villi, serous acini, mucous acini, mixed acini, striated ducts, pancreatic islets,
portal area (interlobular arteries, interlobular veins, interlobular bile ducts), bronchioles,
terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, renal corpuscles, proximal convoluted
tubules, distal convoluted tubules, macula densa, seminiferous tubules, primary follicles,
secondary follicles;
3. Organs: heart, middle artery, aorta, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, thyroid, adrenal
glands, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, submandibular gland, liver,
pancreas, lungs, trachea, kidneys, bladder*, testicles, and ovaries.
* indicates the difficulty of the test
Key teaching objectives of histology experiment section tutoring:
1. Cells: macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells, eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils,
monocytes, lymphocytes, motor neurons, bundle cells, parietal cells, chief cells, goblet
cells, hepatocytes, dust cells, primary spermatocytes, Leydig cells, primary oocytes,
osteoblasts, osteoclasts;
2. Structure: lymph nodes, paracortical area, medullary cord, medullary sinus, splenic
white pulp, thymic corpuscle, thyroid follicle, intestinal villi, serous acini, mucous acini,
mixed acini, striated ducts, pancreatic islets, portal area (interlobular arteries, interlobular
veins, interlobular bile ducts), bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles,
renal corpuscles, proximal convoluted tubules, distal convoluted tubules, macula densa,
seminiferous tubules, primary follicles, secondary follicles;
3. Organs: heart, middle artery, aorta, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, thyroid, adrenal
glands, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, lungs,
trachea, kidneys, bladder*, testicles, ovaries, fallopian tubes*, uterus*, prostate, and
appendix.
Discussion Slice
Palatine tonsils, sublingual glands, ureters, vas deferens, vagina
* indicates the difficulty of the test
Key teaching objectives of histology experiment section tutoring:
1. Cells: macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, eosinophils,
basophils, neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, motor neurons, piriform neurons, bundle
cells, parietal cells, chief cells, goblet cells, hepatocytes, dust cells, primary
spermatocytes, Leydig cells, primary oocytes, chondrocytes, skeletal muscle cells
(fibers), cardiomyocytes (fibers), smooth muscle cells (fibers);
2. Structure: lymph nodules, splenic white pulp, thymic corpuscles, thyroid follicles,
gastric fundic glands, small intestinal villi, intestinal glands, serous acini, mucous acini,
mixed acini, striated ducts, pancreatic islets, portal tract (interlobular arteries, interlobular
veins, interlobular bile ducts), liver plates (cords), hepatic sinusoids, bronchioles, terminal
bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, renal corpuscles, proximal
convoluted tubules, distal convoluted tubules, macula densa, collecting tubules,
seminiferous tubules, primary follicles, secondary follicles, splenic sinusoids, lymphatic
sinusoids;
3. Organs: heart, middle artery, middle vein, aorta, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, thyroid
gland, adrenal gland, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver,
pancreas, submandibular gland*, parotid gland*, lung, trachea, kidney, bladder, testicles,
ovaries, fallopian tubes*, uterus*, prostate*, appendix*.
* indicates the difficulty of the test
Experimental examination content, methods and scores:
content:
1. Questions on identifying key teaching objectives: 4 cells, 6 structures and 10 organs; 1
point for each question, 20 points in total.
Method: 20 teaching mirrors were used to observe, identify and answer questions at fixed
points and at fixed times;
Grade: 20% of the total grade for Histology and Embryology.
Experimental examination content, methods and scores:
content:
Key teaching objective identification questions: 5 cells, 10 structures and 15 organs; 1
point for each question, 30 points in total.
Method: 30 teaching mirrors were used to observe, identify and answer questions at fixed
points and at fixed times;
Grade: 30% of the total grade for Histology and Embryology.
Theoretical exam: Professional English vocabulary (41 items)
Histology: embryology, epithelium, endothelium, mesothelium, cilia, microvilli, fibroblast
macrophage plasma cell mast cell
erythrocyte leukocyte monocyte intercalated disk sarcomere myofilament sarcoplasmic
reticulum neuron
synapse capillary sinusoid lymphoid nodule mucosa parietal cell
villus hepatocyte pulmonary alveoli nephron glomerulus spermatozoon
ovarian follicle ovulation corpus luteum fertilization blastocyst ectoderm
mesoderm endoderm implantation
placenta
Theoretical exam: Professional English vocabulary (47 items)
Histology Embryology Hematoxylin
eosin epithelium endothelium endothelium
mesothelium cilia microvilli microvilli
fibroblast macrophage plasma cell
mast cellosteonerythrocyte
leukocyte monocyte intercalated disk
sarcomere myofilament sarcoplasmic reticulum
neuron synapse capillary
sinusoid lymphoid nodule mucosa parietal cell villus hepatocyte pulmonary alveoli
nephron glomerulus
testis testisspermatozoon spermovarian follicle
ovulation corpus luteum fertilization
Cleavage blastocyst ectoderm
mesoderm endoderm implantation
placenta placenta decidul
Theoretical exam: Professional English vocabulary (60 words)
Histology Embryology Hematoxylin
eosin epithelium endothelium endothelium
mesothelium goblet cell cilia
microvillus basement membrane desmosome
fibroblast macrophage plasma cell
mast cellosteonosteoblast
osteoclast erythrocyte leukocyte
monocyte monocyte lymphocyte intercalated disk
sarcomere myofilament sarcoplasmic reticulum
neuron synapse capillary
sinusoid blood sinuslymphoid nodulelymphoid sinus lymphoid sinus
mucosa parietal cell villus villus
hepatocyte pancreas islet pulmonary alveoli
nephron renal corpuscle glomerulus vascular glomerulus
testis spermatozoon ovary
ovarian follicle ovulation corpus luteum
cornea retina fertilization
Cleavage blastocyst ectoderm
mesoderm endoderm implantation
placenta decidua gap junction
