PRACTICUM REPORT ON AGRICULTURAL GENETICS
C
ompos
ed b
y
:
BRADFORD HAAG
DEPARTEMENT OF BIOLOGY
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
Ma
t
e
ri
a
l
1
O
pportunity th
e
ory
a
n
d KHI
-
squ
a
r
ed
t
e
st in g
e
n
e
ti
c e
xp
e
rim
e
nts
1
.
P
r
ac
ti
c
um purpos
e
T
his
e
xp
e
rim
e
nt
a
ims to
:
a
.
Ca
l
c
ul
a
t
e
opportuniti
e
s
a
n
d ca
l
c
ul
a
t
e
th
e KHI
-
squ
a
r
ed
t
e
st
.
b
.
U
sing
KHI
-
squ
a
r
ed
t
e
st in
Me
n
de
l g
e
n
e
ti
c a
n
a
lysis
.
2
.
Bac
kgroun
d
Me
n
de
l
'
s
e
n
d
uring su
cce
ss in
de
v
e
loping
a
n inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
mo
de
l is l
a
rg
e
ly
d
u
e
to his us
e
of m
a
th
e
m
a
ti
ca
l m
e
tho
d
s to
a
n
a
lyz
e e
xp
e
rim
e
nt
a
l
da
t
a
.
T
h
e c
hi
-
squ
a
r
ed
t
e
st is
a
k
e
y tool for
c
omp
a
ring o
b
s
e
rv
ed
r
e
sults from pl
a
nt
a
n
d a
nim
a
l
c
ross
e
s with
th
e
or
e
ti
ca
l pr
ed
i
c
tions
.
Ge
n
e
ti
c
ists r
e
ly on this m
e
tho
d
to
de
t
e
rmin
e
wh
e
th
e
r
de
vi
a
tions from
e
xp
ec
t
ed
r
a
tios
a
r
e d
u
e
to
c
h
a
n
ce
or oth
e
r un
e
xp
ec
t
ed
f
ac
tors
.
T
h
e
c
hi
-
squ
a
r
ed
t
e
st is
c
ommonly us
ed
in g
e
n
e
ti
c
r
e
s
ea
r
c
h to
a
n
a
lyz
e e
xp
e
rim
e
nt
a
l
da
t
a
.
O
pportunity for
a
n in
c
i
de
nt
O
pportuniti
e
s
a
r
e
m
ea
sur
e
s of possi
b
iliti
e
s
,
a
n
d a
r
e de
fin
ed a
s follows
:
O
pportuniti
e
s
(
a
) =
F
r
e
qu
e
n
c
y of
e
v
e
nts
a
pp
ea
rs
a
F
r
e
qu
e
n
c
y of
T
ot
a
l
Ge
n
e
sis
T
h
e
pro
bab
ility r
a
ng
e
s from
0
(
impossi
b
l
e
)
to
1
(
ce
rt
a
in
).
F
or
a c
oin with on
e
si
de
m
a
rk
ed A a
n
d
th
e
oth
e
r with
a d
iff
e
r
e
nt sign
,
th
e c
h
a
n
ce
of l
a
n
d
ing on
A
is th
e
r
a
tio of
A
si
de
s
(
1
)
to th
e
tot
a
l num
be
r of si
de
s
(
2
).
T
h
e
r
e
for
e
,
th
e
pro
bab
ility of
l
a
n
d
ing on
A
is
1
/
2
.
O
pportunity for two fr
ee e
v
e
nts
I
n pro
bab
ility th
e
ory
,
e
v
e
nts
A a
n
d B a
r
e
in
de
p
e
n
de
nt if
P
(
AB
) =
P
(
A
)
x
P
(
B
),
m
ea
ning th
a
t th
e
o
cc
urr
e
n
ce
of
A d
o
e
s not imp
ac
t th
e
o
cc
urr
e
n
ce
of
B
.
F
or
inst
a
n
ce
,
wh
e
n two
c
oins
a
r
e
toss
ed
simult
a
n
e
ously
,
th
e
r
e
sult of on
e c
oin
d
o
e
s not
influ
e
n
ce
th
e
r
e
sult of th
e
oth
e
r
.
T
hus
,
th
e
pro
bab
ility of g
e
tting h
ead
s on th
e
first
c
oin
a
n
d
t
a
ils on th
e
s
ec
on
d
is
P
(
Head
s
1
Ta
ils
2
) =
P
(
Head
s
1
)
x
P
(
Ta
ils
2
).
S
imil
a
rly
,
in
g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
,
th
e a
ll
e
l
e
typ
e
of
a
f
e
m
a
l
e
g
a
m
e
t
e
(
e
gg
)
d
o
e
s not
a
ff
ec
t th
e a
ll
e
l
e
typ
e
of
a
m
a
l
e
g
a
m
e
t
e
(
sp
e
rm
/
poll
e
n
)
a
n
d
vi
ce
v
e
rs
a
.
KHI
-
squ
a
r
ed
t
e
st
T
o
de
t
e
rmin
e
if th
e
o
b
s
e
rv
ed d
istri
b
ution m
a
t
c
h
e
s th
e e
xp
ec
t
ed d
istri
b
ution
,
th
e C
hi
-
squ
a
r
ed
(
X
²)
t
e
st is us
ed a
s follows
:
Dec
isions
a
r
e
m
ade ba
s
ed
on th
e
s
e c
rit
e
ri
a
:
-
I
f x
²_
ca
l
c
ul
a
t
ed
<
x
²_
c
riti
ca
l
,
th
e
o
b
s
e
rv
ed d
istri
b
ution is not signifi
ca
ntly
d
iff
e
r
e
nt from th
e e
xp
ec
t
ed d
istri
b
ution
.
-
I
f x
²_
ca
l
c
ul
a
t
ed
>
x
²_
c
riti
ca
l
,
th
e
o
b
s
e
rv
ed d
istri
b
ution
d
iff
e
rs from th
e
e
xp
ec
t
ed d
istri
b
ution
.
T
h
e c
riti
ca
l v
a
lu
e
,
x
²_
c
riti
ca
l
,
ca
n
be
foun
d
in th
e C
hi
-
squ
a
r
ed
t
ab
l
e
,
wh
e
r
e
th
e de
gr
ee
s of fr
eed
om
(
d
f
)
a
r
e
k
-
1
,
a
n
d
α
is typi
ca
lly s
e
t
a
t
0
.
05
(
or
a
95
%
c
onfi
de
n
ce
l
e
v
e
l
).
3
.
T
ri
a
l m
e
tho
d
3
.
1
.
T
ools
-
O
n
e ba
l
a
n
ced c
urr
e
n
c
y
c
oin
,
eac
h si
de
w
a
s m
a
rk
ed b
y
A a
n
d A
-
T
wo
c
urr
e
n
c
y
c
oins whos
e
si
de
s
a
r
e
m
a
rk
ed
(
A
1
a
n
d A
1
)
for th
e
first
c
urr
e
n
c
y
a
n
d
(
A
2
a
n
d A
2
)
for th
e
s
ec
on
d c
urr
e
n
c
y
-
Pe
rm
a
n
e
nt
/
Ma
k
e
r m
a
rk
e
rs
.
3
.
2
.
W
ork pro
ced
ur
e
T
oss
a c
oin
a
n
d
r
ec
or
d
whi
c
h si
de a
pp
ea
rs
eac
h tim
e
.
I
f th
e
si
de A c
om
e
s up
,
it is not
ed
th
a
t th
e
g
a
m
e
t
e c
ont
a
ins
a
ll
e
l
e A
.
Re
p
ea
t th
e
toss
100
tim
e
s
a
n
d
t
a
lly
how oft
e
n
eac
h si
de a
pp
ea
rs
.
T
h
e
n
,
t
e
st if th
e
o
b
s
e
rv
ed
fr
e
qu
e
n
c
i
e
s
a
lign with th
e
hypoth
e
sis th
a
t th
e
pro
bab
ility of
eac
h
a
ll
e
l
e
is
e
qu
a
l
,
i
.
e
.,
P
(
A
) =
P
(
B
) =
1
/
2
.
F
or two in
de
p
e
n
de
nt
e
v
e
nts
,
simult
a
n
e
ously toss two
c
oins
a
n
d
r
ec
or
d
th
e
out
c
om
e
s
(
e
.
g
.,
A
1
A
2
,
A
1
B
2
,
B
1
A
2
,
B
1
B
2
).
Re
p
ea
t this
100
tim
e
s
a
n
d a
n
a
lyz
e
if th
e
o
cc
urr
e
n
ce
of
eac
h
c
oin si
de
is in
de
p
e
n
de
nt
.
4
.
Re
s
c
u
e
T
h
e
r
e
sults of th
e
form
a
tion of g
a
m
e
ts from
He
t
e
rozygot
AA
(
monohi
b
ri
d
)
in
d
ivi
d
u
a
ls
N
o
Ga
m
e
t
/
A
l
e
l
(
C
oin
S
i
de
)
T
ri
a
l r
e
sults
T
ot
a
l
1
A
I
iii
II
iii
II
iii
II
iii
II
iii
II
iii
II
iii
II
iii
I IIIII III
48
2
A
IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIII IIIII
52
T
h
e
tot
a
l
100
C
l
a
ss
/
g
a
m
e
t
e
s
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tions
H
ypoth
e
sis
H
op
e
K
hi
-
squ
a
r
ed
A
48
½
x
100
=
50
50
22
/
50
=
0
.
08
A
52
½
x
100
=
50
50
22
/
50
=
0
.
08
De
s
c
ription
:
O
:
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tion x
2
Tab
l
e
:
3
,
84
E
:
E
xp
ec
t
ed X
2
Ca
l
c
ul
a
t
e
:
0
,
16
D
:
De
vi
a
tion
DB
=
C
l
a
ss
-
1
=
2
-
1
=
1
C
on
c
lusion
:
so x
2
c
ount
<
x
2
t
ab
l
e
,
th
e
n th
e da
t
a
is in
acc
or
da
n
ce
with
Me
n
de
l
/
hypoth
e
sis
acce
pt
ed
(
0
.
16
<
3
.
84
)
Tab
l
e
of
Me
rging
Ma
rri
a
g
e Re
sults
Ga
m
e
t
(
A
1
A
1
X A
2
A
2
)
N
o
Ge
notyp
e
s or
c
oupl
e
s
a
ll
e
l
e
s
/
c
oin si
de
p
a
irs
T
ri
a
l r
e
sults
T
ot
a
l
1
A
1
a
2
IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIII III
28
2
A
1
a
2
IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII II
22
3
a
1
a
2
IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIII I
26
4
a
1
a
2
IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIIIIIIII
24
T
h
e
tot
a
l
100
Tab
l
e Te
st
X
2
De
s
c
ription
:
DB
:
4
-
1
=
3
x
2
Tab
l
e
:
7
,
81
Le
v
e
l
:
0
.
05
x
2
Ca
l
c
ul
a
t
e
:
0
,
36
+
0
,
36
+
0
,
04
+
0
,
04
=
1
,
16
X
2
t
ab
l
e
=
7
.
81
C
on
c
lusion
:
S
o x
2
c
ount
<
x
2
t
ab
l
e
,
th
e
n th
e da
t
a
is in
acc
or
da
n
ce
with
Me
n
de
l
/
hypoth
e
sis mission
acce
pt
ed
(
1
.
16
<
7
.
81
).
N
o
Ga
m
e
t
e
s
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tion
s
H
ypoth
e
si
s
H
op
e
KHI
-
squ
a
r
e
s
1
A
1
a
2
28
¼
x
100
25
32
/
25
=
0
,
36
2
A
1
a
2
22
¼
x
100
25
32
/
25
=
0
,
36
3
a
1
a
2
26
¼
x
100
25
11
/
25
=
0
,
04
4
a
1
a
2
24
¼
x
100
25
11
/
25
=
0
,
04
T
h
e
tot
a
l
5
.
Q
u
e
stions
a
n
d a
ssignm
e
nts
1
.
W
h
a
t
a
r
e
th
e
opportuniti
e
s for
eac
h si
de
of
a d
i
ce
(
c
ont
a
ining six
)
A
nsw
e
r
a
n
:
1
.
O
n
e d
i
ce
(
6
si
de
s
)
N
o
Ga
m
e
t
/
A
l
e
l
(
C
oin
S
i
de
)
T
ri
a
l r
e
sults
T
ot
a
l
1
1
IIII IIII IIII II
17
2
2
IIII IIII IIII IIII
20
3
3
I
iii iiii
10
4
4
IIII IIII IIII IIII III
23
5
5
IIII IIII IIII IIII
19
6
6
IIII IIII I
11
T
h
e
tot
a
l
100
S
o th
e
opportunity for th
e d
i
ce
is
:
1
/
6
=
0
.
16
.
2
.
I
f thr
ee d
i
ce a
r
e
thrown tog
e
th
e
r
,
wh
a
t
c
h
a
n
ce
is th
e a
pp
ea
r
a
n
ce
of th
e
N
o
Ga
m
e
t
e
s
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tion
(
O
)
H
op
e
(
e
)
De
vi
a
tio
n
d
2
1
1
17
16
,
6
-
0
,
4
0
,
16
0
,
01
2
2
20
16
,
6
3
,
4
11
,
56
0
,
69
3
3
10
16
,
6
6
,
6
43
,
56
2
,
62
4
4
23
16
,
6
-
6
,
4
40
,
96
2
,
47
5
5
19
16
,
6
-
2
,
4
5
,
76
0
,
34
6
6
11
16
,
6
5
,
6
31
,
39
1
,
89
T
h
e
tot
a
l
8
,
02
d
i
ce a
t th
e
s
a
m
e
tim
e
in th
e
thr
ee d
i
ce
fruits
.
A
nsw
e
r
:
P
(
ABC
) =
P
(
a
) .
p
(
b
) .
p
(
c
)
=
1
/
6
.
1
/
6
.
1
/
6
=
1
/
216
.
S
o
ba
s
ed
on th
e
th
e
ory of opportunity
,
th
e e
m
e
rg
e
n
ce
of
d
i
ce
two
e
y
e
s
simult
a
n
e
ously on th
e
throwing of thr
ee d
i
ce
simult
a
n
e
ously is on
e
tim
e
from
216
tim
e
s throws
(
1
/
216
).
D
is
c
ussion
Ba
s
ed
on th
e
o
b
s
e
rv
a
tions
,
da
t
a
from
100
c
oin toss
e
s show
ed
signifi
ca
nt
r
e
sults
:
wh
e
n th
e ca
l
c
ul
a
t
ed c
hi
-
squ
a
r
e
v
a
lu
e
w
a
s l
e
ss th
a
n th
e
t
ab
l
e
v
a
lu
e
,
th
e
out
c
om
e a
lign
ed
with th
e e
xp
ec
t
ed
1
:
1
r
a
tio
.
F
or
100
toss
e
s of two
c
oins
,
th
e
r
e
sults
w
e
r
e
signifi
ca
nt wh
e
n th
e ca
l
c
ul
a
t
ed c
hi
-
squ
a
r
e
v
a
lu
e e
x
ceeded
th
e
t
ab
l
e
v
a
lu
e
,
in
d
i
ca
ting th
e da
t
a c
onform
ed
to th
e e
xp
ec
t
ed
out
c
om
e
.
C
oin tossing involv
e
s two possi
b
l
e
r
e
sults p
e
r toss
(
h
ead
s or t
a
ils
),
eac
h with
a
pro
bab
ility of
0
.
5
.
H
ow
e
v
e
r
,
with m
a
ny toss
e
s
,
th
e ac
tu
a
l proportion of h
ead
s or
t
a
ils m
a
y
de
vi
a
t
e
slightly from
50
%
.
I
n
100
toss
e
s
,
th
e
num
be
r of h
ead
s or t
a
ils
might
be
som
e
wh
a
t mor
e
or l
e
ss th
a
n
50
,
b
ut ov
e
r
a
ll
,
th
e e
xp
e
rim
e
nts
c
onfirm th
e
th
e
ory of
c
h
a
n
ce
,
v
a
li
da
t
ed
using th
e c
hi
-
squ
a
r
e
t
e
st
.
T
his t
e
st
a
ss
e
ss
e
s wh
e
th
e
r
th
e
o
b
s
e
rv
ed
r
a
tios m
a
t
c
h th
e
th
e
or
e
ti
ca
l r
a
tios
a
n
d e
nsur
e
s
eac
h si
de
of th
e c
oin
h
a
s
a
n
e
qu
a
l pro
bab
ility
.
C
on
c
lusion
1
.
P
ro
bab
iliti
e
s or oth
e
r t
e
rms
a
r
e
possi
b
l
e
,
abada
ng
,
opportuniti
e
s
a
n
d a
s
a
r
e
g
e
n
e
r
a
lly
us
ed
to st
a
t
e e
v
e
nts th
a
t
ca
nnot
be a
s
ce
rt
a
in
ed
.
2
.
I
n this l
ab
us
e a
t
e
st known
a
s th
e X
2
t
e
st
a
n
d
p
a
y
a
tt
e
ntion to th
e
siz
e
of th
e
s
a
mpl
e
a
n
d
th
e
num
be
r of v
a
ri
e
s
.
T
h
e
ory is lik
e
ly to
be
wi
de
ly us
ed
in g
e
n
e
ti
c
s
c
i
e
n
ce
.
Ma
t
e
ri
a
l
II
Me
n
de
l
'
s l
a
ws
1
.
P
r
ac
ti
c
um purpos
e
T
his
e
xp
e
rim
e
nt
a
ims to
e
xpl
a
in th
e
prin
c
ipl
e
s
a
n
d
pro
ce
ss
e
ss
e
gr
e
s
a
n
d e
xpl
a
in
prin
c
ipl
e
s
a
n
db
l
e
n
d
fr
ee
.
2
.
Bac
kgroun
d
Be
for
e
th
e
20
th
ce
ntury
,
inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
w
a
s thought to
be a
"
b
l
e
n
d
ing
inh
e
rit
a
n
ce
,"
wh
e
r
e
offspring w
e
r
e
s
ee
n
a
s
a
mix of th
e
ir p
a
r
e
nts
'
tr
a
its
.
F
or
e
x
a
mpl
e
,
c
rossing purpl
e a
n
d
whit
e
flow
e
rs pro
d
u
ced
light purpl
e
flow
e
rs
.
T
his i
dea
c
h
a
ng
ed a
ft
e
r
G
r
e
gor
Me
n
de
l
'
s
e
xp
e
rim
e
nts
e
st
ab
lish
ed
mo
de
rn g
e
n
e
ti
c
prin
c
ipl
e
s
.
Me
n
de
l
'
s work involv
ed
pr
e
p
a
ring
c
ross
b
r
eed
ing m
a
t
e
ri
a
ls
,
su
c
h
a
s
c
oll
ec
ting
v
a
rious p
ea
pl
a
nts
(
P
isum s
a
tivum
)
a
n
d
stu
d
ying s
e
v
e
n
d
istin
c
t tr
a
its
,
in
c
lu
d
ing
flow
e
r
c
olor
a
n
d
s
eed
sh
a
p
e
.
H
is fin
d
ings show
ed
th
a
t offspring
c
onsist
e
ntly
e
xhi
b
it
ed
on
e
p
a
r
e
nt
'
s tr
a
its
,
l
ead
ing him to propos
e
th
a
t tr
a
its
a
r
e
inh
e
rit
ed a
s
d
is
c
r
e
t
e
units
,
now known
a
s g
e
n
e
s
.
D
omin
a
nt tr
a
its
,
lik
e
purpl
e
flow
e
r
c
olor
,
w
e
r
e
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
ed
with
ca
pit
a
l l
e
tt
e
rs
(
P
),
whil
e
r
ece
ssiv
e
tr
a
its w
e
r
e
r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
ed
with
low
e
r
ca
s
e
l
e
tt
e
rs
(
p
).
Eac
h pl
a
nt
ca
rri
e
s two
a
ll
e
l
e
s for
eac
h tr
a
it
,
on
e
from
eac
h
p
a
r
e
nt
,
a
n
d
th
e
s
e a
ll
e
l
e
s s
e
gr
e
g
a
t
e e
qu
a
lly
d
uring g
a
m
e
t
e
form
a
tion
,
a
prin
c
ipl
e
known
a
s
Me
n
de
l
'
s
F
irst
La
w of
Se
gr
e
g
a
tion
.
3
.
T
ri
a
l m
e
tho
d
3
.
1
.
T
ools
-
Red b
uttons
a
n
d
whit
e b
uttons or
ca
r
e
l
e
ss
b
uttons
a
n
d
t
e
mpl
e
stu
d
s
(
S
tu
d
y
)
100
pi
ece
s
eac
h
.
-
T
h
e
r
ed
-
y
e
llow
,
r
ed
-
b
l
ac
k
,
y
e
llow
,
whit
e a
n
d
whit
e b
l
ac
k
b
utt
e
r is
100
pi
ece
s
.
-
2
pi
ece
s of
ca
rton
b
ox
(
m
a
l
e a
n
d
f
e
m
a
l
e
g
a
m
e
ts
).
3
.
2
.
work pro
ced
ur
e
3
.
2
.
1
.
Me
n
de
l l
a
w
-
Ma
rk th
e
r
ed b
utton with
a
sym
b
ol
M
for th
e
r
ed dec
isiv
e
g
e
n
e a
n
d
whit
e
b
uttons with
a
sym
b
ol
M
for th
e dec
isiv
e
whit
e
g
e
n
e
.
-
Se
p
a
r
a
t
e
50
r
ed b
uttons of m
a
l
e b
ox
e
s
a
n
d
th
e
r
e
m
a
ining
50
f
e
m
a
l
e c
olors
a
s w
e
ll
a
s whit
e b
uttons
.
-
S
tir th
e c
ont
e
nts of th
e b
ox
b
y sh
a
king so th
a
t th
e
r
a
n
d
om
ca
n
be
r
eac
h
ed
.
T
hus th
e
opportunity to t
a
k
e
r
ed b
uttons
a
n
d
whit
e b
uttons in th
e
s
a
m
e b
ox
.
-
Ta
k
e
on
e b
uttons from th
e
m
a
l
e a
n
d
f
e
m
a
l
e b
ox simult
a
n
e
ously
a
n
d
r
ec
or
d
th
e c
om
b
in
a
tion of
a
ll
e
l
e
s o
b
t
a
in
ed
to
50
t
a
king
.
-
Re
p
ea
t t
a
king on
e
with th
e
s
a
m
e
pro
ced
ur
e
.
-
De
t
e
rmin
e
th
e Ge
notyp
e a
n
d C
om
b
in
a
tion ph
e
notyp
e c
omp
a
risons o
b
t
a
in
ed
.
-
C
omp
a
r
e
group o
b
s
e
rv
a
tion
da
t
a
with
da
t
a
th
a
t shoul
d be acc
or
d
ing to
Me
n
de
l using th
e X
t
e
st
2
P
ull th
e c
on
c
lusion
.
3
.
2
.
2
.
Me
n
de
l
II
l
a
w
Eac
h
c
olorful
b
uttons
(
r
ed
-
y
e
llow
,
r
ed
-
b
l
ac
k
,
whit
e
-
y
e
llow
,
a
n
d
whit
e
-
b
l
ac
k
)
a
r
e
th
e
r
e
sult of th
e
s
e
gr
e
g
a
tion of two
d
iff
e
r
e
nt prop
e
rti
e
s
(
de
s
c
ri
bed
)
for
e
x
a
mpl
e
th
e
form of s
eed
s
de
t
e
rmin
ed b
y
a
ll
e
l
e
s
A a
n
d A
,
a
n
d
th
e c
olor of
th
e
s
eed
skin
de
t
e
rmin
ed b
y
a
ll
e
l
b a
n
d b
.
1
.
G
iv
eC
o
a
t
A
for r
ed a
n
d A
for whit
e
.
2
.
G
iv
e
th
e B
sym
b
ol
B
for y
e
llow
a
n
d B
for
b
l
ac
k
.
3
.
P
rovi
de a
hun
d
r
ed
-
c
olor
ed b
uttons
,
eac
h of th
e
hun
d
r
ed
pi
ece
s
,
add
50
pi
ece
s into th
e ba
l
e b
ox
a
n
d
th
e
r
e
m
a
ining
50
to th
e
f
e
m
a
l
e b
ox
.
4
.
Ta
k
e
on
e b
uttons from th
e
m
a
l
e a
n
d
f
e
m
a
l
e b
ox simult
a
n
e
ously
a
n
d
r
ec
or
d
th
e c
om
b
in
a
tion of
a
ll
e
l
e
s o
b
t
a
in
ed
to
50
t
a
king
.
5
.
Re
p
ea
t t
a
king on
e
with th
e
s
a
m
e
pro
ced
ur
e
.
6
.
C
omp
a
r
e
group r
e
tri
e
v
a
l
da
t
a
with
da
t
a
th
a
t shoul
d be acc
or
d
ing to
Me
n
de
l using th
e X
t
e
st
2
P
ull th
e c
on
c
lusion
.
4
.
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tion
Tab
l
e
2
.
1
.
Se
gr
e
g
a
tion of
a
ll
e
l
e
s
a
t th
e
tim
e
of forming g
a
m
e
t
.
A
ll
e
l
e
c
om
b
in
a
tion
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tions
T
ot
a
l
M
m
IIIII IIIII II
12
M
m
IIIII IIIII IIIII IIIII IIII I
26
Adad
IIIII IIIII II
12
Tab
l
e
2
.
2
.
C
omp
a
rison of g
e
notyp
e
s
acc
or
d
ing tot
e
st
X
2
Ge
notyp
e
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tions
H
op
e
(
P
-
h
)
2
/
H
M
m
12
¼
x
50
=
12
.
5
(
12
-
12
,
5
)
2
/
12
.
5
=
0
,
02
M
m
26
2
/
4
x
50
=
25
(
26
-
25
)
2
/
25
=
0
,
04
M
m
12
¼
x
50
=
12
.
5
(
12
-
12
,
5
)
2
/
12
.
5
=
0
,
02
Tab
l
e
2
.
3
.
C
omp
a
rison of ph
e
notyp
e
s
acc
or
d
ing to x t
e
st
2
P
h
e
notyp
e
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tions
(
p
)
H
op
e
(
h
)
(
P
-
h
)
2
/
H
Red
38
¾
x
50
=
37
.
5
(
38
-
37
,
5
)
2
/
37
.
5
=
0
.
06
W
hit
e
12
¼
x
50
=
12
.
5
(
12
-
12
,
5
)
2
/
12
.
5
=
0
,
02
C
on
c
lusion
:
Tab
l
e
2
.
4
.
Se
gr
e
g
a
tion
a
n
d
grooming
a
ll
e
l
e
s from
d
iff
e
r
e
nt g
e
n
e
s
a
t th
e
tim
eGa
m
e
t
form
a
tion
.
A
ll
e
l
e
c
om
b
in
a
tion
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tions
T
ot
a
l
Aabb
IIIII I
6
Aabb
III
3
Aa
mm
IIIII II
7
Aabb
IIIII
5
Aabb
IIIII I
6
Aabb
I
iiii
II
7
aabb
III
3
aabb
I
iiii
5
AABB
IIIII III
8
Tab
l
e
2
.
5
.
C
omp
a
rison of ph
e
notyp
e
s on f
2
acc
or
d
ing to x t
e
st
2
A
ll
e
l
e
c
om
b
in
a
tion
Ob
s
e
rv
a
tions
H
op
e
(
P
-
h
)
2
/
H
A
_
b
_
20
9
/
16
x
50
=
28
.
125
(
20
-
28
,
125
)
2
/
28
.
125
=
2
,
374
A
_
bb
14
3
/
16
x
50
=
9
,
375
(
14
-
28
,
375
)
2
/
28
,
375
=
2
,
281
aab
_
8
3
/
16
x
50
=
9
,
375
(
8
-
28
,
375
)
2
/
28
,
735
=
0
,
201
AABB
8
1
/
16
x
50
=
0
.
833
(
8
-
28
,
833
)
2
/
28
,
833
=
7
,
605
5
.
Q
u
e
stionor t
a
sk
1
.
W
h
a
t will h
a
pp
e
n if th
e ERCIS
pl
a
nt is us
ed b
y
Me
n
de
l
B
u
a
kn th
e
r
e
sult of its own
ca
us
e
for s
e
v
e
r
a
l g
e
n
e
r
a
tions
.
A
nsw
e
r
:
W
hi
c
h will o
cc
ur
,
n
a
m
e
ly
ERCIS
pl
a
nt will not pro
d
u
ce
goo
d
offspring
a
n
d
ERCIS
pl
a
nts will pro
d
u
ce
wrinkl
e
s
a
n
d
kisut
.
2
.
E
xpl
a
in th
e
l
a
w of
Me
n
de
l
I a
n
d
th
e La
w of
Me
n
de
l
II
!
A
nsw
e
r
: -
Me
n
de
l
La
w
I
"
A
t th
e
tim
e
of forming th
e
form
a
tion of g
a
m
e
t
e
s
,
eac
h p
a
ir of g
e
n
e
s will
be
d
is
e
ggr
e
g
a
t
ed
into
eac
h g
a
m
e
t form
ed
".
-
Me
n
de
l
II
l
a
w
"
Se
gr
e
g
a
tion of
a
g
e
n
e
p
a
ir
d
o
e
s not
de
p
e
n
d
on th
e
s
e
gr
e
g
a
tion of oth
e
r g
e
n
e
s
,
so
th
a
t in th
e
g
a
m
e
t
e
s form
ed
th
e
r
e
will
be a
fr
ee
g
e
n
e c
om
b
in
a
tion s
e
l
ec
tion
."
3
.
E
xpl
a
in th
e
l
e
g
a
l r
e
l
a
t
ed Me
n
de
l
II
with m
e
iosis pro
ce
ss
A
nsw
e
r
:
Me
n
de
l
II
l
a
w
"
T
h
e
s
e
gr
e
g
a
tion of
a
g
e
n
e
p
a
ir
d
o
e
s not
de
p
e
n
d
on th
e
s
e
gr
e
g
a
tion of oth
e
r g
e
n
e
p
a
irs
,
so th
a
t in th
e
g
a
m
e
t
e
s form
ed
th
e
r
e
will
be a
fr
ee
g
e
n
-
g
e
n
c
om
b
in
a
tion
s
e
l
ec
tion
W
hil
e
th
e Me
iiosis pro
ce
ss h
a
s
a
n un
de
rst
a
n
d
ing
,
n
a
m
e
ly
,
T
h
e
m
e
iosis pro
ce
ss pro
d
u
ce
s four
ce
ll puppi
e
s th
a
t h
a
v
e
h
a
lf th
e
num
be
r of st
e
m
ce
ll
c
hromosom
e
s
(
h
a
ploi
d
).
S
o
,
if it
'
s
a
sso
c
i
a
t
ed
with th
e
r
e
l
a
tionship
be
tw
ee
n th
e
m
,
it
ca
n
be a
ppli
ed a
s
follows
:
p
a
r
e
nt
a
l
AA
> <
b
A bed
a bed
F
1
will pro
d
u
ce
offspring
AB
,
AB
,
AB
,
AB
I
n this
e
xp
e
rim
e
nt
,
m
e
iosis r
e
sults in four
ce
lls with h
a
lf th
e c
hromosom
e
num
be
r of
th
e
origin
a
l st
e
m
ce
lls
,
a
n
d
s
e
gr
e
g
a
tion o
cc
urs in
de
p
e
n
de
ntly of oth
e
r g
e
n
e
s
a
n
d
ca
n
be
fr
ee
ly o
b
s
e
rv
ed
.
I
n th
e
monohy
b
ri
d c
ross
,
Me
n
de
l
’
s r
e
sults
,
shown in
Tab
l
e
1
.
6
,
w
e
r
e
t
e
st
ed
using
c
hi
-
squ
a
r
e a
n
a
lysis to
c
onfirm if th
e d
omin
a
nt
-
to
-
r
ece
ssiv
e
r
a
tio of
3
:
1
(
3
/
4
d
omin
a
nt tr
a
its to
1
/
4
r
ece
ssiv
e
tr
a
its
)
w
a
s
c
onsist
e
nt with
Me
n
de
l
'
s
fin
d
ings
.
4
.
I
n th
e
monohy
b
ri
d e
xp
e
rim
e
nt
,
Me
n
de
l g
e
t r
e
sults
a
s in th
e
t
ab
l
e
2
.
6
.
Te
st
KHI
-
squ
a
r
ed
,
wh
e
th
e
r
eac
h of th
e
prop
e
rti
e
s o
b
t
a
in
ed b
y
Me
n
de
l
ab
ov
e acc
or
d
ing to
th
e
r
a
tio
D
omin
a
nt
Fea
tur
e
:
Rece
ssiv
e C
h
a
r
ac
t
e
risti
c
s
=
3
:
1
(
3
/
4
D
omin
a
nt
Fea
tur
e
:
1
/
4
Rece
ssiv
e C
h
a
r
ac
t
e
risti
c
s
).
A
nsw
e
r
:
Tab
l
e
2
.
6
.
FENOTIPE F
2
Me
n
de
l
e
xp
e
rim
e
nts from v
a
rious monohy
b
ri
d
prop
e
rti
e
s
N
o
Na
tur
e
D
omin
a
nt
C
.
IRI
r
ece
ssiv
e
n
e
ss
T
h
e ac
tu
a
l r
a
tio
is
d
omin
a
nt
:
r
ece
ssiv
e
1
Seed
R
oun
d
=
5474
W
rinkl
e
=
1850
2
.
96
:
1
2
Seed
s
Ye
llow
=
6022
G
r
ee
n
=
2001
3
.
01
:
1
3
P
l
a
nt h
e
ight
H
igh
=
787
S
hort
=
277
2
.
84
:
1
4
Pe
t
a
l
c
olor
P
urpl
e
=
705
W
hit
e
=
224
3
.
15
:
1
5
F
low
e
r
A
xi
a
l
=
651
Te
rmin
a
l
=
207
3
.
14
:
1
6
P
o
d
G
r
ee
n
=
428
Ye
llow
=
152
2
.
82
:
1
7
P
ol
a
rg
e
F
ull
=
882
K
isut
=
299
2
.
95
:
1
C
olor
O
oh
He
y
(
O
oh
-
h
a
)
2
/
h
a
P
urpl
e
705
697
0
,
09
W
hit
e
224
232
0
,
28
T
h
e
tot
a
l
929
929
0
,
37
X
2
=
0
.
37
I
n
c
on
c
lusion
:
if
C
hi
2
sm
a
ll
e
r th
a
n x
2
T
h
e
n th
e
l
e
g
a
l r
a
tio of
Me
n
de
l is
c
orr
ec
t
.
2
.
8
Me
n
de
l
II Le
g
a
l
D
is
c
ussion
I
n this
e
xp
e
rim
e
nt
,
w
e c
ross
ed
two tr
a
its
:
s
eed
sh
a
p
e a
n
d c
olor
.
T
h
e
r
ed
g
e
n
e
(
a
)
for roun
d
s
eed
s is
d
omin
a
nt
,
whil
e
th
e
y
e
llow g
e
n
e
(
B
)
ca
rri
e
s th
e
tr
a
it for y
e
llow
c
olor
a
n
d b
l
ac
k s
eed
s
(
b
)
a
r
e
r
ece
ssiv
e
.
W
h
e
n y
e
llow roun
d
s
eed
s
(
BBKK
)
w
e
r
e
c
ross
ed
with
b
l
ac
k roun
d
s
eed
s
(
BBKK
),
th
e F
1
g
e
n
e
r
a
tion
c
onsist
ed e
ntir
e
ly of
y
e
llow roun
d
s
eed
s
(
BBKK
),
a
s
b
oth tr
a
its
a
r
e d
omin
a
nt
.
Acc
or
d
ing to
Me
n
de
l
'
s
s
ec
on
d
l
a
w
,
th
e e
xp
ec
t
ed F
2
ph
e
notypi
c
r
a
tio is
9
:
3
:
3
:
1
.
O
ur r
e
sults from
50
s
a
mpl
e
s show
ed a
r
a
tio of
9
:
3
:
3
:
1
,
with
19
y
e
llow s
eed
s
,
12
roun
d
s
eed
s
,
2
y
e
llow
wrinkl
ed
s
eed
s
,
a
n
d
6
wrinkl
ed
s
eed
s
.
C
on
c
lusion
1
.
Red
g
e
n
e
s
a
r
e d
omin
a
nt
a
g
a
inst whit
e
g
e
n
e
s
,
so th
e
whit
e
g
e
n
e
s
a
r
e c
ov
e
r
ed b
y r
ed
g
e
n
e
s
beca
us
e
th
e
whit
e
g
e
n
e
s
a
r
e
r
ece
ssiv
e
.
I
n
F
1
it pro
d
u
ce
s
e
v
e
rything
(
100
%
)
r
ed
.
W
h
e
r
ea
s in
F
2
,
th
e c
ross
be
tw
ee
n
F
1
XF
1
,
thr
ee
typ
e
s of ph
e
notyp
e
s
a
r
e
o
b
t
a
in
ed
,
n
a
m
e
ly r
ed
-
r
ed
,
r
ed a
n
d
whit
e a
n
d
whit
e
.
W
ith g
e
notiv
e
s for r
ed
(
mm
),
r
ed a
n
d
whit
e
(
mm
),
a
n
d
whit
e
-
whit
e
(
mm
).
with
a c
omp
a
rison of ph
e
notif
1
:
2
:
1
.
C
omp
a
rison of ph
e
notyp
e
s for monohi
b
ri
d c
rossing on
F
2
is
3
:
1
.
Beca
us
e
of th
e
D
omin
a
nt r
ed
g
e
n
e
.
2
.
T
h
e La
w of
Me
n
de
l
II
is
ca
ll
ed
fr
ee
g
e
n
e
grouping l
a
w
.
Ma
rri
a
g
e
h
a
s
bee
n
de
s
c
ri
bed
with
a de
s
ce
n
da
nt with
a
ph
e
notyp
e c
omp
a
rison of
9
:
3
:
3
:
1
.
T
h
e d
omin
a
nt g
e
n
e
will
c
ov
e
r th
e
g
e
n
e
pr
e
p
a
r
ed
for r
ece
isph
e
r
e
.
T
h
e
purpos
e
of th
e
two
d
iff
e
r
e
nt
c
ross
-
prop
e
rti
e
s is to stu
d
y th
e
r
e
l
a
tionship
be
tw
ee
n
th
e
p
a
irs of
a
ll th
e
f
a
ith
.
