DECLINE AND FALL
In A.D. 410, the Visigoths sacked Rome. The scholar Jerome wrote, “A terrible
rumor had arrived from the West. Rome is besieged. . .. The city is taken which took
the whole world.”
Problems and Upheavals
Following a series of civil wars, a military government under the Severan rulers
restored order. Septimius Severus told his sons “to pay the soldiers, and ignore
everyone else,” setting the tone for the new dynasty. After the Severan rulers there
was more disorder. For almost 50 years, from 235 to 284, the Roman throne was
occupied by whoever had military strength to seize it. During this period there were 22
emperors, most of whom died violently. At the same time, the empire was troubled by
a series of invasions. In the east, the Sassanid (suh•SAH•nuhd) Persians made
inroads into Roman territory. Germanic tribes poured into the Balkans, Gaul, and
Spain. Invasions, civil wars, and plague almost caused an economic collapse in the
third century. A labor shortage created by plague— an epidemic disease—affected
both military recruiting and the economy. There was a decline in trade and small
industry. Farm production declined as crops were ravaged by invaders or the
defending Roman army. Armies were needed more than ever, but financial strains
made it difficult to enlist and pay more soldiers. By the mid-third century, the state had
to hire Germans to fight. These soldiers did not understand Roman traditions and had
little loyalty to either the empire or the emperors.
Reforms by Diocletian and Constantine
At the end of the third and the beginning of the fourth centuries, the Roman
Empire gained a new lease on life through the efforts of two emperors, Diocletian and
Constantine. The empire changed into a new state: the Late Roman Empire, which
included a new governmental structure, a rigid economic and social system, and a
new state religion—Christianity. Believing that the empire had grown too large for a
single ruler, Diocletian, who ruled from 284 to 305, divided it into four units, each with
its own ruler. Diocletian’s military power enabled him to hold ultimate authority.
Constantine, who ruled from 306 to 337, continued and even expanded the policies of
Diocletian. Constantine’s biggest project was the construction of a new capital city in
the east, on the site of the Greek city of Byzantium on the shores of the Bosporus. The
city, eventually renamed Constantinople (now I˙stanbul, Turkey), was developed for
defensive reasons because of its strategic location. The “New Rome,” Constantinople,
became the center of the Eastern Roman Empire and one of the great cities of the
world. Diocletian’s and Constantine’s political and military reforms enlarged two
institutions—the army and civil service—which drained public funds. The population
was not growing so the tax base could not be increased to pay for the army and
bureaucracy.
Both rulers devised new economic and social policies to deal with these financial
burdens. To fight inflation—a rapid increase in prices—Diocletian issued a price edict
in 301 that set wage and price controls for the empire. Despite severe penalties, it
failed. To ensure the tax base and keep the empire going despite the labor shortage,
the emperors issued edicts forcing workers to remain in their vocations. Hence, jobs,
such as bakers and shippers, became hereditary. Large landowners took advantage
of depressed agricultural conditions to enlarge their estates. In general, the economic
and social policies of Diocletian and Constantine were based on control and coercion.
Although temporarily successful, such policies in the long run stifled the very vitality
the Late Empire needed to revive its sagging fortunes.
The Fall
The restored empire of Diocletian and Constantine limped along for more than a
century. The empire continued to be divided into western and eastern parts. The
capital of the Western Roman Empire remained in Rome. Constantinople remained
the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire came under
increasing pressure from migrating Germanic tribes.
Germanic Tribes
The major breakthrough of Germanic tribes into the west came in the second half
of the fourth century. The Huns, who came from Asia, moved into eastern Europe and
put pressure on the Germanic Visigoths. The Visigoths, in turn, moved south and west,
crossed the Danube River into Roman territory, and settled down as Roman allies,
until they revolted. The Romans attempted to stop the revolt at Adrianople in 378, but
the Visigoths defeated them. Increasing numbers of Germans now crossed the
frontiers. In 410, the Visigoths sacked Rome. Another group, the Vandals, poured into
southern Spain and Africa. They crossed into Italy from northern Africa and, in 455,
they too sacked Rome. The words vandal and vandalize come from this ruthless tribe.
In 476, the western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic
head of the army. This is usually taken as the date of the fall of the Western Roman
Empire. A series of German kingdoms replaced the Western Roman Empire. The
Eastern Roman Empire, or the Byzantine Empire, however, continued to thrive with its
center at Constantinople.
Theories
Many theories have been proposed to explain the decline and fall of the Roman
Empire. They include:
1. Christianity’s emphasis on a spiritual kingdom weakened Roman military
virtues.
2. Traditional Roman values declined as non-Italians gained prominence in the
empire.
3. Lead poisoning through leaden water pipes and cups caused a mental
decline in the population.
4. Plague wiped out one-tenth of the population.
5. Rome failed to advance technologically due to slavery.
6. Rome could not create a workable political system.
There may be an element of truth in each of these theories, but history is an
intricate web of relationships, causes, and effects. No single explanation can
sufficiently explain the fall of a great empire. For example, both the Han dynasty in
China and the Roman Empire lasted for centuries. Both of these empires were able to
govern large areas of land effectively. They instituted and maintained laws and a
language. In spite of their attempts at unifying conquered territories, both empires
experienced problems that came from acquiring so much land. Both tried to protect
their borders with walls, forts, and troops. Both, however, eventually fell to new
peoples. The Han dynasty fell to the Xiongnu. The Roman army in the west was not
able to fend off the hordes of people moving into Italy and Gaul, and the Western
Roman Empire collapsed. In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, which would
survive for another thousand years, was able to withstand invaders.
