A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE OF
SECONDARY STUDENDS FROM SINGLE AND TWO-PARENT
FAMILIES IN WARENG DISTRICT.
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
This chapter highlights information and issues concerning the background of the study on the
performance of secondary students from single and two-parent families. It also highlights the
objectives of the study, scope of the research, limits of the research, definition of technical terms
and contribution of this research.
1.1Background of the study
A learner is someone who attends an educational institution. In its widest use, student is used for
anyone who is learning. They can be active learners, passive attendees, or disruptive
troublemakers. In early Europe, higher education, including secondary education began with
training in religion and philosophy. Its purpose was to prepare leaders, especially religious
leaders, and its curriculum reflected this purpose. As time passed, general topics for more
applied professions were added as part of secondary education curricula, Holsinger, (2000).
Those early European secondary schools were almost exclusively for males, focusing on
promotion of logical thinking, refined form of expression, and improved memory, Blanc.
(2010)). From nineteenth century to the Second World War, the curriculum begun to encompass
more subjects such as modern languages and literature, modern history, and scientific and
technological subjects.
The majority of day secondary schools in Kenya were originally established for urban students
and children from the Asian communities. The boarding tradition began at the turn of 20th
century by Anglican and Roman Catholic Missionaries, with an aim of adopting English public
school system to the African race. In Uganda the most important schools in the early 1900s were
boarding schools, which were meant to educate the children of the elite class (Ssekamwa, 1997).
The boarding schools had the ability to transform every part of a Ugandan student’s life through
socialization into Christian and European values.
Secondary schools are justified on Nation building grounds because they bring together students
from different regional and ethnic backgrounds. The government of Kenya has established a
number of secondary schools throughout the country and sees the need for them to continue
existing as boarding institutions (Republic of Kenya, 2005). Some of those schools should
continue to be utilized to mix young people from different parts of Kenya. As secondary
schooling expands, the case of subsidizing boarding secondary schools weakens. Schools can be
located within daily travel distances for the majority of school-age children Cowell, (2000)).
Selective boarding secondary schools are common in Africa, but can double or triple the per-
pupil cost and results in much lower enrolment rates than would otherwise the case.
According to Migimu (2002), in Uganda many secondary schools meals are frequently badly
managed or badly prepared, despite the adequacy of the diet Cowell, (2000) reported
overcrowding in dormitories in boarding schools, with sometimes double the originally intended
number of students being accommodated.
According to Dermie, (2006), there are a number of important theoretical perspectives that may
help to explain why children’s living arrangements (or family structure) may or may not be
linked to educational outcomes. From an evolutionary perspective, biological parents are more
likely to invest more in their children’s education than are other adults who are not biologically
related to the child or children. In contrast to two biological parents who invest in their
relationship with each other by investing in their children, single parents may have to choose
between investing in new relationships and in their children. Likewise, investment in children
may not be as strong in stepfamilies, compared with two biological-parent families, even though
it appears that children living with two partnered adults should have educational advantages over
children living with single parents, with these advantages going beyond the additional time and
resources that two parents bring to households.
From a resource perspective, parents provide their children valuable social and financial capital,
and these types of resources tend to be more limited in families with one parent and even more
so in families with no parents. Social capital refers to social benefits that are gained through
networks of relationships that facilitate interaction among individuals within these networks and
the exchange of knowledge, support, and other valuable resources. Within the context of the
family, social capital is typically measured by the strength of ties between family members.
Following this framework, then, parental absence may reduce family social capital by weakening
relationships between students and nonresident parents, typically fathers, and sometimes even
between the remaining resident parent and his or her children. For example, single mothers are
often less able to provide emotional support and monitor their children effectively if they are
overburdened by financial and emotional strains or are less able to balance work and family
responsibilities successfully.
Although these perspectives emphasize the benefits provided by two parents, there are also
reasons to expect that children living with just one parent, and mothers in particular, may
sometimes have an advantage over children living with two parents, resulting in better outcomes
for children in single-parent families. McLeen, (2006) Prior research suggests that female-
headed households, and households where mothers have more decision making power, tend to
make decisions in favor of child schooling in some regions of the world. In other words, when
mothers have more decision-making power, which is likely when they are single mothers,
children may be more likely to be enrolled in school, particularly if mothers place a higher value
on their children’s schooling than fathers. Since the majority of single-parent families are single-
mother families, this may reflect the experiences of many children living with one parent in low-
income countries. For instance, a number of studies in Sub-Saharan Africa have found that
students are more likely to succeed in the educational arena if they are raised in female-headed
households, compared with students raised in homes with their two biological parents, which is
partly explained by the tendency for mothers to invest greater resources, including time, money,
and emotional support to facilitate the education of their children than fathers.
According to McLeen, C. (2006) Another possibility is that family structure does not matter for
student’s educational attainment and achievement, so that students living with one or neither
parent do just as well as those living with two parents. This may occur in countries where
student’s educational opportunities are influenced by a number of other factors beyond the
family, including the type of school (public or private), school quality, the cost of schooling,
gender norms, parental health, or child nutrition. Further, there may be fewer differences based
on family structure for certain educational outcomes like school enrollment, especially in
countries where access to schooling is fairly universal, although the quality of the schools that
students attend may still differ depending on family structure and the available resources in a
family. Students in intact families tend to have greater academic achievement and educational
attainment and are less likely to exhibit behavioral problems in school.
Their parents tend to be more involved in their school activities and to have higher expectations
for them. This research focuses specifically on the link between family structure (indicated by
the number of parents students live with) and student’s secondary educational outcomes. In
looking at the evidence, it is important to recognize that families can influence student’s well-
being in diverse ways, and that other family-level factors beyond family structure may matter for
student’s well-being. Among these factors is the quality of family relationships. According to
Lewis (2006), indicates that students who live in households with married parents who fight a lot
may be less happy and have more difficulties in life when they are older than do children whose
parents experienced conflict in their marriage, but subsequently divorced. It further indicates that
students who live with their fathers, but are not close to them, experience lower self-esteem,
more delinquency, and more depressive symptoms than do students who do not live with their
fathers, but maintain a close relationship with them. Thus, it is possible that students living with
two parents may not always do better than those living with one or no parents, depending on the
quality of the relationships, and other factors within the family.
According to Baron, (1999) confirms that there is different effects of family structure on
students’ educational outcomes in high- versus low-income countries. In high-income countries,
students in single-parent and no-parent homes often fare worse educationally than do students
who live with both parents. These differences in educational outcomes by family structure have
been found across a variety of measures, including attainment of a high school diploma or
General Equivalency Diploma (GED), college attendance, performance on standardized
achievement tests, and grade point average. Family structure has also been linked to students’
engagement in school (including their feelings of attachment to the school, relationships with
teachers, and the value they place on receiving an education), which has further implications for
their educational attainment. Thus, school connectedness and perceived school relevance are two
important aspects of school engagement that may be linked to other educational outcomes, and
may explain some of the link between family structure and educational attainment.
1.4 Research Objectives
i. To examine the impact of one parent on academic performance of a student
ii. To determine the role of both parents on academic performance of a student
iii. To Age at the time of parental divorce and gender impact academic performance among
high school students
1.5 Research questions
i. What the impact of one parent on academic performance of a student?
ii. What is the role of both parents on academic performance of a student?
iii. How does the To Age at the time of parental divorce and gender impact academic
performance among high school students?
1.6 Conceptual framework
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Academic performance
Source: author 2013
Family structure
Academic performance
Social adaptation
School environment
School curriculum
1.7 Problem Statement
The most straightforward standpoint is academic performance, the main concern of which is the
excellence of any child to attain the best qualification and a better future. Family input has been
on a lower level and single parents are not spared either due to their time factor, on socializing
with the kids and same time ensuring that there is enough basic needs in the family. Half of
educational problems faced by student of single parents that do not concern income occur due to
a lack of social capital. Social capital refers to an accessible goal which individuals cannot reach
on their own, but only in a group. In terms of the academic achievement of students from single
parent households, this term refers to the guidance and supervision that parents provide to their
children in order to create educated adults Absentee parents have been inclining due to extra
marital affairs of which it affect the academic achievement of the student. There is also however
the issue of family feuds which hinders the child well being and achieving academic excellence.
Parental guidance in general has been on the decline due to neglect and abuse of the students by
the same community members whom they expect to protect. These problems should be
addressed with care because most of them touch the students and the general public on the
societal well being.
The greatest problem faced by day students was their home environment that was not conducive
to reading. Other problems includes: long distances from school, bad company at home, lack of
proper accommodation and proper diet. Educational outcomes are key indicators of children’s
well-being and their prospects for future success. Enrollment and level of achievement in school
influence how children are doing at the present time, including their cognitive, psychological,
and social development. Children’s cognitive abilities and academic achievement also set the
stage for student’s future successes, such as their employment and earnings opportunities, and
achievement in school can also affect student’s health outcomes. These varied outcomes are
important not only for an individual’s well-being, but also for the productivity and well-being of
families, communities, and nations.
1.8 Significance of the Study
This study will be of great significance. Those mandated to run the body should as such be of
impeccable character, vetted by the public and possess the will and ability to carry out their
responsibilities without fear or favor.
1.9 Scope of the Study
The study will focus on comparing the academic performance of secondary school students from
single parent families with those from non single parent families in Wareng District. Some of the
aspects to be covered in this study will include the differences in academic performance between
the two groups of students and parents role in academic well being of their children. This
information will be collected from the various stakeholders involved in educating secondary
school children.
1.10 limitation of the study
The researcher anticipates to financial constraints as a result of traversing the entire district in
search of relevant information from the respondents. However, the respondents will refrain from
rendering vital information in fear of prejudice and victimization. The researcher will overcome
this by assuring them that the information is purely for academic purposes.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Introduction
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews literature on the impact of one parent on academic performance of a
student, the role of both parents on academic performance of a student and the age at the time of
parental divorce and gender impact academic performance among high school students. The
literature is reviewed from books, journals, magazines, news papers and the internet.
2.2 Impact of one parent on academic performance of a student
According to, Ryan, (2001), Poverty affects a student’s academic achievement. The vast majority
of single parents are indeed in poverty. However, some still believe that the single parent home
poses a unique threat to students due to the lack of two parents, outside the menace of poverty.
Yet, many of the problems secondary students of single parents encounter that do not at first
seem to be caused by poverty are in fact caused by a lack of resources. These resources include
time and money, of which the single parent has little due to their low socio-economic status.
There is no doubt that student from single parent households do in fact suffer from low academic
achievement. Students from single parent homes are much more likely to receive poor grades
and eventually drop out of school, Pong (1998). Furthermore, young adults who were raised in
single parent homes often gain inferior education, employment, and economic status. It is also
clear that the negative educational effects of living in a single parent household are not caused by
the absence of a second parent. Clearly, many if not all of the academic problems faced by
children of single parents can be attributed to poverty. Take for example in the United State
alone numerous investigations have proven that students from single parent homes obtain lower
IQ and SAT scores. Moreover, these students have lower grade point averages and complete
fewer years of schooling. However, when studies of IQ, SAT scores, GPAs, and years of
schooling controlled for socio-economic status, they found the difference in academic
achievement to be hardly significant. This implies that students of the same income level, from
both one and two parent homes, achieve at the same level in school. Therefore, the factor
affecting any student’s achievement is their access to educational resources through wealth,
Baltes PB. (2003).
According to, Skinner EA, (2003), students of single parents must often drop out of school in
order to contribute to the household income. Then, even if adolescents seek higher education,
they may not be able to afford it. An inability to seek higher education pushes students of single
parents into the workforce where they stand to make much less money due to the lack of a
college degree. Some researchers believe that socio-economic status accounts for almost all of
the detriment to a single parent's student. Still, some claim that poverty only accounts for half of
the adversity student from single parent household’s encounter. The camp which believes that
only half of these problems stem from poverty is incorrect. All of the disadvantage experienced
by students from single parent households can be attributed to poverty because the half of
problems they do not accredit to poverty are in fact problems that poverty causes.
According to, Gerner, (2003) the half of educational problems faced by student of single parents
that do not concern income occur due to a lack of social capital, Dowd (2005). Social capital
refers to an accessible goal which individuals cannot reach on their own, but only in a group. In
terms of the academic achievement of students from single parent households, this term refers to
the guidance and supervision that parents provide to their children in order to create educated
adults Dowd (2005). One predictor of educational attainment and contributor to the social capital
of a child is the amount of time input by the child's parents. In single parent households, the
absence of one parent often spreads the remaining parent thin, causing them to perform many of
the tasks that the second parent would normally fulfill. Some studies have shown that children of
single mothers actually suffer more from maternal than paternal deprivation.
According to Chapman M, (2003 single mothers reported that they had less time than married
mothers to talk to their students, discuss their emotional requirements, help with homework
assignments, read to their students, and chaperone for school trips. Still, maternal deprivation is
caused by the working mothers need to support her children; to keep her children above the
poverty line.
According to, Deci EL, (2001), another contribution to social capital single parents must forfeit
due to time constraints is involvement in their student’s schooling. Single parents attend fewer
parent-teacher conferences, PTA meetings, and school assemblies. In addition, single parents
have less time to spend on supervising schoolwork (Pong 1998). Single mothers report having to
deny their children school supplies, lunches, and trips because the cost was simply too frivolous,
cutbacks in the amount of time single parents spend on their child's education are mostly caused
by the need to work enough to support their children despite lacking the second income two
parent households obtain. In order to spend more time with their children, single parents often
sacrifice time they would otherwise spend on household chores, volunteering, and personal care.
Trying to balance such a demanding life eventually takes a toll on the stress level of the single
parent. Eventually, the high stress level of the parent can be felt by the child and distract children
from simply worrying about their studies.
Poverty is extremely detrimental to childhood academic achievement. However, a lack of income
is not the only effect poverty has on the education of a child. Single parent household also lack
an important resource: time with their children. After examining the true causes behind the
limited visibility of the single parent in the life of their child, we can clearly see that poverty is at
the root of all harm caused to children's academic achievement. Researchers in the US have
consistently found adverse effects of single-parent families on the child’s educational
achievement. For example, in reviewing research results from large longitudinal data, Grolnick,
(2001), found that students from nuclear intact families had the best academic performance,
while students from alternative family types such as stepparent families and single-parent
families performed not so well. Moreover, although the effects of family types weakened a little
after background variables such as parental education and ethnicity were added into the model,
family type effects did not vanish. On the other hand, although students from stepparent families
appeared to perform better than those from single-parent families, once other background
characteristics were taken into consideration, however, performance of students from stepparent
families became indistinguishable from that of single-parent families. Han and Huang (2000)
also found that in Taiwan, children in single-parent families had a lower rate of attending college
than those from intact families.
In general, researchers attributed the disadvantage to three types of resource, economic
resources: single-parent families are often trapped in poverty or have greater economic burden,
socialization resources: single-parent families are less able to provide a good environment for
children in terms of educational involvement and educational aspiration, network resources:
single-parent families have fewer network ties for obtaining information and other types of
support related to children’s learning. In the following, we will examine each of these three
mediating factors in greater details and pay special attention to the possible benefits that co-
residing grandparents may bring, which enhance the advantage of nuclear intact families or
compensate for the deficiency experienced by single parents. It should be noted that the latter
two kinds of resources are closely related to Coleman’s concept of social capital. Many
researchers have found that a crucial reason for the disadvantage of single-parent family students
was the poor economic condition that usually accompanies this type of families, Reinherz,
(2010) found that economic conditions explained 50 % of the variation of achievement scores.
Kinard, (2010) also found that the effect of intact versus single-parent families on high school
graduation rates dropped 30 to 50% once family income was added into the model. They offered
as the explanation that, owing to lack of economic resources, children from single-parent
families had fewer accesses to books and to cultural activities that would have helped develop
their cognitive ability and intelligence, which resulted in the higher dropout rate than peers from
intact families. In Taiwan, Huang (Huang 2000) found that single-parent families had fewer
economic resources and that such families spent less on children’s education and single-father
families spent even less on education.
In order to increase economic resources, single parents could remarry and reconstitute their
families, Kathleen Lamb (2006). Stepparent families seemed to enjoy the same level of
economic resources as those in the intact families. The transition, however, may not necessarily
increase the money invested in the children.
In so far as economic resources are concerned, the addition of grandparent(s) in an intact family
might or might not be an asset to the family and therefore to the child. It is conceivable that if the
grandparent needs long-term care, the family would expend extra to cover the costs and cut back
on other things, which might include expenditures for the child’s education. On the other hand,
wealthier grandparent(s) might provide housing or bring in extra income for the family. Several
studies have found that, even though the rate of cohabitating with older parents is declining,
adult children still feels obligated to support their parents financially on intergenerational support
in Taiwan further indicated that older parents tended to live with poorer sons and received
financial support from other more resourceful children. If this is the case, then the cohabitation
of old parents in the family might not be too much a liability. It may even be a blessing for the
single parents. Older parents may ask their widowed or divorced adult children to live with them
(Tang 2002) and provide financial and material support out of their own pocket or simply
transfer the support given by other adult children, in addition to helping take care of the adult
child and grandchildren.
Socialization resources refer to parents’ or other family adults’ behavioral and psychological
involvement of children’s education. Many researchers have found that, regarding children’s
achievement, effects of socialization on children’s educational achievement were independent of
those of socioeconomic status.
According to Kathleen, (2006), Parents may be involved in children’s learning in many ways,
such as the home-based involvement of monitoring after school activities, monitoring school
studies, and advising on studying strategies; or the school-based involvement of directly
intervening in school administration by changing classes or tracks assigned for the children,
selecting teachers or talking to teachers on behalf of the child. These actions are generally found
to benefit children’s learning achievement. In fact, monitoring children’s home activities was
constantly found to be positively related to their achievement. In general, single-parents and
stepparents tended to provide less supportive parental practices for children’s. In comparison
with parents of intact families, they monitored their children less) and tended to involve less in
children’s schools, Wendy, (2006)).
2.3 Role of each parent on academic performance of a student
Parent involvement in a child's education is consistently found to be positively associated with a
child's academic performance. However, there has been little investigation of the mechanisms
that explain this association. There are two potential mechanisms of this association: the child's
perception of cognitive competence and the quality of the student-teacher relationship. This
study used a sample of 158 seven-year old participants, their mothers, and their teachers. Results
indicated a statistically significant association between parent involvement and a child's
academic performance, over and above the impact of the child's intelligence. A multiple
mediation model indicated that the child's perception of cognitive competence fully mediated the
relation between parent involvement and the child's performance on a standardized achievement
test. The quality of the student-teacher relationship fully mediated the relation between parent
involvement and teacher ratings of the child's classroom academic performance. Limitations,
future research directions, and implications for public policy initiatives were discussed.
Parent involvement and student academic performance, Parent involvement in a child's early
education is consistently found to be positively associated with a child's academic performance.
Specifically, children whose parents are more involved in their education have higher levels of
academic performance than children whose parents are involved to a lesser degree. The influence
of parent involvement on academic success has not only been noted among researchers, but also
among policy makers who have integrated efforts aimed at increasing parent involvement into
broader educational policy initiatives. Coupled with these findings of the importance of early
academic success, a child's academic success has been found to be relatively stable after early
elementary school. Therefore, it is important to examine factors that contribute to early academic
success and that are amenable to change, Lamb (2006).
According to, Jennifer, (2003) she stressed that parent-child interactions, specifically stimulating
and responsive parenting practices, are important influences on a child's academic development.
By examining specific parenting practices that are amenable to change, such as parent
involvement, and the mechanisms by which these practices influence academic performance,
programs may be developed to increase a child's academic performance. While parent
involvement has been found to be related to increased academic performance, the specific
mechanisms through which parent involvement exerts its influence on a child's academic
performance are not yet fully understood. Understanding these mechanisms would inform further
research and policy initiatives and may lead to the development of more effective intervention
programs designed to increase children's academic performance.
Parent involvement has been defined and measured in multiple ways, including activities that
parents engage in at home and at school and positive attitudes parents have towards their child's
education, school, and. The distinction between the activities parents partake in and the attitude
parents have towards education was highlighted by several recent studies. Several studies found
that increased frequency of activities was associated with higher levels of child misbehavior in
the classroom, whereas positive attitudes towards education and school were associated with the
child's increased academic performance. Dean, (2003) reported that an increase in the parent's
school activities, such as increased number of parent-teacher contacts, was associated with
worsening achievement, as increased contacts may have occurred to help the teacher manage the
child's existing behavior problems. The significance of parent attitudes toward education and
school is less well understood, although attitudes are believed to comprise a key dimension of the
relationship between parents and school, Gerner, (2003)). Parents convey attitudes about
education to their children during out-of-school hours and these attitudes are reflected in the
child's classroom behavior and in the teacher's relationship with the child and the parents.
Several methods are used to measure child academic performance, including standardized
achievement test scores, teacher ratings of academic performance, and report card grades.
Standardized achievement tests are objective instruments that assess skills and abilities children
learn through direct instruction in a variety of subject areas including reading, mathematics, and
writing (Sattler, 2001). Teacher rating scales allow teachers to rate the accuracy of the child's
academic work compared to other children in the class, and allow for ratings on a wider range of
academic tasks than examined on standardized achievement tests. Report card grades allow
teachers to report on classroom academic performance, but are used by few studies for early
elementary school children due to, among other reasons, a lack of a standardized grading system
and uniform subject areas children are evaluated on.
According to, Milling, (2010) Parent involvement is one factor that has been consistently related
to a child's increased academic performance,. While this relation between parent involvement
and a child's academic performance is well established, studies have yet to examine how parent
involvement increases a child's academic performance. The goal of the present study was to test
two variables that may mediate, or explain how, parent involvement is related to a child's
academic performance. Parent involvement was defined as the teacher's perception of “the
positive attitude parents have towards their child's education, teacher, and school. Academic
performance was measured by two methods: standardized achievement test scores and teacher
report of academic performance through rating scales. Based on previous research two possible
mechanisms, a child's perception of cognitive competence as measured by the child's report, and
the student-teacher relationship as measured by the teacher's report, were examined for their
ability to mediate the relation between parent involvement and academic performance. It was
predicted that parent involvement would no longer be a significant predictor of a child's
academic performance when the child's cognitive competence and the student-teacher
relationship were accounted for in the analyses, Reinherz, (2010).
2.4 Age at the time of parental divorce and gender impact academic performance among
high school students
An astounding 1 million children experience parental divorce each year. In the United States, one
out of every two marriages ends in divorce, with many of these marriages involving children.
Most children struggle with the difficulty involved with a divorce. According to Clarke-Stewart
and Hayward (1996), Children from divorced families are twice as likely to receive
psychological help, to skip school or get suspended, to get in trouble with the police, to drop out
of high school, to get pregnant as a teenager, to be out of work in their late teens and early
twenties, to see their own marriages end in divorce, and to experience clinically significant
psychological distress and depression in childhood and adulthood. (p. 305) Along with these
effects, children of divorce may also spend less amounts of time with both their biological
parents. This results in less parental involvement where education is concerned. Therefore,
divorce and family dynamics also impact the academic performance of adolescents (Jeynes,
2002). Parents are sometimes distracted by their own problems during a divorce; however, in
their children’s lives, parents continue to be the most significant people during their children’s
development (American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2008). Children of
divorce also interpret divorce in a way that is related to their stage of development at the time of
the divorce, Insabella, (2003).
The lasting impact of divorce on children and adolescents has become an increasingly important
topic. Divorce is culturally accepted and seems to be fairly common during this contemporary
period. For instance, more than half of new marriages in the United States end with divorce
(Spain, 2008). Many individuals remarry after divorce, and at least half of these remarriages also
end in divorce. Society, adults and children, seem to be experiencing divorce in one form or
another. “Between 40% and 50% of children born in the United States in the 1980s will
experience parental divorce before they reach the age of 18, and 35% of children will experience
the divorce and remarriage of their custodial parent, Behrens, (1999). This also shows that
second marriages have considerably higher rates of divorce than first marriages and— for
children of both first and second marriages—in these instances, they are unfortunately exposed
to yet another failed relationship, Sanders, (1999). Individuals’ home and family environment is
a key part of their everyday life. For children, it is where their emotional, cognitive, and
behavioral development begins and continues to grow through the years. Chase-Lansdale (2002)
came to the conclusion that instability in children’s family environment may cause them to have
an inability to cope with changes throughout their life. Early childhood and the adolescent years
are difficult years to endure simply because of all the drastic changes that take place. Some
different components of development that occur during these years include social bonds,
physical development, sexuality, and identity. During middle childhood and beyond, self-concept
is an important component to a healthy individual. A comprehensive sense of self may coexist
with these more differentiated assessments of self, Broderick, (2006). Children, who also
experience a divorce during these stages, add to the changes they are undergoing.
Dealing with stress from a parental divorce is overwhelming for them and very disturbing
academically. Statement of the Problem The divorce rate in the United States has significantly
increased over the past two decades. The United States also holds the largest divorce rate in the
world (Jeynes, 2002). Much attention has been focused on the impact that divorce has on the
young children, adolescents, and teenagers who are involved in this high number of divorces.
According to Bauserman (2002), children from divorced homes are not as well adjusted as
children from uninterrupted or intact homes. Jeynes (2002) supported the research by stating that
“children from intact families outperform children from single-parent homes in the academic
setting”. She also went on to state that the “advantage children from intact families have over
children from single-parent families carries on through college”. Children today are being raised
during a challenging and difficult time. Many are exposed to an environment that does not
possess a traditional family structure. During the 1970s, 85% of children in the United States
were raised by two parents; only 69% of children were raised by two parents in 2002. Also in
2008, 28% of divorced parents had at least one child below the age of 6. These numbers are
staggering and continue to show growth in the number of children who experience divorce (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2002).
The decline of children raised by two parents is more significant for certain racial groups; these
included African American children living with two parents, which dropped from 58% to 38%
during this period. This study also includes families in which one adult is not the biological
parent of the children. Research shows that more emotional issues arise when children from
parental-divorced homes reach young adulthood. According to Amato and Cheadle (2005), 25%
of children who have experienced a parental divorce enter adulthood with a severe social,
psychological, or emotional problem, in contrast to 10% of children who do not experience
parental divorce. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to provide knowledge to
educators and parents on how divorce impacts high school students academically. A study was
performed to analyze the data gathered from intact and divorced families. The research reflects
how divorce impacts high school students academically. The data were analyzed in the areas of
divorce and intact families and how each family structure affects children academically based on
their Tennessee Gateway assessment. Male and female students were compared as well as the
age at which the child experienced parental divorce.
This research is relevant because an enormous number of students in the public school system
are affected by parental divorce (Kroenlein, 2006). It is imperative that school counselors be
aware of how parental divorce affects teenagers academically (Fields, 2001). This study is
needed because many students struggle academically to graduate high school. Cumberland
County graduated only 74% of their students in 2008 (Tennessee Department of Education,
2008). This is significantly below the goal of 90%.
The lasting impact of divorce on children and adolescents has become an increasingly important
topic. Divorce is culturally accepted and is common during this era; for instance, more than half
of new marriages in the United States end with divorce. Many individuals remarry after divorce,
and at least half of these remarriages also end in divorce. Society, adults and children, seem to be
experiencing divorce in one form or another. “Between 40% and 50% of children born in the
United States in the 1980s will experience parental divorce before they reach the age of 18, and
35% of children will experience the divorce and remarriage of their custodial parent” Sanders,
1999, ). Research also shows that second marriages have considerably higher rates of divorce
than first marriages and— for children of both first and second marriages—in these instances,
they are unfortunately exposed to yet another failed relationship, Sanders, (1999). Individuals’
home and family environments are a key part of their everyday life. For a child, it is where their
emotional, cognitive, and behavioral development begins and continues to grow through the
years. Chase-Lansdale (2002) came to the conclusion that instability in children’s families
environment may cause them to have an inability to cope with changes throughout their life.
Early childhood and adolescent years are difficult times to endure simply because of all the
drastic changes taking place. Some different components of development that occur during these
years include social bonds, physical development, sexuality, and identity.
During middle childhood and beyond, self-concept is an important component to a healthy
individual, Blewitt, (2006). The differences between children from intact and divorced homes
have increased over the years. Research indicates that children from intact families do better than
children from single-parent homes in the academic setting (Jeynes, 2002). This shows that more
emotional issues arise when children from parental-divorced homes reach young adulthood than
those children from intact homes. There are data addressing the well-being of children after they
have experienced a parental divorce. These data suggest that divorce is associated with a lack of
emotional development for children some may include depressed mood, externalizing behaviors,
academic difficulty, low self-esteem, and lower social competence D’Onofrio, (2005). These
psychological changes were once focused on during a person’s earlier stages of life but now have
progressed over a long- term life span. Human development has emerged over the years and has
caught the attention of many researchers (Broderick & Blewitt, 2006). Erik Erikson has
contributed to this growth through his personality development theory. Erikson is one of the
most prominent psychoanalysts in the world, and his contributions to human traits and how they
develop have greatly affected the mental health profession. Erikson’s theories form the
theoretical orientation of this literature review because he analyzed each developmental stage a
child progresses through. I also analyze each stage of development in which a child experiences
a parental divorce and how it affects them academically. Erik Erikson is a developmental theorist
who focused on the stage theory of development and personality. He, like other developmental
psychologists, specified that late adolescence and early adulthood are times when individuals are
developing psychological independence and the configuration of intimate relationships
(Paranjpe, 2000). Erikson felt that the personality was formed through each stage. He believed
self- development began in the infant years and moved forward through the adulthood years. He
also thought that each stage had its own unique challenge and that, before moving to the next
stage, the previous one must be conquered, Broderick, (2006).
Children may develop a sense of shame and doubt if they are unable to independently use their
new motor and mental skills, Blewitt, (2006). Children who take ownership in doing things
believe that they can accomplish various tasks. They need to take ownership in small things such
as sliding, running, holding a cup, and feeding themselves in order to grow and realize that they
are capable of doing things on their own. In this stage, children may look to parents for
reassurance as they are searching for independence. Stage 3 Initiative versus guilt is the third
stage and takes place from ages 3 until 6. This is when children begin to take initiative or
responsibility to accomplish things on their own that are more grown-up. If children do not take
this responsibility, they may feel a sense of guilt for not being more mature (Kaplan, 2000).
Many times, it is easier if parents brush their children’s teeth, feed them, or even pick up their
toys. This is an example of not letting children take responsibility and learn to do things on their
own so they may have ownership of clean teeth, a full stomach, and a clean room. Educating
parents and caregivers to let young children do for them, to a certain extent, are crucial in the
developmental process and preceding the stage of I can do this.
Stage 4 Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage and usually occurs at age 6 carrying
through until age 12. This is a crucial stage because it is when a child is faced with decisions that
are affected by peers. Parents are still important in the child’s life, but peers become a constant
need at this stage. A positive and successful academic background is also critical during these
years because it lays groundwork for their educational years to follow Kroenlein, (2006). During
this developmental stage, children begin to focus on stylish clothes, hair, and makeup. They
become involved with same-sex friends. The opposite sex seems to have no significance in their
daily routines at this time. Children who experience a parental divorce during this stage often
times resent both parents and turn to their friends for support and comfort, Jeynes, (2002). Stage
5 Stage 5 is identity versus role confusion; this is considered the most vital stage in development
Kaplan, (2000). This stage begins at age 12 and lasts until age 20. An adolescent is faced with
many decisions during this stage that deal with values, beliefs, principles, and morals (Broderick
& Blewitt, 2006). This is a stage that Erikson struggled with throughout his personal life Kaplan,
(2000). Adolescents struggle most during this period of time while developing their identity
forming the concept of one’s self brings cognition into gender identity as well. Children may not
completely understand their gender until they progress logically through their middle-aged
childhood, Blewitt, (2006). Erikson explained that children are not capable of recognizing that
they may be different in some ways until the identity vs. role confusion stage. I feel this stage is
perhaps the most influential in development because it defines who the person is. Adolescents
who feel more comfortable with who they are tend to be more mentally healthy and capable of
overcoming issues that they are challenged with in the future (Kroenlein, 2006).
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the descriptions of methods that will be used to carry out the study. The
subsections includes research design, study location, target population, sampling procedures and
sample size, research instrumentation and their validity and reliability, methods of data collection
and data analysis.
3.2 Research Design
The study adopted the case study to study the comparative analysis of the performance of
secondary students from single and two-parent families. According to Lovell and Lawson (1971)
case study is concerned with conditions that already exist, practices that are held, processes that
are ongoing and trends that are developing. Case study research design is most appropriate when
the purpose of study is to create a detailed description of an issue Mugenda & Mugenda, (1999).
3.3 Location of the Study
This study will be carried out in Wareng District. This will involve parents, community
members, teachers and students.
3.4 Target Population
The total population will be 428 respondents from Wareng District. This population will cover
100parents, 150 community members, 58 teachers and 100 students. This target population will
be ideal in carrying out the study because it covers diverse range of people. However, the
researcher chose a huge number of community members because they are the most impoverished
people in this region.
3.5 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size
According to Kothari (1985), Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) and Peter (1996) in a case study; a
sample enables a researcher to gain information about the population. Gay (1992) suggests that
at least 10% of the population is a good representation where the population is large and 20%
where the population is small. The 20% of the target population of 800 respondents made a
sample size of 160 respondents.
3.5 Sampling Procedure and Sample Size
According to Kothari (1985), Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) and Peter (1996) in a case study; a
sample enables a researcher to gain information about the population. The form fours girls will
be selected because they have been in the school longer than other students; they could
understand the questionnaire items and would give appropriate responses. Gay (1992) suggests
that at least 10% of the population is a good representation where the population is large and
20% where the population is small. The 20% of the target population of 428 respondents made a
sample size of 86 respondents. Simple stratified random sampling was used to select schools
where the students sample size came from. Stratified sampling is suitable when dealing with
homogenous subgroups like schools which forms several segments or stratas. Random sampling
is then selected for each strata Mugenda & Mugenda, (1999). There were two stratas made up of
girl’s schools and mixed schools. Five schools were selected out of the 19 schools. Form four
class teacher and the head teacher participated from every school selected. The Area Education
Officer also participated in the study. The sample size therefore consisted of 89 respondents.
3.6 Data Collection Methods and Instruments
Questionnaires will be used as the main data collecting tools and used structure and unstructured
questionnaires. The selection of these tools will be guided by the nature of data that will be
collected, time available and objectives of the study.
The questionnaires will be designed and delivered to all respondents in the institution since the
questionnaires were self administered thus reduce the cost, saved time and avoided prejudice.
The questionnaire will be divided into two parts. The first part will be on personal information
and the second part will be on issues relating to employee involvement on decision making and
its effect on job satisfaction
The type of the questions asked will be both closed and open ended. The advantages of this type
of questions are the simplicity in the giving answers. Respondents with busy schedules preferred
this kind of questionnaire much of their time. The other advantage of closed questions was that
the answers given were relevant. In open ended questions space was provided for respondents to
give relevant answers. This gives respondents freedom to decide on how to express their feelings
and also makes the respondent to think before answering.
The questionnaire is considered to be effective in the study because;
i) It is uneconomical way of collecting data compared to other collection tools.
ii) Respondent rate is expected to be high less data compared to other collection
tools
iii) The presence of the researcher at the time of data collection is not necessary as
the questionnaire is self administering.
iv) Finally it can easily be used to collect data.
3.7 Validity and Reliability
3.7.1 Validity
According to Paton (2000), validity is the quality attributed to proposition or measures to the
degree to which they conform to established knowledge or truth. An attitude scale is considered
valid, for example, to the degree to which its results conform to other measures of possession of
the attitude. Validity therefore refers to the extent to which an instrument can measure what it
ought to measure. It refers to the extent to which an instrument asks the right questions in terms
of accuracy.
The researcher will discuss the items in the instrument with the supervisors, lecturers from the
department and colleagues. These people will be expected to indicate by tick or cross for every
item in the questionnaire if it measure what it is supposed to measure or not.
3.82Reliability
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (1999), the reliability of an instrument is the measure of
the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after repeated trials. In
order to test the reliability of the instrument to be used in the study, the test- retest method was
used. The questionnaire was administered twice within an interval of two weeks.
3.9 Data Analysis and Presentation
After the field work, the questionnaires will be checked for completeness to ensure that every
questionnaire will be filled. Data capturing was done using excels software. The researcher used
computer packages to analyze the data and the data was presented in form graphical, pie chars
and tables.
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APPENDIX I
QUESTIONNAIRE
I am a student at MT KENYA UNIVERSITY carrying out a research study on
“COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE OF SECONDARY
STUDENTS FROM SINGLE AND TWO-PARENT FAMILIES”. The information requested
in this questionnaire is meant for academic purposes only and shall be treated in confidence.
Kindly assist in filling in the questionnaire.
PLEASE NOTE
a. The Information given on this questionnaire will be held in strict confidence and will be used
only for the purpose of the study.
b. If any of the questions may not be appropriate to your circumstance, you are under no
obligation to answer.
SECTION A: GENERAL INFORMATION
(Please tick where appropriate)
1. What is your gender?
Male Female
2. What is your age bracket?
20-30 years 30-40 years
40-50 years above 50 years
3. Currently what are your academic qualifications?
O’ level Post Secondary Certificate
Degree Masters
SECTION B
Specific information
KEY SA-strongly agree A-agree UD-undecided D-disagree
SD-strongly disagree
1. What extent do you agree with the following statements on the impact of one parent on
academic performance of a student?
SA
A
UD
D
SD
Single motherhood cannot provide for the students needs
A single parent can’t deal with psychological needs of different
gender of a student
Single parentage leads to stress life
Students with single parents perform exceptionally well
There is exhibition of indiscipline cases
2. To what extent do you agree with the following statements on the role of both parents on
academic performance of a student?
SA A UD D SD
SD
Both parents act as a motivating factor to their children
Both parents act as role model their children at school
Students with both parents tend to be more disciplined
Students with both parents believe in their ability to perform
better
Both parents have unruly behavior due to extra pampering.
3. To what extent do you agree with the following statements on the age at the time of parental
divorce on academic performance among high school students?
SA
A
UD
D
SD
Children tend to think much about their parents thus performing
poorly
Indiscipline is examined amongst the children
There is high rate of school drop out
Girls are more affected psychologically than boys
