Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad: A
Modernist
Introduction
The modernist movement of the early 20th
century significantly altered the way literature
and art was perceived in human society. Most
themes illustrated in modernism are diverse,
difficult and disturbing to understand. Heart of
Darkness is one of the literary works embracing
modernism.
Conrad’s work in Heart of Darkness bridges the
gap between the Victorian values and the ideals
of modernism. Cobley illustrates that like most
of the Victorian predecessors, Heart of Darkness
anchors itself on the traditional principles of
heroism (16). However, the principle of heroism
is attacked in the evolving world and in spheres
away from England.
Over the ages, women and historical issues have
dominated Conrad’s exposé in Heart of
Darkness. For instance, women are seen to hold
conventional roles as arbiters of domesticity and
morality. Hence, Heart of Darkness has
represented them in this unique perspective.
These include being influential, hardworking
and having a different perception among men.
Perhaps, this uniqueness shaped the way they
contributed to the society during their time, and
their evolving roles in modern society. While
Conrad’s insinuates the characters’ experiences
for example, violence, illness and conspiracy, he
does also embody an idealistic disposition of this
issues present in modern society.
During the 18th century and upwards, African
exploration was popular among the Europeans.
Though exploration was an opportunity of
discovering new lands, it is evident that the urge
to explore Africa was compelled by reasons
other than the spirit of adventure (Davis et al,
432). We can, therefore, deduce that women had
a great impact in society, whereas the
exploration of Europeans led to the
establishment of imperialism in places where
they explored.
Discussion
Over the ages, change in the roles of women has
been observed across the world. Rather than
being home keepers, women have increasingly
taken different roles. These roles have been
changing. Though the traditional roles have been
reflected in modern society, they continue to
assert more influence and new responsibilities
overtime (Davis et al 39).
Women in different cultures had different roles
compared to men; for example, white women
were still strategists and powerful because of
their shrewd network and influence in the male
dominated business. The African woman was
viewed as a good homemaker and was
elegant. Heart of Darkness perhaps utilizes the
importance of women and the role they played
in the modernism period.
Heart of Darkness illustrates the changing role
of women in different perspectives.
Traditionally, men were regarded as the
breadwinners of the family (Cobley 136). The
society demanded them to work hard in all their
endeavors to sustain this goal. However, due to
modernity, we see the trend shifting.
Women have assumed the traditional role of men
in the society of being the breadwinners of the
family. In Heart of Darkness, Conrad portrays
women knitting black wool to earn an income.
This illustration indicates the determination of
women in the society in assuming new roles or
challenges (Damrosch and Dettmar 44).
Beauty was a common attribute which was
connected to every woman in the society.
Perhaps, this was a requirement that every
woman ought to have to attain a man’s attention.
Marlow argues the unique beauty of the native
woman. Cobley contends that she is “savage and
superb, wild-eyed and magnificent and
tempting” (293).
Marlow has been used by Conrad to explain how
men view women in society. Marlow represents
many other men who were of the opinion that
women live in the realm of their own world,
governed by rules. Marlow connects this
perception to the two women he meets in the
company’s office knitting black wool. Perhaps
symbolizes the fate that safeguards the “door of
darkness” (Conrad 15).
Women had different perceptions in the eyes of
men during the imperialistic periods. For a
white, she was viewed as a mistress, wealthy and
naïve. In Heart of Darkness, the naïve women
were mirrored in Kurtz’s Mistress; the mistress
was represented by the native African woman,
whereas Marlow’s aunt personified the wealthy
widow (Cobley 196).
The women’s perceptions reflected on how they
were treated by the society and the imperialistic
administrators. For example, Conrad notes that
society and imperialists treated a white woman
with dignity because of her status and influence
in the society (85). The native African was seen
has a mistress and was treated with statues
fitting the title (Damrosch and Dettmar 200).
Moreover, the characteristics of women during
the Victorian and postcolonial periods were
distinct (Cobley 182). The women had two sets
of characteristics: seemingly, the accepted
Victorian values and the postcolonial values.
The Victorian reading would show the Intended
as compassionate, beautiful and saintly, rightly
in mourning, even a year after Kurtz’s death.
Her innocence would suggest her purity. The
Intended would have symbolized civilization.
The mistress would show us determined, savage,
care of her loved one leaving. The African
woman would have symbolized the savage
unknown that was Africa. According to Cobley
(204) the postcolonial reading would show the
Intended as foolish, mourning a man she barely
knew.
Her innocence would suggest her naivety; her
faith based on a lie. The mistress would appear
as erotic, living on in independence without
Kurtz. The African woman here would have
symbolized Africa not in need of Britain’s
‘salvation, contrary to the British belief, based
on a lie, propaganda symbolized by the
Intended’s faith (Damrosch and Dettmar 64).
Another issue that comes out in Conrad’s work
is imperialism came about with the advent of
colonialism, a major movement which was
taking place during the 18th century across the
world (Davis et al 67). This movement did not
only occur in Africa, but also in other continents
such as Asia and Latin America.
The motivation of most European powers to
colonize was the urge to gain more wealth and
make their countries back at home stable
economically. Conrad supports this assertion has
he illustrates the colonialists were hunters of
gold and pursers of fame” (6). This illustrates
that the colonial masters pioneered new lands to
find more money and fortune overseas. The
movement led to the development of imperialist
powers in places where colonialism happened.
The novel explores Congo as the epicenter of
colonial influence and imperialism. Conrad uses
the colonialism and personifies the British
imperialism through Marlow, who recognizes
the huge amount of red on the Company’s map,
symbolizing the British protectorate. Marlow is
happy that colonialism work has been achieved.
In this case, he means the colonist has succeeded
in influencing the culture, commerce, salvation
and religion aspects of Congo society. Conrad
illustrates some of these realities by saying “I am
not disclosing any trade secrets” (118). This
suggests one of the motivations of imperialist for
colonists overseas was trade. The reality of
colonialism is symbolized through the District
Manager who takes the position of an imperialist
and the colony as a whole (Conrad 118).
In the 1890’s, Conrad notes that most of the
world’s “Dark Places” were being occupied by
European powers (6). The Europeans were
stretched, trying to find alternatives to govern
and protect the new massive and far-flung
empires. In this case, Conrad refers to dark
places as African continent.
He asserts that, it was not smooth sailing for the
European imperialists because their expansion
mission drew cracks or divisions. These cracks
caused anxiety to white men living in distant
lands of the won empires. Conrad notes this is
natural. He argues that when men are granted
permission to work outside a social
establishment of checks, balances and power;
and specifically power over other fellow beings,
they become inevitably corrupt (Conrad 20).
As evidenced from history, the Europeans use all
the means they had to ensure they secured a
colony in Africa. This meant that they could use
force and wars to entice African chiefs among
other tactics. Marlow contends that “… they
were conquerors, and for that you want only
brute force…. Is just an accident arising from
weakness of others” (Conrad 9). He continues
and says “it was just a robbery with violence”
(9). This remark indicates the nature of
colonialism. Rather than stealing they added a
fight on top of it.
Racism is a contemporary issue which has
attracted global attention. Hence, the
colonialism did not divorce it from their
colonization process. They capitalized on the
issue because they viewed themselves as
superior to other races. Marlow says that “… the
conquest of the earth meant taking away from
those people who had different complexion or
slightly flatter noses than ourselves” (Conrad 9).
Marlow is referring to the Europeans annexing
the land belonging to the black people because
they were of a different color. Hence, Marlow is
embracing racism. Marlow, in most occasions
uses racial remarks and the language which
dehumanize the blacks. For example, he says
“… a horn tooted to the right… I saw the black
people run” (Conrad 22). This suggests the
blacks were being utilized as slaves. The horn
was calling for them to react to it.
Overall, Kurtz symbolizes Europeans’ state
when they began to realize their harm to Africa
(Davis et al 112). Kurtz’s relationship with the
mistress reflects the passion for Africa by
whites, which is only temporary. His terminal
illness is a representation of the eventual death
of imperialism as they cannot adapt or respect
the existing African culture (Conrad 90).
In the end, Marlow tells Kurtz Intended that his
last words were her name. This is symbolic of
the imperialist noble act to explore and try to do
good in her honor and to African continent
respectively. Heart of Darkness illustrates the
industriousness of women through finding a
source of livelihood to support them. They are
also seen as apt strategists. Women also have
been labeled as beautiful in the novel; perhaps,
this is why men have a natural urge towards
them.
Imperialism was a major factor contributing to
European expansion interests in Africa. As Heart
of Darkness notes, European powers were much
interested in accumulating more wealth for their
countries back at home. Rather than embracing
a justice system, the imperialist created more
problems in the society (Damrosch and Dettmar
93).
As discussed in the paper, blacks were
dehumanized, race factor was common and use
of force to rule and acquire wealth was a
common phenomenon. We can learn that the
novel helps to bring out the ideals of colonialism
and independence and the changing roles of
women in society. Thus, Heart of Darkness can
be viewed as a modernist work of literature.
Works Cited
Cobley, Evelyn. Modernism and the Culture of
Efficiency: Ideology and Fiction,Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 2009. Print.
Conrad, Joseph. Heart of
Darkness. Oxford: Bibliolis Books, 2010. Print.
Damrosch, David and Dettmar Kevin J
H. Longman Anthology of British Literature,
London: Longman, 2009. Print
Davis, Paul, Harrison Gary, Johnson M David
and Crawford F John. The Bedford Anthology of
World Literature: The Modern World, 1650-The
Present. Boston/NY: Bedford/St. Martin’s,
2009. Print.
Modern Philosophers: Martin Luther,
Erasmus, Leonardo Davinci and Thomas
Biley
Introduction
Philosophy is defined as love of wisdom and has
existed for centuries. The main objective is to
enable man understand nature and its processes
in totality. In the past, religious interpretations
dominated philosophy whereas modern
philosophy is skeptic on nature. This paper
reviews selected modern philosophers and their
ideologies.
Martin Luther
A fiery critic of the Papacy doctrines, Martin
Luther believed that any good choice made by
man has to be founded on God’s principles and
not from institutions like Roman Catholic
Church, which was based on unfounded
doctrines for the sake of self gratification.
He believed the church had deliberately created
a wedge between Christians and Clergy on the
pretext that Clergies were superior in spiritual
realm compared to Christians (Baumer 184).
Ministers of God’s word must be role models to
Christianity by serving with sole purpose of
nourishing Christian souls and not for their
selfish ambitions.
There exists no difference between Clergies and
Christians because God judges them equally;
they all need to repent for them to be redeemed
of their sins (Baumer 185). He passionately
describes Christian freedom as that having
everything to do with God’s grace and not
human necessity (Baumer 188). If Christians are
to make choices based on their necessity then the
will of Satan will prevail because choices are
captives to will of God or will of Satan (Baumer
189).
Erasmus
Erasmus strongly believed that the
contemporary society faults as a consequence of
their disassociation from God’s leadership. He
points out that all members of a society
irrespective of their cadre and occupation are
only interested in self gratification in their
undertakings thereby propagating vices
(Baumer 152).
Professions took advantage of ignorance in
ordinary people by wittingly and cunningly
defending their ideologies to life. He warns that
one has to be careful to selective ideologies of
others and seek God’s intervention to religious
teachings. He blames Roman Catholic Church
for nurturing untrue doctrines.
Finally he is certain that leadership has to be
based on Christian foundations (Baumer 158).
His advice on qualities of good leadership
includes: being fair to all, educating the youth on
true Christian doctrines and good morals by
dedicated instructors.
This is true because the society today is a
product of the quality of upbringing accorded to
the young ones. If the young ones are exposed to
virtues early in life then they will exhibit them
later in life but if their foundations are based on
vices then the same will be replicated later in
their lives and to the society.
Leonardo Davinci
He was convinced that painting is superior in
respect to other arts. Through painting, a
complex intertwined process is initiated in the
painter’s mind with simple ideas which are
nurtured to produce products with great quality.
Science is full of errors and rigid since it fully
depends on manuals for references contrary to
painting which occur naturally (Baumer 139).
Paintings thus represents nature in its very finer
details unlike science which was both
mechanical in thinking and execution.
Professions based on open thinking were much
better as compared to those which were based on
routines. Leonardo DaVinci views painting as a
vital delicate process that commences with
simple ideas that are nurtured to complex
presentation and thus etched to brain more
permanently than sciences (Baumer 139).
Golden Theory
The philosopher believes that life is a process
composed of activities that are similar and
repetitive in nature as depicted by spiral patterns
appearing in a floral arrangement (Olsen 12). He
conceptualizes human life to that of a flower.
Young individuals have limited involvement
with other members of a society.
During the youthful stage, an individual has a lot
of potential as there is plenty of association with
the society. At later stages in life again
interaction mimics the pattern taken during the
young stage where interactions are limited.
There is great importance when people within
the society however much they differ in roles,
may unite for the sole purpose of executing a
worthy course. Their work should be as prudent
as the shinning of a flower.
Thomas Biley
A member of Cambridge religious reformers,
Biley noticed double speak in the Papal system
which advocated for salvation through good
deeds, whereas the lives of their clergies
depicted otherwise. The Papal church was a
centre of falsehood meant for recognition rather
than building of Christian lives (Baumer 176).
We are all equal before God irrespective of our
status and we all must repent our sins to God for
the purposes of sanctification (Baumer 177).
Concerning spiritual holiness, he advocates that
Christians base their faith on doctrines of God
rather than works of man who is skewed in the
teachings for own sake (Baumer 177). He
summarizes by acknowledging that anything
done by human beings without God’s
intervention is void (Baumer 178).
Artificial Intelligence in Post Modern
Development
Introduction
A lot of research was done to come up with the
Artificial Intelligence article for non experts.
Artificial Intelligence is by all means one of the
disciplines whose context is quite difficult to
fathom especially if you are not an expert. The
purpose of this report is to inform you of how
much work I have completed towards the
production of the article, as well as how much
work remains to be done to help people fully
appreciate the role of Artificial Intelligence in
post modern development.
Work Completed “Article for Non Experts:
Artificial Intelligence”
The article follows an outline which helps in
developing appropriate context suitable for
conveying the intended message. The outline is
also intended to help the reader get back to track
in case he or she gets confused by detailed
discussions within the main document.
The sidebar implicitly explains to the reader the
relevance of conducting research in the field of
Artificial Intelligence by quoting John smith.
Basically, the sidebar arouses curiosity among
readers by giving them a reason as to why they
should be very much concerned with what
transpires in the field of Artificial Intelligence.
The sideline compliments the sidebar by giving
precise information to the reader on other
available articles that are related to the current
article and how they can be obtained. This also
helps the readers identify with a reliable source
of information related to Artificial Intelligence.
This is followed by an introduction to the article
that explains what Artificial Intelligence is and
what it is not. The article thesis describes an
Artificially Intelligent Machine as that which is
capable of learning from experience as well as
be able to be taught.
The history of Artificial Intelligence is given in
a religious perspective to capture the sidebars
notion that the creature described in holy books
could actually be an Artificially Intelligent
machine. This helps in retaining the reader’s
curiosity apart from explaining the possibility of
both positive and negative aspects of Artificial
Intelligence. The reader is to independently
determine what aspect outweighs the other as the
article does not do this.
Work Scheduled “Article for Non Experts:
Artificial Intelligence”
The current article gives the outcome of
thorough research conducted on the history of
artificial intelligence. Evolution stages of the
discipline are discussed. The challenges
encountered and successes achieved have been
discussed.
The article ends by giving the current status of
Artificial Intelligence by reflecting on a real life
case study. The case study shows that the crucial
stage of attaining the goal of Artificial
Intelligence that is capable of altering human
destiny is no longer a pipe dream but a reality.
This is so since machines that can learn from
experience and that can be taught are being built
under a project commissioned by Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA).The next article should focus on
explaining to the non experts the positive and
negative implications of advances that are being
made in this field by DARPA.
Conclusion
The goal of the next research project will be to
discuss the industrial trends of Artificial
Intelligence and the overall social, economical
and political impact of the DARPA project once
it is fully functional. The current state of
Artificial Intelligence in astronomy will be
discussed and this will be followed by
hypothesizing on the future state of Artificial
Intelligence.
Consumerism in Weeks Linton’s Article
“Burden of the Modern Beast”
Introduction
This paper analyzes impacts of consumer-driven
society in the modern culture. Actually, Weeks
Linton wrote an article entitled “Burden of the
Modern Beast” to explain effects of consumers-
driven custom in human community. Weeks
Linton made an exciting study when he observed
that people normally carry many belongings
during commitments. Indeed, the article asserted
that many persons carry bags when moving from
one place to another or when doing different
activities.
In the modern life, people are burdened with
much stuff they carry out in their daily events.
Actually, modern human being carries much
stuff than inhabitants who lived in earlier
generation. For example, in 1900s, people who
engaged in painting profession never carried
complicated stuff. Nevertheless, in the modern
time, painting task has become so much
sophisticated due to technological advancement.
For instance, modern Laptop holders have
pouches meant to carry whole lot of stuff.
Weeks Linton viewed that human being carry
many belongings because he/she do not want to
depend on a fellow being. In fact, such things
people carry do not promote community life in
human society. Indeed, such people usually
become self dependent and isolated from others.
For instance, this is evident when modern people
engage in portable games, purchase complex
Laptop cases, Cell Phones, and IPods (Rosa &
Eschhol, 2009).
Moreover, modern human beings carry much
stuff due to the fact that they feel insecure.
Actually, people perceive that adversary is
always out to attack them. In fact, people carry
preferred devices for survival means. In
addition, Himes asserts that human life, in the
modern era, is much liquefied. Thus, they carry
belongings in order to be equipped to engage in
various activities such as family commitments,
school activities, work occupation, and leisure
time (2007).
According to Rosa & Eschhol, modern people
have become concerned whether human gains of
material richness have prepared them to acquire
happiness in life or not (2009). In fact, modern
people are not happy and contented in life.
Actually, modern people have incurred too much
cost of acquiring materialism at expense of
losing integration of community life in society.
Modern human being has attained impressive
progression in terms of global invention over the
last three decades. Indeed, people have access to
many material choices. For example, human
being has acquired efficient products such as
Whistle, Bells, and Gadgets (Fine, 2005).
Actually, people have acquired sophisticated
devices that efficiently and progressively make
human life better. However, modern human
being is not faring well simply because he/she
sets aside minimal time to share human values
with acquaintances.
Indeed, promotion of environmental and social
conscientiousness is a failed approach. Besides,
Fine opines that it is important to note that
modern people cannot segregate democracy
from capitalism (2005). Actually, capitalism
flourishes well where democracy deteriorates.
However, capitalism has over powered
democracy. At present, people refer to modern
world as democratic capitalism.
According to Rosa & Eschhol, it is inevitable
that consumerism is growing because of
increase in rationalization (2009). On the other
hand, rationalization is growing because of need
for consumerism. Actually, consumption is a
real mass phenomenon due to the fact that
people have to use goods and services in order
to exist in life. Indeed, consumerism is an
essential means of survival. In fact, people
usually use material possession in order to live.
However, rationalization is a blame for modern
consumption in human society. Indeed,
rationality has promoted people’s search for
desired aims. People normally focus on
satisfying their wants through consumerism. In
addition, Rosa & Eschhol opine that materialism
is not just objects, but a device in which human
being expects to attain visions in social status,
reputation, esteem and aspiration (2009).
Moreover, consumerism has offered a prospect
for people to display and convey their identity
(Himes, 2007). In fact, this justifies why people
hold material things. Human superficial
preoccupation to exterior manifestation of
materialism is part of blame and problem.
Modern people have been influenced into
harmful livelihood due to wickedness of
rationality (Rosa & Eschhol, 2009). Moreover,
consistent involvement in media images and
human willingness to be ahead of other people
has caused selfish attitude in people who always
aspire to acquire massive wealth more than
others.
Conclusion
People need to embrace shared human values by
abandoning cycles of purchasing and requiring
more materialism through establishing
consciously essential and legitimate natural life
in their human activities. Such attitude is
acquired through adopting Godly life.
Indeed, people need to be involved in creative
social events and resting involvement while
minimizing exposure of non-intercreative
activity and noise experience. Moreover, power
of endurance and patience is helpful to reduce
psychological depression and establish God’s
inspiration into people’s lives. In fact, people
need to explore kindness in many natural ways
rather than engaging in quest for individual
prosperity accretion.
Furthermore, consumers’ culture needs to put
their interest on mission of God rather than
material possession. Generally, the culture of
value attainment is influenced by personal
attitude and norms. These norms control
property acquisition and belief in inter and intra
personal commitment and interaction.
Modernity Development in Art of 18-20th
Centuries
Various historical periods can offer different
interpretations of modernity. For instance, one
can speak about the cultural movement led by
academic institutions. In this case, modernity
can be described as the emphasis on rationality,
skepticism, and logic (Harrison, 1994, p. 209).
Moreover, this concept implies the rejection of
mysticism and dogmatism. In turn, romanticism
and realism are aimed at showing that modernity
can be viewed as the search for new topics or
questions that have not been examined by the
representatives of the previous cultural
movements. For instance, one can speak about
emotional struggle of a person or social vices. In
turn, impressionism can be depicted as the quest
for new artistic forms or styles.
To some degree, it involves the rejection of
artistic cannons which were typical of the
classical art. Finally, one should speak about the
representatives of expressionism such as De Stijl
movement. Their interpretation implies that
modernity can be viewed as the search for utility
and simplicity, rather than pure aestheticism
(Golding, 1994, p. 129). These are the main
details that can be distinguished.
The eighteenth century art can be represented by
the painting The Death of Socrates by Jack-
Louis David. This picture was created in 1787
and it represents the academic or classical art.
Modernity is represented through the theme of
this painting, namely the last moments of a
Greek philosopher Socrates, who symbolizes
such aspects of modernity skepticism and
rationality.
In turn, the early nineteenth century can
exemplified with Joseph Turner’s
picture Eruption of Vesuvius painted in 1817. It
should be noted that Romantic artists often
focused on natural disasters as a method of
reflecting the emotional state of a person (Facos,
2011, p. 81). Thus, in this case, the subject
matter and its connotations are important for
illustrating the main aspects of modernity. In
particular, one should speak about the search for
new themes or motifs.
In turn, one can look at Camille Pissarro’s
painting Boulevard Montmartre which was
created in 1897. While examining this work of
art, one should speak about the innovative
techniques used by the author. For instance, it is
possible to mention the use of paste paints which
enable the artist to create a unique palette
(Dorra, 1994). In turn, one should keep in mind
that the emphasis on the new artistic techniques
is an important element of modernity. This issue
was particularly relevant for artists like Camille
Pissarro.
In turn, one can also speak about the
picture Composition VII created by Theo van
Doesburg in 1917. While analyzing this work of
art, one should focus on the prevalence of
straight lines, rectangular forms, and the use of
very few colors. It should be noted that the
representatives of De Stijl movement laid stress
on utility and simplicity as the main components
of modernity. Thus, one can argue that
modernity manifests itself in the techniques used
by the author. Overall, this approach to
modernity was particularly prominent in the
early twentieth century.
On the whole, this discussion indicate that the
notion of modernity has several dimensions such
as the rejection of dogmatism, the search of new
themes and techniques, and even radical
rejection of the previous artistic or cultural
canons. In turn, the artistic works discussed in
this paper show how the concept of modernity
evolved during the span of several centuries.
Moreover, they throw light on the main values
of people who represented different cultural
movements.
The Internet as the Heart of Modern
Civilization
Introduction
Modern technologies have led to the
development of the internet. The internet is
currently important because it has resulted in
enormous changes in the way human beings
exchange ideas, communicate, shop, and even
work. The internet has made the world a very
small village thereby promoting economic
development and information broadcasting.
The use of the internet is changing the world at
a fascinating rate. Modern civilization is taking
shape through the internet and
telecommunications. With this in mind, this
essay explains the idea that the internet is
currently the heart of modern
telecommunication. Telecommunications are
the nervous system and circulatory system of
this whole process.
The Internet as the Heart of Modern
Civilization
It is without doubts that the internet is bringing
enormous changes in our world. Because of this,
many people have agreed that the internet has
continued to have enormous impacts on the lives
of many people today. The first instance of
civilization is the way people communicate.
Communication is one of the primary uses of
modern technologies including the internet. The
world has witnessed the increasing benefits of
the internet through the quality and frequency of
human interaction and interpersonal relations.
People are now communicating easily and
comfortable because of the internet (Gorp, 2007,
p. 27). Proper communication leads to societal
integrations thereby resulting satisfaction and
happiness.
In business, activities such as transportation and
communication are relevant towards the success
of the organization. Modern civilization has
promoted the way business partners exchange
ideas and information. The civilization process
is also promoting transportation and logistics
among businesses partners. With the internet, it
is easier to communicate instantly thereby
determine the products to be transported and the
time they should be delivered.
The internet is therefore playing an enormous
role towards new civilization (Targowski, 2008,
p. 8). When organizations, people, and
businesses are communicating effectively and
instantly, it becomes possible to promote the
best ideas and strategies. This will definitely
promote civilization as it is happening in the
world today.
Information is necessary if we are to achieve
new ideas and promote civilization. The internet
is currently providing doctors, scientists,
architects and engineers with immediate
information in their specific fields. The
information is necessary because it is helping
them advance their ideas and understanding
about the subject (Targowski, 2008, p. 14).
This development is increasing the potential to
address most of the problems faced in the
different fields of study. The result is that society
has become very civilized and developed. These
are the positive results of internet use. Students
in different colleges and institutions are finding
the internet effective in exchanging information
and technologies. This has improved the speed
at which our world is becoming civilized.
Civilization has a unique relationship with
globalization. The world is becoming small
because people are finding it easier to
communicate and exchange their views across
the globe. Some of the unique characteristics of
globalization include fast exchange of
information, improvement of trade, and
promotion of policies with global relevance.
Different countries are now shifting to global
business because of the services provided by
modern technologies.
The internet is making it possible to send
notifications and e-mails (Gorp, 2007, p. 42).
The ability to communicate is a backbone
towards civilization. The internet has connected
all the nations in the world. This has increased
the level of communication and integration. As
a result, the information exchanged through the
internet provides businesses, learning
institutions, and organizations with resourceful
ideas and information used to promote modern
civilization.
Globalization is also defining new ways of doing
business and addressing global problems.
Currently we have different societies getting
global support through the available means of
communication. The internet is making it easier
to communicate, implement policies and offer
educational support to different individuals
(King, 2009, p. 48). This has empowered the
societies thereby addressing most of the
problems addressing them.
The internet is making most of the information
in the developed nations available to the
underdeveloped societies. With this information,
these nations are relying on the available ideas
to promote their activities in agriculture,
management of the economy, and
implementation of policies capable of
promoting sustainability.
Because of this, the rate at which our world
continues to get civilized is very interesting.
Most of the modern technologies such as
computer innovations and movie productions
rely on the internet for development. The
invention of the internet is currently presenting
new strategies whereby companies are
marketing their products and delivering them to
their clients (Spielvogel, 2008, p. 48).
This has improved international and local
businesses thus developing different economies
in the world. Although different technologies are
not related to the internet, it is agreeable that the
technology has made it possible for such
civilizations to be realized. This is because
different scientists and engineers are relying
different methods of communication to
exchange their skills and promote the best
practices that will promote economic prosperity.
The social media emerging from internet use has
made it possible for individuals to interact and
exchange their ideas to promote civilization.
With this in mind, different people have relied
on the advantages of the internet to
communicate, develop, and promote the best
incentives capable of presenting global
civilization (Mumford, 2010, p. 63). The
internet has become the heart of the new
civilization emerging in the world today.
With the internet, different successes have
occurred in various sectors of the economy such
as market, communication, transportation, and
production industries. With these developments
in place, the world easily fighting most of the
hardships and challenges faced in different
societies such as inequality and poverty.
In our world today, modern civilization does not
depend on the integrity of architectural designs
and landscapes. This is based on the way people
communicate and exchange their concepts and
ideas. With the internet, it is now possible to
communicate and explore the best concepts that
will lead to better human integration.
New civilizations are continuing to make human
life comfortable and enjoyable than ever before
(Mozaffari, 2012, p. 15). Currently, the number
of people relying on the internet is growing at an
amazing rate. With this trend, the world will get
more civilized and improve the way we address
most of the problems and challenges faced in
life.
Through social media, communication is
becoming meaningful and instant. As a result,
the balance of power in the global village is
shifting due to the effects on communication.
Through the internet, different societies have
exchanged their views thereby bringing down
most of the regimes that seem to oppress them
(Mumford, 2010, p. 19).
A good example is the revolution that took place
in Libya. The revolution ended to a regime that
had oppressed the country. The effects of social
media on modern communication is currently
shifting balance of power in our global village.
As more people continue to rely on the internet,
it becomes easier to address the problems faced
in the society and lead to new developments and
civilization.
The internet and telecommunications have
developed together. With the internet being the
heart of civilization today, telecommunications
are the nervous system and circulatory system of
this wave of modernity. The modern means of
communication such as computers and phones
are effective in enabling communication today.
These telecommunication devices also support
internet-based applications thereby making
communication possible.
Many people are today relying on different
telecommunications to exchange ideas and
knowledge thereby making it possible to
become civilized (Mozaffari, 2012, p. 12). These
technologies have improved different methods
of communication through which different
societies have achieved greater developments in
the economy. The internet and
telecommunication form a synergistic structure
capable of improving human advancement and
The internet is presently the heart of human
civilization. Many people are relying on the
internet to promote economic activities,
exchange ideas, and communicate amongst
themselves. The internet educates and informs
many people about the changes in the society.
Through the internet, the human race has
become highly civilized thereby addressing
most of the challenges facing them. The internet
is used hand-in-hand with telecommunications.
This is the reason different forms of
communication are the nervous system of this
new civilization. If the world is to be civilized
and be able to address the economic and social
problems faced today, there is need to embrace
the benefits of the internet because this will
ensure the economic progress of the world. It is
also necessary to promote different forms of
telecommunications because they will promote
human civilization.
The Difference Between Art Deco and
Depression Modern Design
Confusion about Art Deco and Depression styles
is common even among scholars who fail to
notice the significant differences in the artistic
directions. Art Deco is a French stylistic trend
that stems from the Lalique, Art Noveau, and
works of the famous artist Picasso. In contrast,
the Depression style presents the difficulties of
poor mental states of working people and seeks
for them to find comfort in Depression art.
Overall, even though the aforementioned artistic
directions are sometimes mixed into the Deco
style, they are entirely different and carry
distinct meanings to society.
To elaborate, the styles are dissimilar in their
primary characteristics, materials, colors, and
shapes. Thus, Art Deco is more provocative with
bright tones and attractive ornaments, such as
triangles, zigzags, and even trapezoids. This
direction is loud and eye-catching, considering
that the art is in some way chaotic with all its
different motives and influences, but still
beyond outstanding. Furthermore, Art Deco is
about manufactured materials when it comes to
sculpture and architecture, which is evident from
the interior of Radio City Music Hall at the
Rockefeller Center (Soren, 2018).
In contrast, the Depression direction pertains to
negative or melancholic feelings, as presented in
the design of Hotel Ambassador in Bucharest
(Soren, 2018). Moreover, the art is rather
minimalistic and less provocative compared to
Art Deco since it does not particularly burst with
color and countless geometric influences. In
fact, as the founder of the Depression style,
Raymond Loewy, says, the style is appropriately
balanced between the lack and outburst of detail
(Soren, 2018). By and whole, Art Deco and
Depression differ in their characteristics and
their meanings as they bring unlike messages to
the viewers.
Arts and Crafts Movement and Modernism
In “The Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain,”
Crawford reviews the design and ideas behind
the movement, trying to “explain why
collaborative attempts at the Unity of Art did not
come to much” (15).
The movement, with its Romantic sense of the
past, strove to separate itself from the world by
counter-distinguishing the Unity of Art and
professionalism, Joy in Labor and factories,
Design Reform and commercial taste; it became
the last period of Romanticism, or anti-
modernism (Crawford 24). While he cites the
link between the movement and socialism, he
states that it is not a political affiliation per se,
but a sense of creating without being motivated
by profit—of social responsibility.
Crawford gives a very thorough account of the
Arts and Crafts movement in Britain, and clearly
states its strengths and weaknesses, but he
cannot claim to be unbiased. It is clear that the
author somewhat idealizes the campaign, freely
explaining away some of its questionable
attributes.
Winter starts “The Arts and Crafts as a Social
Movement” by calling attention to the failure of
the Arts and Crafts movement just before World
War I. Numerous Arts and Crafts societies had
completely wound down by 1920 (Winter 36).
All of the movement’s areas of work suffered a
decline in quality, most notably architecture, due
to increased wealth of the middle-class, and the
spiritual nature of the campaign. Winter draws
parallels between the Arts and Crafts movement
and Progressivism as a whole, saying that
Morris attempted to “revive the Protestant work
ethic without Protestantism” (Winter 36).
Like Progressivism, it also didn’t have any plan
for social regeneration, other than vague
Protestant and socialistic overtures. Though
various artists shed light on the drawbacks of the
movements, it was susceptible to Utopian
aspirations.
Winter states in the beginning that he is not
unbiased toward the Arts and Crafts movement,
and yet his article gives a lot of thought to the
weaknesses and failures of the movement.
Winter concentrates on the individual input of
the movement’s notable artists, giving it a more
personal and diverse outlook.
In “Designing for Democracy: Modernism and
Its Utopias,” Barter describes modernism as “an
extended revolution” (7) that emphasizes
everything new, a collection of related styles
drawing from the Arts and Crafts movement.
The author describes the philosophy and
background of the movement, how a new
generation reached toward new materials and
the idea of simpler, more affordable design.
Modernist futurism was equally as Utopian as
the Arts and Crafts movement, striving to bring
higher standards of living for all.
The author discusses American modernism, its
history, and social uses, with skyscrapers as a
“compelling symbol of a modern American
culture that was driven and shaped by the forces
of industry” (Barter 11). In the end, modernism
became an impersonal symbol of corporate
power in the United States, and a symbol of
prosperity in a consumer society.
Barter gives a clear and extensive analysis of
modernism in both Europe and the United
States. While the author clearly favors the
modernism in the United States in his article,
showing himself somewhat enamored with the
concept behind it, he portrays its failures without
bias.
Tschichold’s The New Typography is a
publication about the New Typography
movement that rejected traditional text
placement. The book is made up of two major
parts. In the first part, the author examines the
historical roots of the movement and promotes
its use. While all parts of the text are connected
by value and context, it should be a
typographer’s goal “to express this relationship
clearly and visibly through type sizes and
weight, arrangement of lines, use of color,
photography” (Tschichold 3). In the second part
of the publication, Tschichold discusses the
practical aspects of the idea.
In the “Introduction to the English-Language
Edition” that accompanies the text, Robin
Kinross hails it “as the best single document of
and about the New Typography” (Tschichold
XV). He briefly describes Tschichold’s life
before and after publication, and the realities
that typographers of the German world were
facing. Kinross discusses the main principles of
the movement and mentions main objections.
Kinross’ introduction to The New Typography is
a perfect introduction to an outdated publication.
By giving the book’s and the author’s historical
and cultural background, Kinross highlights
why The New Typography was a revolutionary
break-through in typography of its time. Starting
the introduction with Tschichold’s biography is
a well-calculated move, aimed at making the
reader take a more personal look at the material.
The only aspect that doesn’t seem to be fully
revealed is the opposition to the New
Typography movement, which makes the
introduction look rather one-sided.
The book Cultural Criticism: A Primer of Key
Concepts by Berger is a valuable introductory
text that presents a wide variety of theories and
concepts, such as literary theory, Marxism,
semiotics, and psychoanalytical and
sociological theories, in the context of cultural
criticism.
In the fourth chapter, Berger discusses the basic
concepts of semiotics, “the science of signs”
(73), sign functioning according to Peirce’s and
Saussure’s systems, and the differences between
index, sign, and symbol definitions in those
systems. Berger gives definitions of
connotation, denotation, metaphor, metonymy,
and their subcategories, along with the opinions
of various authors on their purpose in the
language.
Cultural Criticism: A Primer of Key
Concepts by Berger is the most academic, in
comparison to the works above. It approaches
semiotics as a concept that can be, and is, widely
used in all types of art in everyday life.
Consequently, Berger gives the reader a
fascinating outlook on the choice of symbols in
both the Arts and Crafts movement and
modernism.
The History of Modernism Era: The Modern
Philosophy of Art
Introduction
Modernism is a historical art term that refers to
the period between 1860 and 1970. Modernism
is used for the description of the style and ideas
of a work of art that was produced during this
period or era of modernism. This term is also
used to describe modern art which brings about
the controversy existing in modernism on what
should be referred to as modernism. According
to some scholars, the idea of modernism
primarily depends on the expressiveness and
creativity of the individual. Considering this
idea, modernism specifically can be thought of
as referring to the modern philosophy of art.
This paper looks at the term modernism in the
architectural work during the 1920 and 1960
periods in both America and Europe. (Fred,
1996)
Main body
In the mid 19th century, the idea of modernism
had raised concern in Europe with the
emergency of a new canvas painting by Edouard
Manet. His paintings were offensive according
to the majority in the society, however, Manet
was interested in the exploration of a new
subject matter with new values in painterly and
new spatial relationships. As a result, he
produced modernist works of paintings. The
pictures he painted were offensive and in the
first exhibition, many people were upset to see
the pictures. Modernism can be attributed deeper
in history with such paintings which depicted the
contemporary societal changes.
Modernism in the 1920 – 1960 period can be
grouped in the second generation of modernism
whereby a popular culture had been established
as a result of increased urbanization settlement.
Urbanization became the source of ideas to cope
with the contemporary challenges that continued
to face the community in urban lifestyles. In
America, the humorist young writers like
Dorothy Parker, S.J. Perelman Robert Benchley,
and several others began to write work of art that
was not derived from modernism. These works
of art and writings were purely derived from the
realities of high culture. This period of
modernism proved the idea of modernism
especially from mass production that had taken
a lead during this time.
In Europe, Modern ideas started to appear in
commercials as well as logos for example the
London underground logo that was famous
during the times that was designed by Edward
Johnston. The underground logo showed clearly
the underground railway tunnel in the history of
Europe that was designed in the year 1919. He
expressed the idea of modernism by portraying
the underground railway tunnel which however
has about 45% of the railway above the surface.
The logo was a clear commercial that is
memorable and easily recognizable. Marxism
also influenced modernism, this came right after
the First World War with ideas of political
demise in most of the states and nations in the
world. The neoclassicism of 1920 was
represented by T.S Elliot and Igor Stravinsky
that rejected the solution of popularism to
modern problems. Radicalization of a
generation in the modern era was also moved by
Fascism and the great depression in America.
(Eystensson, 1999)
The ideas of modernism can be attributed greatly
to the individual’s perspectives. In the art of the
20th century, they are characterized by a
common theme especially romanticism. The
paintings and the sculptures seen in the
exhibition portray a common theme. This idea of
modernism is therefore not restricted to an era
but is open to individual expression and
creativity. There is great similarity in the works
of art and architecture during the 19th century
and the 20th century. Categorizing a certain time
as modernism will be disagreeable because the
similarities and expressions of the artists do not
differ and only portray their inner views on the
contemporary issues and creative works that are
modern at their time.
The most prominent change in the second
generation of modernism is the adoption of
objects in the increased production of goods.
The changes in technological innovations also
influence the work of art although it does not
disorient the artists to totally different themes.
Modernism is as old as the work of art and can
be attributed in America through the societal and
political changes that have taken different
courses in different times.
For example, in this period, 1920 and 1960, in
America threatening cases of racism against the
blacks was associated by artists with the slave
trade of the 18th century. The artists are also
suppressed by fears in expressing their ideas
often use symbolism and creativity in expressing
some of the sensitive ideas. (Crouch, 2000)
After the Second World War, modernism was
affected, the capitals of Europe had been
deserted by famous artists for security purposes
and most of them settled in New York, America,
where they could freely express their attitude
and ideas towards different aspects and ideas. In
Paris which was by then the center for European
Culture, the art climate was destroyed and the
modernism ideas were not widely expressed as
in America. Only a few artists like Pablo
Picasso, Pierre Bonnard, and Henri Matisse
remained in France and survived as most
perished. They later produced paintings about
the issues that were pressing such as war;
romanticism that differed from their friends who
had fled the city.
Conclusion
Artistic works took a different turn in the mid-
1950 and 1960 where nudity in painting and
performing arts was emphasized by artists. The
performances by various artists with relatives
and friends incorporated exercises in absurdity,
costuming, and physicality. Robert Whitman,
Jim Dine, Allan Kaprow, and Red Grooms were
major participants and performers in these
happenings. They expressed their ideas as
modern in modernist works of art. Modernism,
therefore, is a function of an individual’s
expression of idea and creativity and cannot be
restricted to just a given period. In the 21st
century, modernism is at its peak with artists
having different ways of expressing their ideas
through music, performing arts that have been
enhanced through education and technology.
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