Modern Ceramic Art Beatrice Wood and Bernard Leach

Modern Ceramic Art: Beatrice Wood and

Bernard Leach

Introduction

Ceramic art is a form of art with a long history

in many parts of the world. It refers to making

object such as tableware, tiles and figures from

clay and other raw materials through the pottery

process. The products that result from this

process are categorized as fine art, decorative,

industrial or applied art and the archeologists

refer to them simply as artifacts.

The word ceramic is derived from a Greek word

“keramos” or potter’s clay which means the

objects are made from clay and burned in a kiln

to get the finished product. With technological

development, new processes have been adopted

to make ceramic objects, and the term are now

used to refer to a broad array of objects made of

many materials such as glass and cements and,

therefore, clay is no longer the key constituent

(Byars, 2004).

Though other materials have been adopted to

replace clay in making ceramics, there is no

difference between pottery and ceramics as

Peterson (2000) says.

They both use the basic process of forming,

firing or baking in a kiln. Campbell (2006) says

that fine art ceramics or pottery is different from

crafts in that fine arts are artistic objects of

ceramic or pottery made for their visual or

aesthetic appeal while crafts, though they might

be visually appealing, are functional and made

primarily using a formula or a technique.

However, these definitions are not absolute as

some works can be both aesthetic and

functional. Applied art, on the other hand, refers

to artistically designed and produced objects that

have functional value for everyday use. These

could be machine produced with a design, which

makes it easy to use and more attractive; or they

could be made individually by a skilled artist or

skilled workers for aesthetics and functionality.

Pottery was the earliest form of ceramic art

where ports were made by the coiling method

and modeled into shapes with smooth walls.

Decorating of clay work was found in

archeological works of many civilizations.

Ceramic art is associated with the prestigious,

modern sculpture and metalwork. The early

Ancient and Chinese and Roman era’s had their

ceramics incorporating both ceramic-ware and

pottery.

These were common in forms of containers such

as vessels, tableware, and bowls, also in

figurines which were extremely common. The

Venus of Dolni Vestonice, which is a statute of a

nude female, is considered the earliest known

fine art ceramic sculpture found in the Czech

Republic.

The celadon glaze, which was first made during

the Han Dynasty between 206 BCE and 220 CE,

made Chinese ceramics highly exceptional. This

technique involved creating a high-iron mixture

which, during firing would produce various

shades of green (Campbell 2006).

In modern ceramic art, artists such as Beatrice

Wood, American artists experimented and

developed a unique form of luster-glaze

technique during her career spanning from

1930s to 1998 when she died at the age of 105.

Another modern artist is Bernard Leach whose

work emerged as the standard for gauging other

works (Peterson, 2000).

Beatrice Wood

Early life

She was a prominent modern artist, craftsperson

and writer known for her shimmering pots and

her long, remarkable life spanning the course of

the 20th century with her work being inspired by

the figures that shaped her life. She combined a

wide range of influences in her work such as the

spirit of Dadaism, modernity, Eastern

philosophy, folk art and ornament of ethnic

jewelry, which made her work unique.

Before she discovered her true vocation at the

age of 40 years, she had engaged in painting,

drawing, writing and theatre. This led her to

many places where she met many people and got

many experiences, things that are all reflected in

her ceramic works (Naumann, 1997).

Beatrice Wood was born in San Francisco to a

wealthy and aristocratic family in 1893. At the

age of five years, the family moved to New York

City and her family especially her mother started

preparing her for her ultimate “coming out” into

New York society.

For this reason, she was sent to the convent in

Paris for a year beside an enrollment to a stylish

finishing school and summer trips to Europe

where she visited art galleries, museums and

theatre.

She was widely exposed to art and yearned to

run away to France which charted the direction

of her life as she thwarted her mother plans for

“coming out” into the society and leading a

structured life of the aristocratic and proper lady

as expected of her.

In 1912, the year she was supposed to come out

at the age of 16, she rejected the coming out

party organized for her and announced that she

wanted to be a painter. Her mother decided that

if that was what she wanted, it would be done

properly, so she was sent to France to study

painting at the Academy Julian in Paris albeit

with a chaperon.

She soon got bored with the school and moved

to Giverny, the home town of Monet, and started

painting on canvasses in an attic. Her mother

soon arrived in France and into her attic and

dragged her to Paris where her attention shifted

to theatre (Naumann, 1997).

Beatrice’s mother again wanted things to be

done properly. She thus enrolled her for private

lessons in acting and dancing with the members

of the Comedie-francaise. It was during this time

that her famous appearance on stage with

leading stars then, such as Sarah Bernhardt

happened. Her Paris theatre career was short-

lived as political turmoil’s and onset of World

War I in Europe appeared, and she had to return

to New York.

Despite her mother discouragement to continue

a stage career in New York, Beatrice went ahead

and joined the French National Repertory

Theatre mainly due to her fluency in French.

She played over sixty roles in the ingénue under

an assumed name, Mademoiselle Patricia, to

protect her family’s name and reputation. The

inspiration for this theatre career was mainly to

earn money and become independent from her

interfering family (Peterson, 2000).

It is during this period of her acting in New York

that she met Marcel Duchamp through a friend

and hit it off quickly. Marcel Duchamp was a

famous painter and his work such Nude

Descending a Staircase considered as the

modern influence on modernization of painting.

Through Duchamp, Beatrice also met Henri-

Pierre Roche who was a renowned writer,

diplomat and art collector and the three of them

became close friends. This friendship also

inspired, influenced and encouraged her in her

creative pursuits.

They also introduced her to the Bohemian

lifestyle where bourgeois morality was not a

topic for much thought as they were lovers and

friends whose in Beatrice’s own words wanted

to be as close physically as they were emotional

(Naumann, 1997).

Beatrice was soon to find herself in the New

York Dada group under the patronage of Walter

and Louise Arensberg. The Arensberg hosted

frequent high class social gatherings in their

lavish art adorned home, where the three friends

spent lively evenings.

This was essentially an intellectual bohemian

group comprising of modern artists and art

collectors such as Edgard Varese, Mina Loy,

Charles Demuth and Joseph Stella among

others. In this group, Beatrice was inspired to

paint and started her painting career around this

period. They worked together with Duchamp in

his studio, and he published her work in a

magazine.

She developed her lifelong unique style of

spontaneous sketching and painting that marks

her work (Dietz, 2003). She exhibited her work

in the independence exhibition that was

organized by the newly formed Society of

Independent Artists in 1917.

Her work created an outrage together with that

of his friend Duchamp, but in an essay to the The

Blind Man journal, she defended the work which

became an icon of modern art.

By this time, Beatrice had already tired of her

mother’s interference on her acting, and in 1918,

she ran away to Montreal, Canada and continued

to act. She married a theatre manager named

Paul, a marriage that lasted three years.

After losing interest in theatre, she went back to

New York to find her friends had gone and the

Dada group dissolved. It is during this time that

she met Dr Annie Besant of the Theosophical

Society and Jiddu Krishnamurti and moved to

Los Angeles to start a new life close to her

friends, the Arsenburgs and Krishnamurti

(Naumann, 1997).

Becoming a potter

Beatrice accompanied her friend Krishnamurti

to Holland where he went occasionally to speak

with the Theosophical Society regularly. While

there she bought a beautiful set of baroque

dessert plates with an excellent luster. She

wanted a tea pot to match but could not find it;

it marked the most extraordinary phase of her

life as she took an interest in pottery.

She was determined she would be the one to

make a matching pot for her plates and enrolled

into a ceramic course at Hollywood High School

in 1933. She painstakingly learned the glaze

chemistry and throwing pots and a short time

later opened her first artisan shop on Sunset

Boulevard where she made and sold her

ceramics.

At first it was a way of surviving since she

brought no money from home, but she also

realized her avenue for artistic interests and

energy. Her mastery and inspiration for pottery

and the art of glazing came from her teacher

Glen Lukens who was a renowned artist and

teacher, and from her most influential mentors,

Gertrud and Otto Natzler whom she met through

Lukens.

The Natzlers were famous for their refined skills

and technical knowledge in glazing which they

patiently shared with Wood. Her career started

to take off after some time which created a rift

between her and the Natzlers as they thought she

was using their forms and glazes, but critics say

that her work is remarkably different from the

Natzlers.

Her work is said to be loose, unconventional,

experimental in form and glaze combination and

coincidental as compared to the Natzlers’ based

on mastery of technique. This relationship was

never mended, and as Wood say she was always

saddened by this (Peterson, 2000).

By 1947, Wood’s work had been exhibited at the

Los Angeles County Museum of Art and

Metropolitan Museum of Art on New York. She

was also selling to leading departmental stores

such as Gumps, Marshal Fields and Neiman

Marcus and due to this success she decided to

settle permanently in Ojai, a neighborhood with

many artists and actors including her friend

Krishnamurti.

Her friendship with Vivika and Otto Heino also

contributed to her success in pottery as they

taught her mastery of throwing and shared their

knowledge and skills in Glazing. While she

moved to Ojai she also started teaching ceramics

at Happy Valley School (Dietz, 2003).

Wood was a exceptionally fun of Krishnamurti,

her friend and neighbor, and read many of his

books as well as listened many of his speeches

in Europe.

This influenced her outlook on life as well as

other experiences of her life. All these

experiences were in evidence in her ceramics

that combined the positivity of the East, a strong

ethical work, a Dadaist sense of romance and

humor in view of life to produce stunning unique

creations. This also is the reason she never

retired and worked in her studio until at the age

of 104 (Campbell, 2006).

In 1974 she built a house on the grounds of

Happy Valley Foundation in Ojai. On this 450

acre, parcel of land, wood built not only a home

but also a studio where a wide collection of her

own work, a library and collection of Folk art

still is on display and which was left to the

Happy Valley Foundation. Her ceramics of

bowls, vessels and sculpture, have a significant

influence on modern art.

Critics also say that these works also drift her

work from art and craft fields as much as they

influenced them. As much as Wood’s works fall

under craft, design and decorative arts, their

figurative nature also embraced a deliberate

sense of naivety that is unique to her.

They bring out her composition that is connected

with her wide range of modes of self-expression

from folk art to Dadaism that had gained

acceptance by other ceramicists over the year.

This unconventional quality in her works

claiming to be deliberate, was influenced by

Marcel Duchamp as she acknowledged.

This fact is demonstrated during a 1961

exhibition which was held in Japan where a

Japanese commented on the use of color of their

works. She told the Japanese that she was not

Japanese, and she lived in a pink and blue house

in bright sunlight demonstrating her artistic

freedom (Naumann, 1997).

Another inspiration for her work came from

Indian art, which influenced her use of surfaces

textures, color, ornamentation and erotic

imagery as Peterson (2000) says. Her love for

India began in 1961 when she visited the country

on a tour organized by the State department.

She would return a second time in 1965 to pouch

for a manager named Ram Pravesh Singh who

was the State Department employee and who

served her for twenty five years. In 1972, she

went to India on a third time and came home

with a wide range of folk art collection and saris.

Her love affair with India also influenced her

personal style in dressing and jewelry.

In her late eighties, Wood become a writer when

she published her first book, The Angel in Black

Tights followed by her autobiography, I Shock

Myself and then Pinching Spaniards and finally

the 33rd Wife of a Maharajah: A Love Affair in

India.

She also wrote other books using a pseudonym

Lola Screwvinsky. Wood was encouraged by her

friend, Anais Nin, in her writing who was a

ardent admirer of her ceramics (Dietz, 2003).

Apart from being inspired by others in her long

life art career, she has inspired many artists and

writers in different fields such as cinema and

writing. Henri-Pierre’s book, Jules and Jim,

which was an outstanding success, is said to

have been inspired by the friendship he shared

with Wood and Marcel Duchamp earlier on in

their lives.

This was later made into a successful film by

Francois Truffaut. On her 100th birthday, a film

directly referring to her by the name of Beatrice

Wood: The Mama of Dada premiered. David

Cameron of the film Titanic is another film

director who used Wood to inspire one of his

characters, Rose in the same film.

This film was shown towards the end of her life,

and since she could not attend the event,

Cameron and Gloria Stuart, who played Rose,

brought her a video which she refused to watch

saying that it was too late to change something

in her life (Dietz, 2003).

What is most inspiring about Wood is that the

most productive years of her life were the last 25

as she worked extremely hard to meet the

demand for her ceramics, she wrote several

books and attended to many people who came to

see her work and learn from her at the Happy

Valley Foundation.

Wood led a bohemian artist’s lifestyle but still

she was a romantic who believed in “true love”

as she married twice and fell in love several

times. However, she would say that the only

thing she could count on were the mountains

near her home in Happy Valley. This extra

ordinary life of art, inspiration and exploration

ended in 1998 when she died at the age of 105

(Peterson 2000).

Bernard Howell Leach

Early life

Leach is modern ceramic who like Wood,

discovered his vocation in ceramics and pottery

later in his life after trying other forms of art or

career. He is considered one of the greatest

artists of the 20th century with a life that is

documented in a wide collection of papers, study

collections of western and oriental pots and his

own work on pots and models exhibited in the

Crafts Study center, London.

Leach was born on January 5, 1887 in Hong

Kong where his father, Andrew Leach, was a

lawyer. His mother died soon after delivering

him, and his grandparents took him to Kyoto,

Japan where they were teaching English at the

Doshista University.

He went back to Hong Kong later when his

father remarried, and soon afterward the family

moved to Singapore where his father had been

appointed a judge. During this period, there is no

record of his schooling, but he only states that he

spent most of his time alone in the harbor

drawing ships.

Leach was then sent to study at the age of ten

years in England at the Beaumont, a Jesuit

school, in Old Windsor Park which was then

known as ‘Catholic Eton’. The school operated

on a strict, ordered lines and any boy who step

out of the line was given beatings which

probably changed Leach’s destiny since he

thought the beatings deterred rather than

encouraged interest in education.

As a result, he was bad in academic subjects

excelling only in drawing, elocution and cricket.

There are letters he wrote to his father and step

mother expressing frustrations in deciding what

to do with his life (Campbell, 2006).

In 1903, Leache’s father returned to England and

allowed his son to join the Slade School of Art

which brought him a lot of joy. His training

lasted for a year as his father got seriously ill and

he had to stay with him. His father’s last wish

was him to pursue a stable career in the Hong

Kong Shanghai Banking Corporation, that was

something Leach felt obligated to do. He joined

the bank and started working in its headquarters

in London.

He was extremely unhappy working in the bank

and after a year, he quit and moved to Doset, the

North Wales where he hoped to draw and paint.

Later, at the age of 21 he received his modest

inheritance and used it to pay for his studies at

the London School of Art in Kensington.

It is during this period in England that he met his

love, his cousin Muriel, and later married her.

While in the school he met a Japanese student,

Kotaro Takamura, who told him a lot about the

country and reminded him of his childhood.

Thus, it was Takamura’s who inspired Leach to

return to Japan, however, during this time he

dedicated himself to teaching how to design,

paint, curve wood and design magazines faces.

His etching lessons did not bring any success,

but he became acquainted with a group of

progressive scholars and writers known as

Shirakaba. This group changed the course of

Leache’s life and career and inspired him to start

a career in ceramics (Byars, 2004).

Leach’s contact with and career in pottery

The raku is a technique which involves placing

glazed and decorated pots into a glowing hot

kiln, then removing them after around 30

minutes when the glaze has melted. The

Shirakaba organized raku events where artists

and poets took part in the raku and guests would

take home the finished products.

The raku inspired Leach to learn the craft which

took him two years under the instruction of

Kenzan the sixth, Urano Shigkich, a Tokyo

potter who worked with the old- fashioned

Rimpa style. Leach learned how to throw,

decorate and fire pots though, at the time, he had

not considered it as a future career.

At the end of the two years, Leach and his fellow

student Tomimoto were presented with a hand

painted Densho recognizing them as the Seventh

Kenzan. After his graduation from the Kenzan

classes, he set up a pottery in his garden. In

1914, he successfully displayed his works which

included his first booklet review of 1909-1914

works.

He became frustrated with Japan due to the

embracement of westernization and moved to

China leaving his family in Japan. While, in

China, he met Dr Alfred Westharp, a Prussian

writer, who influenced him profoundly. After the

birth, of his third child, he took his family to

China and family conflict erupted due to

Westharp’s interference.

His son’s medical needs forced him and his

family to return to England to seek medical

attention in 1920. He returned to England with

his wife and three children and a potter, Shoji

Hamanda, whom he had brought from Japan.

They settled at St Ives and set up their craft by

building a climbing and updraught kilns to make

earthenware, and though their art was

innovatory, it was impossible to sell their

products here (Campbell, 2006).

In 1932, he started a project with Leornard and

Dorothy Elmhirst on rural regeneration to set up

a commercial pottery at Dartington. He got

involved with another potter named Laurie

Cooks, which ended his twenty four year

marriage to Muriel. He continued to work in the

project while still maintaining his establishment

in St Ives.

Two years later he accepted an invitation to a

fifteen month tour of Japan where he looked at

traditional work, made pots and researched for a

book. He also took an inspirational tour of Korea

with Yanagi which filled him with ideas and

enthusiasm. He was also inspired by Japan’s

unspoilt, traditional craft and brought home the

acclaimed Moon Jar.

It is during his tour of Japan that his son David

was encouraged by the poor managerial

situation at their St Ives pottery that he joined

the North Staffordshire Polytechnic to study

pottery management. He came back with radical

plans, which were funded by the Elmhirsts, for

the subsequent three years.

The onset of the World War II saw David being

enlisted and Leach had no choice but to return to

St Ives, and regardless of the war, they continued

to produce pots with a small team under his

direction. Between the two world war, Leach

Pottery had struggled a lot financially, also with

acceptance of his work in Europe.

He had built a Japanese kiln upon setting up in

St Ives and during this time he was constantly

rebuilding kilns, experimenting with different

materials and travelling (Byars, 2004).

After the war, David returned and took over the

mantle from his father and the Leach pottery

went into full production. Leach had a lot of time

to pursue his own ideas. He had earlier published

a book, A Potter’s Book in 1940 which had been

moderately successful, and now he had time to

undertake a series of tours to lecturer and

demonstrate.

He first took tours to the West in the

Scandinavian and America where he was not

valued. He returned to the East in 1952 and

started with a long visit to Japan. He was

professional and gave pieces of advice and

opinions diverse fields from ceramics, design,

furniture to cooking. He met and married Janet

Darnell in 1956 and also returned home to

England.

After Leach’s return to England from Japan, he

made some of the most popular and strongest

pieces as he concentrated on individual pots

rather than running the Pottery which was left to

Janet when David went to establish his own

pottery in Devon.

Leach mainly concentrated on small pieces but

also made big pieces with the help of David and

later Bill Marshall though he was the one who

always did the finishing and decorations. The

pieces he made at that time show a deep

perception of the form together with sensitivity.

He also displays confidence that is not

excessive. His pottery was influenced by the

East while at the same time displaying the

softness of European awareness that blends the

two cultures superbly (Peterson, 2000).

Leach as an inspiration

Leach was profoundly inspired by a lot of

scholars, craftsmen and women whom he was

always in contact with. There are lengthy letters

in his archives that detail his long term contact

with Yanagi on different topics including

aesthetics.

Also, he maintained such contact with Henry

Bergen where they discussed many subjects; one

of them being about the book, they are arguing

over the content of his book, A Potter’s book

where an etiology of the evolution of the book

and their thoughts are communicated. It is clear

that they trusted each other.

He also inspired other artists such as Katherine

Pleydell-Bouverie who was his first apprentice,

Norah Braden and Dr Ryusaburo Shikiba whose

communication with him were filed away in

letter books.

It is no wonder that he was a spokesman for the

craftsmen and women for all kinds of craft

where he represented them in committees

whether by the government, guilds or societies

and in the Crafts Study Center. Apart from being

a notable craftsman, he was also a respected,

trusted and charming public speaker, and an

intelligent writer (Byars, 2004).

One of the significant achievements of Leach

pottery was training of potters from all the

corners of world, who later contributed to

spreading of Leach’s techniques and values. He

also helped in organizing the only international

conference of potters and Weavers in 1952 at

Datington hall, which included exhibitions from

all the participants.

It is here where the modern studio pottery

movement began, and which made Leach and

his associates, Hamada and Yanagi celebrities.

He received many honors including an

exhibition in 1961 by The Arts Council of

Britain dubbed as the ‘Fifty Years a Potter’.

Thus, being the master craftsman, his work was

to be used as a gauge upon others works.

The following year he received the Commander

of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), and

before his death, Japan, a country which had

interested and impacted him very much,

awarded him with the Champion of Honor (CH)

title in 1974 which is equivalent of Nobel Prize

(Dietz, 2003).

Wood and Leach as an inspiration

Unlike Wood whose work mainly displayed her

personal experiences through life and were

unique unconventional pieces, that set her apart,

leach’s work from 1912 to the peak of his career

in 1950s and 60s show his development journey

as a potter and his increasing understanding of

materials he worked with. However, the

influence of the East to their works is clear.

Wood got a lot of inspiration from Indian art,

which influenced her use of surfaces textures,

color, ornamentation and erotic imagery and

even her personal style of dressing and

accessorizing, and also her writings as shown by

her book 33rd Wife of a Maharajah: A Love

Affair in India.

Leach, on the other hand, had a lot inspiration

from the Far East countries like China, Japan

and Korea. It is in Japan that he came into

contact with the ceramics craft in raku events

and later trained under Kenzan the sixth, Urano

Shigkich. His long association and work in

Japan and Japanese artists show his interest and

experience he got in the East.

Though both Wood and leach are influenced by

art from the East, their work also displays their

Western influences. Wood’s works display

modes of self expression that show Dadaism

influence and the unconventional quality in her

work that she said was influenced by Marcel

Duchamp. Leach’s works, on the other hand,

display a soft European awareness (Dietz,

2003).

Both Wood and Leach did their most

distinguished pieces later in their lives. Wood

started learning pottery at the age of 40 after

trying other forms of art. She had experimented

with painting when she was young in Paris and

later in New York, spent a substantial part of her

life acting again in Paris and New York and

finally in Montreal, Canada where her interest in

acting faded.

It is the visit to Holland that brought him an

interest in pottery at the age of forty. Leach also

did his master pots in the 1950s and 60s when he

was already advanced in years. He also tried

many things such as painting, designing covers

for magazines, wood cutting and travelled to

many places before he found his true vocation.

It is also remarkably clear from their experiences

that they are liberals who loved traveling wide

and trying many things until they found their

true occupations by accident as both had not

envisioned a career in pottery (Peterson, 2000).

Leach concentrated on making bowls, jars,

platters, tableware, vases, pots and urns which

are in display, in many Museums and art

galleries in the world. After his death in 1979, a

large amount of his works both craft, writings

and collections were passed on to the Crafts

Study center.

This work was also digitized so as to improve

accessibility as a body of reference including his

diaries and correspondences with different

people. Wood on the other had done her work in

both craft and fine art.

She combined wisdom, a positive thinking, a

strong work ethic, a Dadaism and romantic view

of life which gave her work a unique,

unconventional style that she said was

unschooled but deliberate.

These two artists devoted all their love and time

to their work; they continued to work and learn

even when things were not good. They both

worked until the end of their life (Peterson,

2000).

Conclusion

Ceramics art has a long history in many parts of

the world that can be dated back to early

civilizations. The raw material that was used in

early ceramics was clay, but in modern ceramics,

other materials are used. Ceramics is grouped as

fine art, decorative ceramics or pottery and

applied art. Though these are not conclusive

categories, the main issue is the use into which

the art is put to.

Some are just for aesthetics while others are

purely functional, or they are combined both

functions. Ceramics art began with the invention

of the potter wheel believed to have started in

Mesopotamia in the 4th century BC and spread

to other parts of the world.

Ceramic art is believed to have evolved from the

wealthy Chinese Dynasties such as the Shang

dynasty and also in the Ancient Roman Empire

where containers such as vessel, bowls,

tableware and figurines were common. In

modern ceramic art, pottery studios have gained

popularity where artists such as Beatrice Wood

and Bernard Leach have emerged.

Beatrice Wood was exposed to art in her summer

trips to Europe. She longed to go to Paris and

become a painter. When she later went to

Europe, it was the beginning of a rebellious life

as she explored different forms of art from

painting to acting. It was not until she was forty

that her interest and career in pottery began in

Los Angeles.

She learned pottery from renowned ceramists

such as Gertrud and Otto Natzler, Glen Lukens

and Vivika and Otto Heino. She established her

own style that was unconventional and reflected

her experiences in life combined with

inspiration from Indian art. She became very

successful and devoted the rest of her life to

pottery, writing and teaching other artists at the

Happy Valley Foundation.

Bernard Leach is similar to Wood in many ways.

Born in Hong Kong, but grew up in Japan,

Singapore and England, he attended school and

trainings in various arts. He also explored many

forms of art before he accidentally took up

pottery in Japan during a raku party.

Leach learned the ceramic art in Japan and

became hugely successful there, but he went to

China and England where he set up the Leach

Pottery. Over the years, he met famous artists

from all over the world such as Urano Shigkich,

Shoji Hamanda, Leornard and Dorothy Elmhirst

as well as SoetsuYanagi who inspired him.

Though he still maintained the Leach Pottery

with the help of his son David, Leach was an

extensive traveler who liked the East. Like

Wood, most of his distinguished pieces were

done later in his life when he had mastered the

materials he worked with.

He emphasized design, philosophy and art in his

works which was utilitarian unlike Woods who

did fine art and craft. He died in 1979 having

earned the honor and respect due to his

achievements.

Reference List

Byars, M., 2004. The design

encyclopedia. London: Laurence King.

Campbell, G., 2006. The grove encyclopedia of

decorative arts. UK: Oxford University Press.

Dietz, U., 2003. Great pots: contemporary

ceramics from functional to fantasy. USA: Guild

Publishing.

Naumann, F., 1997. Beatrice wood: a centennial

tribute. USA: American Craft Museum.

Peterson, S., 2000. Contemporary

ceramics. USA: Watson-Guptill Publications.

Deaf Art in the Modern Society

In the modern world, deaf people have, if not

equal, but at least a good chance to receive an

education, find jobs, interact with others, and be

involved in art. However, it was not the case

before the enlightenment era, when sign

language was recognized as structured and

natural and deaf schools and institutions started

to develop (Zadeh, 2022). For example,

Gallaudet University, established in 1857 in

Washington, DC, was one of the few colleges

that accepted students with hearing difficulties

(Zadeh, 2022). Creating more opportunities for

deaf people allowed them to become more

confident and proficient in self-expression,

enabling the progress of deaf art and culture.

Since deaf individuals have difficulty or lack the

capacity to hear music or voices, they tend to

choose visual methods of representing their

thoughts, emotions, and feelings. Artists with

inborn hearing difficulties have both positive

and negative experiences because they diverge

from ordinary people (Jay, 2021). Deaf art

connects a unique group of people who

demonstrate their inner world as well as

generational struggles to find their own niche in

a society dominated by verbal information. For

example, Chuck Baird, a famous deaf artist,

visualizes the beauty of sign language in his

works to demonstrate to the world that

individuals with hearing problems have an

abundant inner life (Jay, 2021). Indeed,

according to Zadeh (2022), deaf people are able

to express their psychological state and

perception of others not only through sign

language taught to them but also through

painting and dance. Overall, it appears that deaf

art is a profuse realm that requires a deeper

exploration and deserves admiration.

In summary, deaf artists seem to be empowered

by their physical restrictions rather than

discouraged because they express their inner

emotions using visual techniques. These

individuals combine their thoughts and

emotions with their experiences interacting with

the outside world. The latter used to discriminate

against deaf people in the past, but as science

and education started to flourish, more

opportunities for education and self-expression

appeared for those who were born with hearing

problems.

Living With Art: From Modern to

Postmodern

Introduction

After the end of World War II in 1945, the art

world encountered a crucial transformation.

Given the rise of immigration flow in the United

States, the world capital of art has been relocated

from Europe to New York City, facing a trans-

Atlantic shift. Several cultural and political

movements also accompanied such a transition

of art since 1945, including The New York

School, Assemblage and Happenings, Pop Art,

Minimal Art and Earthworks, Conceptual Art,

and Feminist Art (Getlein 517). Altogether, they

have shaped the profound Postmodern society

and art industry around us.

Describing the Culture and Cultural Events

To understand the culture of the postwar world,

it is essential to note that the United States

became a dominating world power in political,

economic, and cultural terms. Artistic life was

reviving itself in “the new international

climate,” and the artistic energy shifted from

Paris to New York (Getlein 500). It was also the

beginning of the Cold War in 1947: some art

served ideological targets, while some artworks

uncovered the limits and dangers of the Cold

War. Such an atmosphere has promoted a more

bold, aggressive, youthful, and materialistic

culture and mass media development. The main

cultural events imply opening new museums in

the city, including the Museum of Modern Art

(1929) and Art of This Century gallery (Getlein

502). It was the first Western museum explicitly

dedicated to modern art. The postwar art

movement has gathered artists into the New

York School that signified the development of

Abstract Expressionism.

The Summary of Art and Techniques

The chapter discloses the immense amount of art

techniques and styles; it was indeed an in-depth

transformation of arts. Artists pursued the

freedom of creative expression, experimental

approaches and shaped moral and universal art.

The artists were driven by the desire to rearrange

ideas of modernism by treating the act of

painting as an independent expressive exercise.

The general movement was based on Jungian

philosophy; artists were showcasing primal in

human nature; flinging paint on large canvases,

and filling in the visual environment (Getlein

503). The artistic oeuvre was genuinely

abundant: bricolage, using text as an element of

art, collage, simplification, appropriation,

performance, redefining past styles, and

eliminating the barriers in art. The most

prominent figures and techniques include:

• action painting and drip technique

(Pollock),

• aggressive layering of paints (de

Kooning),

• color fields and peripheral vision

(Rothko),

• abstract wall sculptures (Nevelson),

• mass media and commercial art (Warhol,

Lichtenstein),

• performance art (Abramovic and Ulay),

• and graffiti (Basquiat), to name a few.

Analyzing the Artwork

One artwork, namely a type of art, caught my

attention while reading this chapter. I have

always been fascinated by performance art and

its most recognized artist Marina Abramovic,

mother of performance. It is impressive how the

human body can be used as the new medium in

arts to visually represent the relationships

between the artist and spectator. Her famous

nude performance with her life and art partner

Ulay, Imponderabilia, was a truly shocking

artistic experience. They were standing naked in

a doorway and let the visitors pass between

them. The artists aimed to challenge the socially

defined identities of femininity and masculinity

and test their boundaries. Both Abramovic and

Ulay were put into a vulnerable position; they

were present with the audience. I believe it is a

life-changing experience of vising an open art

space and feel the performance together with the

artists.

Conclusion

As a result of the enhanced consciousness and

globalization process, the modern art scene is

rich with many different and complex styles that

help artists perceive their multicultural heritage,

identity, spirituality, race, and the environment.

The postmodern art was complex yet expressive.

It represented skepticism, irony, and

philosophical criticism of the universal truths

and objective reality. Postmodernism shaped

radically new Western philosophy that went

beyond the art itself and was a powerful tool in

asserting and maintaining political and

economic influence. It has blurred the

boundaries between art and ordinary everyday

life and was a crucial step towards defining how

society has made progress beyond modernity.

Modernism and Arts and Crafts:

Comparison

Introduction

The long history of art and architecture allows

experts to compare and contrast existing styles

to determine factors that influenced their

inception. In order to do such an analysis in this

paper, two styles were chosen. On the one hand,

examples of the modernist movement will be

explored. Modernism is an approach

characterized by a wide-scale transformation of

artistic, literary, and musical styles in the late

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. On the

other hand, to compare with Modernism, the

Arts and Crafts movement will be examined. It

appeared in the nineteenth century as a response

to impersonal and mechanized directions in the

art that the society took.

In the paper, it will be argued that both

Modernism and Arts and Crafts focused not only

on aesthetics but also on the utility of their

designs. However, there is a difference in the use

of materials and the overall presentation of their

features – modernist designs are streamlined,

simplistic, and use a stark contrast of colors

while Arts and Crafts items are more complex in

implementation, warmer in the color palette and

more substantial in shape. Importantly, several

examples from both movements will be

explored, including Bauhaus as a modernist art

school and Voysey design as an example of the

arts and crafts movement.

Exploring Modernism

The term modernism has developed a specific

meaning when it comes to art and architecture.

As defined by Harrison (1997), Modernism is

related to a form of value linked to separate

works of art to distinguish them from other

styles. Today, critics view modernism as a

breakdown of the traditional styles inherent to

the Western culture that used to connect the

appearance of works of art to the appearance of

the natural world (Harrison 1997). Typically,

such a breakdown is associated with trends and

traditions in the use of shapes, materials, and

colors in order to form new and unique

combinations and yield a visual experience that

has never been present. Therefore, a painting of

a person that looks like nothing in real life is

usually characterized as a ‘modern’ painting

despite it being a half-century-old. This suggests

that the modernist movement that developed in

the twentieth century acquired a historical

character inherent of that time. In particular, it

was the inception of Cubism in 1907-1908 and

the immediate aftermath that gave a start to

modernism.

Bauhaus as an Example

As an example of the modernist movement, the

Bauhaus school of design will be explored.

Initially, the Bauhaus was associated with an

educational establishment founded by Walter

Gropius in 1919 in Weimar, Germany (Sudjic

2014). Despite the fact that the establishment

existed only until 1933, art connoisseurs around

the world consider it the home to the classical

modern and Avant-guard styles in both applied

and liberal arts. Even today, the Bauhaus is used

as a synonym for rational and functional art,

especially when it comes to architecture and

furniture design. Most importantly, the aesthetic

inherent to the style seems not only modern in

2018 but also beautiful. On the other hand,

owning Bauhaus houses or items of décor in the

1920s was considered unusual or shocking. Such

an attitude toward design is not surprising

because many prototypes of Bauhaus furniture

and other items were produced with the motto

“people’s needs instead of luxury needs,” as

suggested by Gropius’s successor, Hannes

Meyer (Saletnik & Schuldenfrei 2013, p. 36).

The idea of designing to cater to the needs of

people rather than satisfying the need for luxury

is reflected in the Dessau building of the

Bauhaus school itself. It is simplistic in its

design while such features as floor-to-ceiling

critical windows give it a unique utilitarian look

(Figure 1). It is seen from the design of the

building that the most important philosophy of

the Bauhaus movement was treating design and

visual art as a unity. The building shows the most

prominent features of the philosophy, signifying

equality between such disciplines as typography

(‘Bauhaus’ written in large white letters) and

architecture.

Figure 1. Bauhaus school building (Bauhaus

n.d.).

For Bauhaus designs, functionality came first,

which explains why consumers have gravitated

toward integrating both original and derivative

designs into their homes (Whitford 1984).

Examples of original pieces of the Bauhaus

furniture include Marcel Breuer’s Club chair

(model B3) (Figure 2), Wilhelm Wagenfeld’s

table lamp (Figure 3) and glassware, Josef

Hoffmann’s silverware (Figure 4), and many

others

Figure 2. Breuer’s chair (Marcel Breuer’s Club

chair (model B3) n.d.).

Figure 3. Modernist table lamp (Wilhelm

Wagenfeld’s table lamp n.d.).

Figure 4. Silverware (Josef Hoffmann’s

silverware n.d.).

Exploring Arts and Crafts

As a contrast to the ideas and designs of the

Bauhaus movement in design, it was chosen to

explore the Arts and Crafts movement, which

started as an opposition to the Industrial

Revolution of the nineteenth century. The most

distinguishing feature of the Arts & Crafts style

is the use of high-quality materials and the

emphasis on the utility of design items. The style

got its start in the United Kingdom in the second

half of the nineteenth century and later spread to

the United States across the Atlantic at the end

of the century, which made it possible for the

movement to last up until the 1920s (Kaplan

1998). Practitioners of the movement such as

Charles Francis Voysey (C.F.A. Voysey)

believed that there should be a physical

connection between an artist and his or her

works, which suggested that Arts and Crafts

heavily relied on handcraft for producing

beautiful items of design.

Because the movement originated as a response

to the increased use of machinery in creating

pieces of design and architecture, its UK

proponents were overall negative toward using

innovative equipment within the creative

process. However, as the style transferred

overseas, its US followers were more

welcoming of the idea to use technologies. As an

example of the Arts and Crafts movement, the

works of Francis Voysey will be further

explored. C.F.A. Voysey is renowned for his

design works in such spheres as architecture,

furniture, and textiles. During his early work,

Voysey predominantly focused on designing

wallpapers and fabrics characterized as ideal

examples of the Arts and Crafts style (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Arts and crafts fabric design (Voysey’s

fabric design n.d.)

Voysey’s Design

For the sake of the analysis and comparison with

modernism and Bauhaus in particular, Voysey’s

architectural work will be explored. Despite the

artist’s blatant opposition to modernism and the

pursuit of utilitarianism, it can be suggested that

his works still had the inventiveness and certain

simplicity inherent in early modernism (Cole

2015). Voysey’s approach to designing houses

contributed to the reputation of him as a typical

English domestic residence architect. In his

styles, Voysey gravitated toward stone window-

dressings, slate roofs, and white-rendered

houses (Figure 6). Importantly, all of his

designs, including furniture (Figure 7), we’re

focused on the appreciation of natural materials.

Compared to modernism and Bauhaus in

particular, Voysey’s architecture was simple but

not simplistic and complex but not overly

complicated (Simpson 1979).

Figure 6. Arts and crafts architecture (Voysey’s

architecture n.d.).

Figure 7. Voysey’s furniture (Voysey’s secretaire

n.d.).

Comparing examples of Modernism and Arts

and Crafts, it can be suggested that both of them

have the unique quality of utilitarianism and the

focus on embracing materials used in their

designs. For Arts and Crafts, such materials

included wood, stone, and fabrics. For

modernism, they included steel, concrete, glass,

and others. In addition, it should be mentioned

the Arts and Crafts style came right before

modernism, which suggests that there will be

similarities in how both schools approached

architecture and other design directions. For

instance, there is distinct gravitation toward

simplifying architecture in Voysey’s work while

in the Bauhaus direction of modernism, the

simplification reached its peak and proceeded to

envelop to this day.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that the innovative

approaches that both Modernism and Arts and

Crafts had a tremendous impact on how current

design styles came to life. For instance, some

connections between Arts and Crafts and the

farmhouse style of home décor, especially when

it comes to preserving houses built in the late

nineteenth century. Modernism still has its

influence on current design approaches such as

minimalism or industrial interior décor.

To summarise, Modernism as a style developed

as a result of simplification in design and

architecture that started with the Arts and Crafts

movement. As seen from the example of the

Bauhaus style, modernism focused on the use of

contemporary materials associated with the

process of industrialization. Because of this, the

emphasis was placed on unique shapes and

simplistic designs. In Arts and Crafts, the use of

machinery was minimized in order to elevate the

beauty of the connection between an artist and

his works. This meant that natural materials

were embraced while designs were more

intricate and handmade-like.

Indian American Art History and Modern

Perception

Explain the different contexts selecting one

case from the early 20th century and one

contemporary performance event

The exhibition of human beings has been a part

of cultural life in many Western countries. In

particular, this phenomenon has been observed

since the late nineteenth century when more

attention was paid to different cultures that could

be marginalized in the past (Braverman 73). For

example, one can speak about the World Fairs

that took place in Europe and the United States.

Secondly, it is critical to discuss a variety of

modern performances that challenge many of

the existing stereotypes. First, it should be noted

that the early World Fairs were organized at a

time when colonialism was a part of the official

policies and ideology in many countries.

Moreover, racism profoundly affected public

opinion and attitudes of many people. It is one

of the reasons why the representatives of racial

minorities could be displayed at such events.

In turn, some visitors from such exhibitions

could treat these people as inferiors or even sub-

humans. It is one of the issues that should not be

overlooked. Nevertheless, for some people, such

exhibitions could offer opportunities to learn

more about different cultures. For instance, one

can mention the World Fair that took place in St.

Louis (Braverman 73). The visitors could look

at Native Americas who wore their traditional

dress. Similar exhibitions were held in Paris and

London. The representatives of colonies could

often take part in human exhibitions. For

example, during the 1900 World Fair, the guests

could look at people from Madagascar

(Braverman 73). The main problem is that many

of them could be viewed only as objects of

curiosity. To some degree, they were

dehumanized for the sake of entertaining

viewers. It is one of the reasons why the term

human zoo could often be used. In addition to

that, such events were supposed to confirm

many of the racial stereotypes. These are some

of the main objectives that the organizers tried

to achieve.

In contrast, contemporary exhibitions of human

beings are held at a time when more and more

people lays stress on the need for cultural,

ethnic, or racial diversity. Secondly, they

emphasize the necessity to respect the cultural

heritage of different people. To some degree,

such exhibits are supposed to help people

express their identity. Moreover, they are meant

to increase people’s awareness of different

cultures and traditions. For example, one can

mention the performance of Native American

dances at Anoka High School in 2012. It is

possible to say that this performance enabled

students to get a better idea about the culture of

these people. Moreover, they could become

more aware of cultural diversity in America.

Overall, they are essential for understanding art,

which has been studied during this course. In

particular, they help people appreciate art forms

that do not belong to the mainstream culture. It

is one of the details that can be singled out.

Define the concept of primitivism and explain

why this concept has been critical in the

value, dissemination, exhibition, and

appreciation of art in general

As a rule, the concept of primitivism can be

defined by art historians as the cultural

movements which are based mostly on the visual

forms derived from non-Western cultures.

Nevertheless, more attention should be paid to

the specific artworks which were created in

various countries that did not belong to the

domain of Western culture (Clifford 190). In

most cases, one can speak about tribal artworks

that can produce a strong impression on the

viewers. These artistic forms became very

popular at the beginning of the twentieth

century. At that time, many exhibitions could

give people a better idea about art that departed

from the existing canon. For example, one can

mention the exhibition, which was held in the

Modern Museum of Art. There are several

famous exhibits; in particular, it is possible to

speak about the famous Kwakiutl mask that

inspired many of the modern artists (Clifford

194).

Additionally, wooden figures created by various

Angola tribes also exemplify primitivism.

Furthermore, it is critical to focus on various

articles of furniture created by Native-American

tribes. In particular, the interior of Chief Shake’s

House can be a very eloquent example of a tribal

approach to design. Such artistic objects sparked

interest in primitive art. One should bear in mind

that at that time, there was a distinction between

primitive or non-Western art and sophisticated

art that could be created mostly in Europe or the

United States. It is one of the aspects that should

be taken into account. Nevertheless, the myth

was dispelled very soon. It is necessary to keep

in mind that a great number of artists such as

Picasso were extremely interested in such visual

forms because they enabled them to create

authentic artworks. To some degree, these

people were able to break stereotypes about non-

Western culture. On the whole, the concept of

primitivism is crucial for understanding the

history of art. In particular, it suggests that

discrimination is not applied only to people, but

also to cultural objects. Yet, such an attitude is

not productive. Moreover, by studying the so-

called primitive art, a person can enrich his/her

understanding of modern culture. Finally, this

knowledge is critical for a better appreciation of

art. These are some of the main details that can

be identified.

Australia’s Aboriginal and Modernist Visual

Arts

Indigenous Australian art

Australian Aboriginal art is attributed to the

indigenous Australian people and represents one

of the world’s unique cultures. The major

categories of Australian indigenous art include

rock carvings, leaf paintings, sand paintings,

rock engravings, aerial landscape art, stone

arrangements, ceremonial clothing, and

sculpture. These traditional pieces of art

represent the unique Australian culture from the

way the pieces of art were created by the artists.

Some of the commonly used styles in indigenous

rock painting include dot-painting and stencil

art. The rock art highlighted themes like

religion, the environment, economy, and social

activities. The fine painting category was

adequately represented by bark paintings.

Indigenous Australian art is characterized by a

lot of imagery that depicted the origin of the

artist and the themes in the paintings.

Colonial art

Colonial art is highly regarded in Australia

because of the artistic flair it represents.

Colonial art is chronological in nature because it

depicts the changes that took place in Australia

over time. The colonial paintings are widely

known for their aesthetic appeal that was

achieved by the use of soft and light colors. The

paintings brought out the beautiful nature of the

environment as depicted in the landscapes.

Colonial art portrayed a peaceful co-existence of

people in society.

Colonial paintings passed across positive and

encouraging messages that would give future

settlers a sense of optimism. The artists used art

to record significant events and this makes

colonial art a good source of information for

historians and other social researchers. Most of

the symbols in colonial art represent wealth and

class because the paintings were mostly done by

prominent people.

Landscape

Landscape art represents the physical aspects of

the earth. This category of art is very broad

because of the many varieties of landscapes

present on earth. Australian landscape paintings

depict the natural sceneries and artists with

paintings that demonstrate the best

representation of the natural scenes are regarded

as the best. The sky and the weather form the

basic elements of landscape elements.

Australian landscape art was largely influenced

by Chinese and Japanese cultures. Early

landscape paintings had less imagery and

represented the real images in the paintings.

Most Australian landscape paintings were made

using distinctive landscapes. The traditional

Australian landscape paintings were made using

oil paints and watercolor sketches

Atelier

Atelier is a unique form of Australian art that

emphasizes the concept of realism. Atelier

paintings pay much attention to the details of the

subject. This type of art borrows most of its

characteristics from the traditional European

culture. The atelier method involves

professional artists and apprentices who make

paintings and other pieces of art in a workshop

or studio. This method began in Australia after

the establishment of a museum in Melbourne.

The students are trained by their instructors in

creating representational drawings. According

to the atelier method, the paintings have to look

very real as an actual representation of the real

object. Ateliers ensure that the dimensions of the

subject and the painting are similar. The main

objective of the atelier method is to facilitate the

representation of actual images without the help

of any mechanical means. The system

progression approach is used by instructors to

ensure that the students comprehensively

understand one concept before progressing to

the next.

Modernism

Modernist art in Australia faced a great

challenge in combining the popular traditional

art with modern artistic concepts. Modern artists

view things in a different manner and their

concepts lean more towards abstraction rather

than traditional idealism. Modernism art in

Australia emphasizes realism as a way of

representing subjects. Modern art gives the

paintings an emotional touch compared to

conservative traditional artistic paintings.

Modernism art advocates for realism as a way of

comprehensively representing various human

experiences

Contemporary art

Contemporary Australian art is a collection of

different artistic ideas from all over the world.

Contemporary art uses a variety of media

ranging from digital media to the traditional

categories of drawings and paintings. One of the

recent categories is conceptual art that provides

more information about art and object status.

Indigenous Australian art (Australian

Aboriginal art)

Australian Aboriginal art makes the Australian

culture to be very unique. The imagery in

Aboriginal paintings and other pieces of art

represent the sacred culture of Australia. The

mythical undertones carried by the traditional

Aboriginal art gives the paintings a spiritual

meaning. This is one of the most distinctive

features of Aboriginal art. Totem representation

and storytelling are all part of Aboriginal art.

The Aboriginal Pieces of art represented many

details and information about the origin and

culture of the artist. The other unique feature of

Aboriginal art is the use of blue circles as a

symbol of water. The Aboriginal artists used

locally available materials and few colors to

make their paintings. The symbols used in

Aboriginal vary from one region to another.

Each tribe or region has its unique symbols of

representing features in a painting.

Arthur Streeton was an Australia Landscape

painter, what are some of his achievements,

and why are these achievements significant in

contributing to Australia’s Visual Arts.

Streeton is a famous Australian artist whose

contributions have had a profound effect on the

Australian art industry. Streeton worked very

hard to solve the problem of light and heat in art.

He organized an exhibition together with other

young artists in 1889 as a way of rebelling

against the influence of traditional paintings.

Throughout his career, Streeton was an art

instructor who played a major role in promoting

modern art in Australia.

His passion to impart artistic knowledge

inspired him to open a teaching studio together

with his friend Roberts. During the First World

War, Streeton used his skills in landscape art to

make war paintings. His painting depicted the

desperate nature of a war environment and is

remembered as one of the pioneers of war art.

His later paintings represented a pastoral

Australia due to their romantic touch.

“Sunbaker” is a 1973 photograph by

Australian modernist photographer Max

Dupain. What are some of the significant

aspects? What was the photographer try to

express? How was the culture of Australia

depicted in this photograph?

Sunbaker is a modernist photograph taken by

one of the most celebrated Australian

photographers known as Max Dupain. The

photograph was taken from a low angle and

shows a man lying on his stomach on the beach.

The head and shoulders are the only visible

features of the man. The photograph was taken

at a low angle to prevent other features of the

subject from being seen. The back of the subject

is completely exposed to the sun. The skin is

sparkling because of the sweat and ocean water.

The photograph is influenced by the vitalism

concept that depicts the man in a relaxed

posture. The upper part of the photograph is

occupied by the subject.

The overhead sun casts a shadow on the subject

and makes the lower part of the photograph to

look bright. This is a clear representation of the

ideal Australian way of life. The photograph

symbolizes vitality and health in an outdoor

environment. The photograph is widely

influenced by modern artistic concepts. The

photograph looks very simple but portrays a lot

of information. The fact that it is black and white

portrays the multicultural nature of Australia.

The photograph represents the general culture of

relaxation and vitality in Australia.

Australia is a multicultural country, how does

multiculturalism have an impact on

Australia’s Visual Arts? Focus on pop-culture

such as Japanese Manga and Anime.

Australia is a multicultural country and this

affects all aspects of life including art. Most of

the influence is from Europe and Eastern Asia.

Japanese Pop culture is one of the major

influences of Eastern Asia. Anime and Manga

have greatly influenced the Australian visual arts

industry. Manga is a book with drawings

depicting various aspects of life and is always

published in black and white. Most of the

features in Manga drawings are exaggerated.

This culture has spread all over the world and

Australia is one of the countries affected by this

new method of drawing. The Australian Visual

Arts industry is booming because of Japanese

influence. Anime is the other type of Japanese

art that is popular in Australia. Anime refers to a

type of animation art that is quite different from

the other types of animations. The character and

backgrounds are generated by computers or by

hand. The Anime style of art is very flexible and

depends on the artist’s preferred genre and

audience.

Anime and Manga styles have found a lot of use

in the development of computer games and

cartoons. Manga is basically printed cartoons

that are often full of humor. The incorporation of

Manga and Anime styles in Australian visual art

has given it a more modern look. Cartoons and

animations can be created for all generations.

Australia was influenced a great deal by the

Asian artistic styles than the western concepts.

The above examples demonstrate how

multiculturalism can bring out some positive

impacts especially in the field of art. The

external influence helped a great deal in

promoting contemporary visual art in Australia.

Melancholy Caused by Fasting: An Artist in

the Modernist Period

The role of an artist has always remained a

discussed issue; whether his/her activity was

considered prestigious or, backwards, aimed at

entertaining the crowd, the personality of an

artist has always been perceived as that

contrasted with the rest of the society; as that

being separated from the concerns of the

everyday life and minor, insignificant issues.

Not accidentally, the question of an artist’s role

has often become an object of attention of artists

themselves, in particular, writers: the interaction

of an artist and the world around him/her has

become a topic for a series of works of literature.

In this paper, we will discuss A Hunger

Artist (Kafka), the work of Franz Kafka, an

outstanding German-language writer, that in an

allegoric way depicts the role of an artist during

the modernist period.

In the image of the protagonist of the story,

Kafka depicts a modernist artist, misunderstood,

marginalized, “infected” by a specific

“melancholy” peculiar to the way modernist

artists perceived life and the world around them,

as well as observes how an artist interacts with

the “addressees” of his/her artistic “message”,

which is his/her works.

A Hunger Artist tells a reader about a specific

genre of “art”, which is “professional fasting”:

an artist performed his long-term fasting to

numerous observers. Artist’s fasting was his way

to express his ideas and share it with the

observers (204-205). During a certain period,

“professional fasting” was of big popularity

awakening strong interest of the society, says

Kafka; however, the story describes the period

of the decline of the “genre” and its graduate

“collapse”.

In the course of narration, not only does Kafka

depict the act of fasting itself and observers’

reaction on it, but he also throws light upon the

artist’s inner experience, which makes the story

of particular value for a reader interested in

history of art. In the personality of the hunger

artist, we may notice the generalized character

of a modernist artist, and in the actions of

fasting, we may recognize the characteristics of

modernism as an epoch in history of art.

Let us now discuss the peculiarities of

modernism in culture and art to better

understand the allegory of Kafka’s work. For the

period of modernist culture, it was characteristic

for art to be alienated from the everyday life, as

well as from the majority of the “ordinary

audience”; it is possible to say that the art was

created by the “select few” and for the “select

few” (Storey 182).

This was caused by certain academicism of

modernist works of art, by complexity of ideas

and the ways of expressing them with the means

of art. If we try to create the generalized image

of a modernist artist, we will imagine a

misunderstood person whose ideas and concerns

are far from those ordinary and everyday; a

person whose feelings and thoughts are

complicated and contradictory; thus, the inner

world of an artist is the center of the modernist

works.

It will be not an overstatement to call a

modernist artist a “marginalized person”: on the

one hand, he/she exists within a community and

demonstrates his/her works to it; on the other

hand, the actual distance between them is very

big, and the artist does not “fit into” the

community. Not accidentally, modernist works

could be hardly appreciated by the majority of

ordinary readers/viewers.

Moreover, it is interesting that this

misunderstanding was peculiar to different strata

of the society: while poorer people became not

interested in modernist art because of

insufficient education and background, the

“elite” was also indifferent to the essence of the

modernist works focusing on the form instead of

content: Meier-Graefe writes, “The

incomprehensibility of painting and sculpture to

the general public has been shrouded in a veil of

pretentious exposition” (Meier-Graefe 205);

thus, modernist art was really “marginalized”,

not fitting into the interest of different social

groups.

These trends are allegorically depicted by Kafka

in his work: we see a misunderstood hunger

artist who has a complicated view on his calling

and his “art”, which actually differs from that of

the observers coming to see him; Kafka defines

the artist’s state as “a condition hardly to be

understood by well-fed people” (Kafka 208).

This distance between the interests of a “fasting”

artist and the “well-fed” people is in fact the

main tragedy in modernist art: while an artist

focuses on a high idea that he delivers to the

audience, the audience themselves are interested

in “manners” rather than “matters” and aspire

for being entertained. The embodiment of the

artist’s position in his environment is the cage

where he is placed.

On the one hand, his artistic will is “imprisoned”

by the audience’s tastes and mood: the period of

fasting lasts for forty days; then the “show”

finishes, as the observers’ interest diminishes

(206); on the other hand, the cage is a symbol of

the artist’s marginalization and separateness

from the rest of the society.

However, when we have discussed a modernist

artist’s position relative to his audience, the

question may arise: what is the cause of this

marginalization? What makes the artist be

“misunderstood” and “separated”: inner

conflicts, disagreement with the world around

him, or maybe, specific pride of an artist who

wants to perform himself as “outstanding”, not

clear for the rest?

No doubt, for Kafka this question is also of big

significance; that is why, in his A Hunger Artist,

he provides his own answer to it: being asked

about the reason for his fasting, the artist says,

“…Because I couldn’t find the food I liked. If I

had found it, believe me, I should have made no

fuss and stuffed myself like you or anyone else”

(211).

Thus, we may conclude that the separateness of

a modernist artist is of the dual nature: on the

one hand, it is his choice to express his

complicated ideas and thus to be a “marginalized

person”; on the other hand, his opposition to the

world is sincere and not feigned: the modernist

era was the period of doubts, challenges, and

testing the boundaries of all existing notions.

Thus, being in the constant condition of search,

the artist was nevertheless not able to find the

“food” he would really like. This circle gave

birth to specific “melancholy” of a modernist

artist; Kafka uses the allegory of the artists

“melancholy… caused by fasting” (207).

Another interesting question is the destiny of the

modernist art. In his work, Kafka touches upon

this issue as well expressing his opinion in the

allegorical end of the story: after trying himself

as a fasting artist in a circus where people prefer

to look at the animals rather than at him, the

artist dies, and his cage is given to a young,

strong panther (211).

Unlike the fasting artist, the panther awakens joy

and brings good mood to the visitors of the

circus. The “work” of a fasting artist turns out to

be not “competitive” comparing to the animals

kept in the circus. “Perhaps, said the hunger

artist to himself, many a time, things would be a

little better if his cage were set not quite so near

the menagerie.

That made it too easy for people to make their

choice”, with this quotation, Kafka reflects the

mood of the crowd coming to the circus, and

their expectations about the show. In fact, the

end of the story reminds us about a change that

took place in the middle of the 20th century: the

“elitist” modernist culture is replaced by popular

culture, and then by postmodernist culture.

As a result, the borders between commercial and

not commercial, “high” and “low” culture are

eliminated; culture is now neighboring to the

everyday life and is thus accessible for ordinary

people. The fusion of art and entertainment is

not bad manners any more (Storey 183-185).

The new, “popular culture” is similar to Kafka’s

young panther; “The panther was all right”, says

Kafka in the final sentences of his work (Kafka

211).

Understanding the real-life context of a work of

literature always helps a reader better

understand its idea; having touched upon the

role of the artist in the modernist era, Kafka

gives us opportunity to get the notion of the

society of that period, and, what is the most

interesting, of the inner experience of a

modernist artist. Having chosen the allegorical

way of expressing his ideas, Kafka nevertheless

has depicted the characteristic features of

modernist culture very precisely and eloquently.

Modernism in Art and Painting

Introduction

Modernism primarily describes the present

world. During past centuries, different styles and

forms of line took precedence. The premeditated

departure from these forms of practices and

adoption of new forms of expressions and

innovation in human life and industry attribute

to modernism.

From literature to the arts world, modernism is

evident in that, there are new innovations in

painting and supplies, changed perceptions and

feelings, abnormal fantasies, and concepts.

Modernism demands critical analysis by

observers sequentially for them to learn new

facts in areas of art, surroundings, and

perceptions whilst making conclusions on

observations. This paper will examine

modernism in the field of art and painting.

Modernism in Art

Under modernism, presently, there exist new

forms of architecture, organizational behavior,

social trends, and art change. All this have

resulted due to innovations caused by industrial

revolution in terms of social, economic and

political stipulations (Lewis pp.38-39).

Vast experiments done from mid nineteenth

century to late twentieth century suggests that,

modern approaches arise through abandoning of

old techniques and embracing new innovative

and personage techniques. Traditional

historicism and romantic subjectivism are no

longer in the modern society.

Artists and technicians of 19th century used

realism to give out views and suggestions. Later,

impressionism took centre stage, hence

replacing realism. Impressionism originates

from France and it depicts the painting school of

art. Artists based this on the argument that, there

are no objects but rather, work done in the mind

account for object observation. This is because;

various pictures created in the conscious mind

and in studios, elicited different feelings while

sending information and creative thoughts

(Witcombe Para. 1-3).

Picture paints were dominant in the 18th

century. Some paintings depicted the ills in the

society like dictatorial emperors and leaders. At

the dawn of the twentieth century, genius artists

like Wassily Kandinsky and Matisse, made a

landmark in modernism by contributing to the

construction of Blue Rider in Munich and

realization of present time surrealism and

cubism. This made it possible for people to view

pictures and actions of artists’ works in cinemas

thus, making art a unique and modern discipline.

In art and design, chart art obsolete became

futile as photography taken through photo

cameras illustrated modernism. Modernism is

all about using sophisticated methods and

techniques to replace the existing none, which

will offer more and excellent observation to

keen and critical observers.

In essence, modernism is a shift from views

purported ideal to those deemed critical in

understanding the present world. Paintings done

in the past about the state of people and past

society presently help to give direction to in the

world of art (Greenberg Para. 12-14).

The present Europe and America have

undergone a series of changes in their visual and

performing art, which artists attribute to changes

in political and social environments. For

example, during 1930s, there was cultural

diversification in music created as compared to

the pre-existing periods; hence, some music

genres such as Jazz music remained dominant

among the youths in Europe and America.

Communication and transport currently is

mainly through road and air as compared to the

past where people used rail and animals.

Artistic painting in modernism applies different

colors ant tints to imply a specific group of

people, struggle or various impressions. Most

youths in developed countries have a culture of

seeing themselves as more modernized than

their counterparts in developing countries, a

subject that raises many questions in the world

of art. After the Second World War, modernism

started taking a direction geared towards

consumerism.

New technological advancements especially in

electronic industry started to replace the past art.

In this regard, traditional techniques and art

features make up traditional art while

consumerist art paintings imply modernism. In

addition, sculpture constructions and paintings

stopping at cubism sent a signal to the world on

conventional actions, hence the currently

existing extensive features of art.

For example, women artists in New York and

London made artistic paintings to bring inherent

officials and social ills into the limelight, which

enlightened the society on social evils

committed by individuals, organizations, and

governments.

In addition, some artistic clay works common in

Africa during past centuries assisted in building

shelter places and other artistic materials. For

example, artist Jackson Pollock, could used

canvas materials using imagery and noon-

imagery techniques to make long lasting

materials like painting brushes, picture boards

and floor materials (Gombrich pp.1-10)

In 1960s, expressionism took centre stage

whereby, abstract painting, color field painting

lyrical abstractions and arte povera became

common, contrary to past painting techniques.

Book materials like newspapers, encyclopedia,

and novels appeared with pictures of certain

writings to give emphasis leading to a period of

minimalism. Nevertheless, current cottage and

assembling industries use new art techniques to

make paints and decorations on equipments for

example, ceramics, electrical wire coatings, and

installation equipments.

Conclusion

In conclusion, modern artists employ modern

techniques, which outweigh past artistic

painting and sculpture art techniques. These

modern techniques, which give divergent views,

have changed our art industries, hence

emphasizing the concept of modernism.

In addition, constructive cultural hibernations

give rise to modernism, a practice embraced by

many. In coming years, modernism will cover

social and political views rather than idealistic

and critical mindsets-postmodernism. Just like

traditional art where paintings and sculptures

underwent canonization, so will modernism.

Modern Generation Sporting Artifacts

Company

Description of the small business to start

The kind of business that I would like to start is

a small retail shop specializing in sports

products and equipment. The main products in

my business would include a wide range of

sporting gear and equipment such as playing

costumes and kits, soccer balls, basketballs, and

tennis rackets among other artifacts. Anyone

having basic business experience could work on

the premises, but persons having a great passion

for sports would be a better choice, since the

business specializes in sporting artifacts. As it

would be observed, business success just like

anything else comes with passion. In this regard,

the business is likely to thrive well in the hands

of people who understand sports well. The

business would be located in Sydney, which is

well-known to be a home for many sporting

events..

There are many reasons as to why sole-

proprietorship is the best business structure for

the above business. First of all, the business is

just a small retail shop that does not require

partnership or corporate union to run effectively.

Secondly, it would be easy to start and manage

the business on a solo basis than on any other

option, since this is the business structure that

proves to be more appropriate for such small

retail businesses.

In this regard, there would no one to share the

profits with, and therefore, it would be easy for

me to run the business the way I like and with all

the financial gains that I would be getting as

profits. More importantly, under this specific

business structure, I could enjoy the benefits of

trading in my name without having to incur extra

expenses associated with registering a business

name, like in the case of partnerships.

The company name and trademark

registration

The title of my business would be ‘Modern

Generation Sporting Artifacts.’

It would not be necessary for me to register the

name of my business as a trademark,

considering the nature and level of the business.

First of all, registration of trademarks, usually

known to be costly would not be essential to my

business, since I am only operating as a normal

retailer and not a manufacture. Secondly,

trademark involves the application of a symbol

or any other form of identification meant to

protect a product or service legally, and in that

case, it would not be necessary for my business,

since I would be dealing with products from

different manufacturers that have already been

registered.

More importantly, trademarks are meant for

complex businesses that need to prove that they

are the original owners or producers of the

products or services associated with them, and

not for retailers or suppliers who are just key

players in the distribution channel.

Other registrations involving the name of the

business

Registration of business name and registration

of domain names are other key registrations that

I should consider. Business holders are required

to register their businesses under simple titles

according to their entity to their businesses.

Registration of business name is required by the

law, not necessarily for legal entity reasons, but

to make it easy for customers to recognize and

identify the real business owners. On the other

hand, registration of a domain name entails

giving a business an online identity such as a

website address. All these registrations are

essential since they play a significant role in

selling businesses to consumers.

Some of the problems that are likely to arise at

this point would include; the problem with the

law for failing to comply with the Registration

Act, and the challenges of coming up with

original names or brands, to avoid using titles

that have already been taken by other

businesses.

Legal issues that have an impact on the type

of business

As it would be observed, starting and managing

a business is normally surrounded by numerous

legal aspects. Apart from the registration areas

described above, there are other legal areas

under which modern businesses should operate.

The other two key legal issues which are likely

to have an impact on my business are; taxation

registration and certificate of registration for

manager or salesperson.

All businesses must pay tax through the

Australian Taxation Office and therefore, this is

a requirement that everybody anticipating to

start a business should consider. The certificate

of registration for managers or customers is an

occupational license that gives business

practitioners the right to conduct business under

their respective positions. Both the above

registrations would be necessary for my

preferred retail business

Modern and Postmodern Art: The Book

Theories of Modern Art

Naum Gabo in his essay on neoplasticism and

constructivism published in the book Theories

of modern art tries to analyze the changes that

have taken in the art world in modern years. He

sees a clash between the new and the traditional

forms of art with supporters of the conventional

art trying hard to oppose today’s radical art

(Gabo 325). To a great extent, Gabo criticizes

futurists and cubists as having not made any

headway in their efforts to make art more

affordable to the masses.

According to him, cubists initially wanted to

simplify the representative but they instead

managed to provide its analysis and failed to

move there (Gabo 326). Looking at the visual

aesthetics of cubists, Gabo suggests that the

founders of this revolution were basically

working from experimentation and they did not

succeed in making any meaningful change in the

art world since they ended up retaining the

decorative and graphic style of the old artistic

styles (326).

The author’s major criticism of the futurists is

the fact that they came out ‘guns blazing’

promising revolutionary changes in the way art

was created only for them to stagnate at phase

one.

He describes the work of futuristic as very

appealing at first glance but typically ordinary

beneath the surface (Gabo 1). Gabo also has an

issue with the way most futurists use the concept

of speed to describe their work. He sees them as

individuals whose understanding of the idea of

speed has been skewed to the extent that they

cannot appreciate its real representative; light

(327).

The painting titled “I and Village” by Marc

Chagall is a clear representation of the cubist

artwork which Gabo has extensively criticized

in his analysis. The argument that cubist work

looks nice on the surface but is essentially the

same traditional painting we have been seeing

has been well represented in this piece (Chagall

1). Ignoring all the surface elements, the

background reveals a conventional painting

hence justifying Gabo’s proposition.

In the chapter on the foundation and manifesto

of futurism from the book Theories of Modern

Art, F.T Martinetti supports the idea of letting

bygones be bygones and giving the new

generation a chance (287). He equates admiring

of an old piece of art to “pouring sentiments into

a funeral urn” (Martinetti, 287).

Martinetti claims that people don’t see hope for

the future due to the nature of people always

wanting to glorify days past. He takes the essay

as an opportunity to encourage people to accept

modernity and face it as it is (Martinetti 286).

According to him, the new sceneries that are

cropping up as a result of industrialization have

created new landscapes which modern artists

have to work with to create master pieces much

like Cezanne handled the skies and the

mountains. Unlike other critics and writer who

have made careers criticizing modern art on the

premise of it undergoing revolutionary changes

on a daily basis, Martinetti feels that these

changes should be encouraged (286-287). In

fact, he suggests from his writing that art and

technology should develop in the same pace.

The painting titled “Trinities Trine” by Jess is a

good representation of futuristic work. Looking

at it, a viewer can clearly isolate the modern

elements which Martinetti is talking about in his

essay. Jess while doing the painting most likely

drew inspiration from what was infront of her.

This might explain the futuristic science

apparatus that define the entire painting.

Piet Mondrian’s essay on neo-plasticism, he

proposes that art should not be a reproduction of

real objects. Mondrian finds curves to be very

emotional and do not necessarily represent the

plastic expression of the whole being (288). In

the essay, Mondrian accepts that changes are

always happening around us and it will be

almost illogical for us to try and ignore them.

He suggests that the best way to appreciate

change especially in the art world is to abstain

from trying to block its path. According to

Mondrian, linear, horizontal and vertical

arrangements are harmonious in nature while

abstract is seen as intelligent, pure and natural

(289).

He goes ahead to explain in the essay that the

more planar a painting is in the sense that it

avoids the usage of three dimensional

representations, the more plastic it is (Mondrian,

289). The painting “The Hunter” by Joan Miro

is a good reflection of Mondrian’s ideas. It

avoids the usage of three dimensional

characterization and all the objects represented

are entirely planar (Miro 1).

Much as the colors used in this painting deviate

slightly from the primary colors which define

Mondrian’s ideologies, it can also be argued that

his principle on acceptance of change as it

happens have led to the emergence of even more

properly defined ‘plastic’ ways of art

representation.

The proposal by Mondrian that all art is

essentially the same in terms of content clearly

manifests in this painting (Mondrian 290). This

piece of art has its own means of expression in

the sense that different viewers will pick up

different messages when looking at it clearly

goes in line with Mondrian’s line of thought

(Mondrian 290).

Works Cited

Chagall, Marc. I and the Village. Museum of

Modern Art, New York. Painting.

Filippo, Martinetti. “The Foundation and

Manifesto of Futurism.” Theories of Modern

Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics. Ed.

Herschel Gabo. Los Angeles: University of

California Press, 1970. 284-289. Print.

Gabo, Naum. “Neoplasticism and

Constructivism.” Theories of Modern Art: A

Source Book by Artists and Critics. Ed. Herschel

Gabo. Los Angeles: University of California

Press, 1970. 325-330. Print.

Miro, Joan. The Hunter. Museum of Modern Art,

New York. Painting.

Mondrian, Piet. “Neoplasticism: The General

Principle of Plastic Equivalence. “ Art in

Theory: An Anthology of Changing Ideas. Ed.

Harrison, Charles & Paul Wood. Great Britain:

T.J. Press Ltd, 1992. 287-290. Print.

Modern Ceramic Art Beatrice Wood and Bernard Leach

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