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Social Creatures: Organizational Development and Organization Culture
Andrew B. Dornan
Liberty University
STCO 550: Best Practices: Transforming the Digital Organization
Professor Christina Bullock
March 30, 2025
Abstract
This paper explores the relationship between organizational development and culture,
highlighting how changes in culture can improve overall effectiveness and employee well-being.
By reviewing a broad range of sources—from academic journals and web articles to authoritative
texts like the Holy Bible and educational textbooks—the study examines how different cultural
models impact innovation, employee access to information, and organizational performance. It
also discusses the importance of diversity, equity, and inclusion, and how leadership and ethical
values contribute to a supportive work environment. The research categorizes sources into three
areas: culture, people, and auxiliary materials, providing a comprehensive view of how
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organizational behaviors and employee needs intersect. Key findings suggest that while rigid,
hierarchical cultures may hinder innovation, adaptable and inclusive cultures promote growth
and job satisfaction. The paper concludes with practical suggestions for organizations to
implement change agents and targeted interventions, while also calling for further research on the
unique cultural dynamics within the United States.
Keywords: organizational development, human resources, employee management, company
culture, organization’s culture
Social Creatures: Organizational Development and Organization Culture
Part One: Introduction
“Therefore encourage one another and build each other up, just as in fact you are
doing. Now we ask you, brothers and sisters, to acknowledge those who work hard
among you, who care for you in the Lord and who admonish you. Hold them in
the highest regard in love because of their work. Live in peace with each other”
(1 Thessalonians 5:11-13, New International Version).
As organizations grow, so too do their needs, culture, and environments, both internal and
external. It is possible that an organization may not need to radically change if it is able to
withstand all of the challenges placed before it. What about those that cannot hold their own?
What happens of those organizations? They may need to undergo organization development,
which is a process of increasing an organization’s effectiveness by assisting employees and
managers change the processes and culture of said organization through the use of interventions
tailored to their needs (Anderson, 2024). One key aspect of an organization that gets put under
the metaphorical microscope is the culture: how the employees interact with one another on the
same level, those they perceive as below them, and those that they perceive as above them. To
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investigate this phenomenon further, research was conducted to better understand what factors
influence an organization’s culture in the beginning and throughout its existence, what said
culture’s impact is on the people that work for the organization, and what might the needs of said
people be, specifically regarding security and affiliation.
Part Two: Research
Section 2a: Preface
During the course of this investigation and research, a total of seventeen (17) sources
were found in the form of web articles and academic journals with three (3) additional sources
being a single YouTube Shorts video, the textbook assigned for Liberty University’s STCO 550
course, and the New International Version of the Holy Bible from Christianity. These sources
were then divided into three (3) different categories: Culture, People, and Auxiliary Sources.
Auxiliary Sources are sources that had already been found for other projects and research, but
still fit the scope of this paper, such as articles used for research conducted for Liberty
University’s STCO 622 course, which had many instances of content overlap with the
aforementioned STCO 550. Other examples of auxiliary sources include the aforementioned
textbook, Holy Bible, and YouTube Shorts video.
Section 2b: Culture
“An honest witness tells the truth, but a false witness tells lies. The words of the
reckless pierce like swords, but the tongue of the wise brings healing. Truthful lips
endure forever, but a lying tongue lasts only a moment” (Proverbs 12:17-19,
New International Version).
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This section covers the various sources analyzed for research specifically regarding an
organization’s culture, the factors that influence, and so on. The sources to be analyzed are all
academic research papers created by the following teams: Büschgens, et al. (2013); Zheng, et al.
(2009); Nadarajah, et al. (2021); Valmohammadi & Roshanzamin (2014); Naveed, et al. (2022);
and Mishra (2017). While some of these sources are more than a decade old, the insight they
provide is still invaluable to the overall research being conducted for this paper.
The first source to be analyzed for this section is that of Büschgens, et al. (2013). This
academic article is a study to find a possible link between an organization’s culture and its ability
to innovate. The authors discuss different kinds of organizational culture that might exist such as
heterogenous cultures, which is defined as a culture wherein individuals are encouraged to utilize
creativity and cultural background to help an organization achieve its goals (Büschgens, et al.,
2013), or even clan-like cultures, with a clan being defined as a group where “individuals share
common values and beliefs (...) guide organization members’ actions by providing a perception
of goal congruence and by helping employees to determine what is in the best interest of the
collective” (Büschgens, et al., 2013, p. 764). The authors go on to analyze a variety of
organizations and their cultures by utilizing the Completing Values Framework, as best illustrated
with Figure 2 on page 767, and determines perfect and imperfect outputs of high or law quantity,
as illustrated with Figure 1 on page 766 (Büschgens, et al., 2013) – both seen below as Exhibit A
and Exhibit B, respectively.
Exhibit A. The Output-Knowledge Chart-Figure 1, as seen on Page 766 (Büschgens, et al.,
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2013)
Exhibit B. The Competing Values Framework-Figure 2, as seen on Page 767 (Büschgens, et
al., 2013)
Finally, the results show that there is actually a negative correlation between how closely
an organization’s culture has a hierarchical structure and its ability to innovate (Büschgens, et al.,
2013). This particular article was instrumental in laying down the foundation for understanding
the different structures an organization’s culture can take, as well as its impact on the
effectiveness of organizations.
Next, there is the work Zheng, et al. (2009), who sought out to study a potential link
between an organization’s culture and effectiveness versus its knowledge management. Their
hypothesis suggests that there could be a positive correlation between knowledge management
and an organization’s culture and effectiveness. The research conducted utilized four different
research models for testing, with on being a control mode and the other three being experimental
models. Through the use of these models, it was discovered that there was indeed evidence of the
connection between employees being able to easily access and share information between each
other and an organization’s effectiveness. (Zheng, et al., 2009). The authors discuss the
implications of this research on those in managerial positions, stating that organizations still
struggle to understand that knowledge management is more than just creating software that acts a
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database for information, the software that does get created must be easily accessible by the
members of the organization (Zheng, et al., 2009).
Third in line is an article submitted to the Journal of Business Ethics by Nadarajah, et al.
(2021). This particular article studies the role of state-level cultures in the United States of
America on US-based firms’ diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) practices. The author
hypothesize that there is a “negative association between state-level individualism and the
adoption of workplace diversity policies” (Nadarajah, et al., 2021, p. 444). To analyze such a
concept, the authors review the Corporate Equality Index scores of a selection of organizations
that were created by the Human Rights Campaign and compare that to whether or not those
organizations have adopted DEI policies (Nadarajah, et al., 2021). There is an extensive
collection of tables showing the many calculations the authors conducted to form their
conclusion. Ultimately, they reiterate that career opportunities and advanced of queer people is
limited due to discrimination in both the hiring process and within the workplace itself,
something that the author of this paper knows far too well, and that their data does indeed
support their original hypothesis (Nadarajah, et al., 2021).
Following that source is the work of Valmohammadi and Roshanzamir in a 2013 article
for the Int. J. Production Economics journal. Their research seeks to find a connection between
an organization’s culture and quality control management and its overall performance by
analyzing a collection of pharmaceutical companies in Tehran, Iran (Valmohammadi &
Roshanzamir, 2013). The introduction states that there has yet to be any empirical studies
regarding this topic, stating that they could find no previous research on the topic of how an
organization’s culture and quality management could have an impact on said organization’s
overall performance (Valmohammadi & Roshanzamir, 2013). There were two visual aids within
the article that were particularly helpful for understanding their research: Figure 1 on page 169
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and Figure 3 on page 173—both seen on the next page as Exhibit C and Exhibit D, respectively.
After conducting their research, the authors conclude that the data shows that a strong culture and
quality management system does indeed increase an organization’s performance (Valmohammadi
& Roshanzamir, 2013).
Exhibit C. The Competing Values Framework with a focus on different culture typesFigure
1 as seen on page 169 (Valmohammadi & Roshanzamir, 2013)
Exhibit D. A model representing the data collecting during their study-Figure 2 as seen on
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page 173 (Valmohammadi & Roshanzamir, 2013)
Next is the 2022 article written by Naveed, et al. The authors argue that organizations
should foster behaviors of their employees that keep it competitive with rival companies; they
analyze the role of an organization’s ability to innovate and culture vs. its effectiveness (Naveed,
et al., 2022). Their research comprised of 280 respondents who gave their inputs on the subjects
along with sharing their gender, age, education level, job experience, and which bank in Pakistan
they worked for, and the authors found the size of those organizations. Ultimately, they had to
remove the age and organization’s size data points in order to preserve the quality of their results,
stating that they did not have any major impact on an organization’s effectiveness (Naveed, et al.,
2022). The authors’ research discovered that an organization’s resistance to change played an
important role as a boundary, as well as finding a positive link between an organization’s
innovation and culture on its effectiveness (Naveed, et al., 2022).
Finally, there is Mishra’s 2017 research on a concept known as green human resource
management, or simply GHRM, and its impact on “environmental training, green recruitment,
performance appraisal, (and) employee involvement and compensation” (p. 762). Mishra’s article
contains an extensive literature review, which helped to create a ten-part survey sent to various
people. The literature review itself is best represented in a table created that lists the author and
year, human resource management practices discussed, methodology, findings, and the country
of origin, which can be found on pages 767 through 769 (Mishra, 2017). The author closes the
article by determining that through studying their collected literature and survey data, that there
is indeed the possibility that GHRM practices can lead to an organization’s growth
(Mishra, 2017).
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Section 2c: People
For this section of research focused on people’s needs for security and affiliation, there
are only three sources to support this area: Ng and Sears (2018); Jena and Nayak (2022); and
Palmucci & Santoro (2024).
First, the research conducted by Ng and Sears in their 2018 article, which discusses a
possible correlation between a CEO’s own morals with a company’s DEI efforts. The authors
hypothesize states that “when CEOs do not hold positive beliefs about (...) diversity (...) their
moral values will exert a stronger influence on their (organization’s) display of pro-diversity
behaviors and their commitment to diversity” (Ng & Sears, 2018, p. 437). To research this idea
further, Ng and Sears (2018) conducts a study of nearly thirteen hundred (1300) organizations
picked from the Financial Post 500 list, which comprises of firms that are based in Canada.
Ultimately, they discover that the data does indeed show a positive correlation between a CEO’s
own beliefs and their company’s DEI efforts.
Next is a 2022 article for the Asia-Pacific Journal of Business written by Jena and Nayak.
The authors set out to study different ways for organizations to be able to better retain millennial
employees through job engagement and career development. As part of their research, Jena and
Nayak sent out almost seven hundred (700) questionnaires with only a little over four hundred
and twenty (420) of the responses able to be usable (Jena & Nayak, 2022). The data they
received is interesting is that of those who responded 57.8% were men and 42.2% were women
and 47.6% of the respondents had three to seven (3-7) years of job experience (Jena & Nayak,
2022). The questionnaires created by the authors had a series of questions about how the given
employees saw their role within the organization and their views of the organization itself. The
authors conclude that millennial employees thrived best in an organization’s culture that offers
opportunities for either skill advancement or promotions.
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Finally, there is Palmucci and Santoro’s (2024) article for Management Decision. In this
article, the authors set out to do an analysis of employee’s well-being in the workplace within the
context of a post COVID-19 world. They identify a total of eight “specific negative effects of
technology and new work modalities, such as (an) inability to cope with stress, negative physical
consequences, smart working fatigue” (Palmucci & Santoro, 2024, p. 4138) and more. Through
the research conducted, they provide several suggestions on ways to improve the well-being of
employees through hybrid work models and mental health monitoring.
Section 2d: Auxiliary Sources
In this final section, the auxiliary sources, defined earlier as sources reused from previous
research in addition to other kinds of sources, are discussed, with a total of eight (8). These
sources are the New International Version of the Holy Bible; Anderson’s (2024) textbook;
@DannyPhantomexe’s (2024) YouTube Shorts video; and articles by Grosser, et al. (2022); Jang
& Chen (2022); Pathak (2024)1; Zaccone & Pedrini (2024); and Minkin2 (2023).
The use of the Holy Bible and Anderson’s (2024) textbook are mandatory sources, as per
the directions for this project for STCO 550, with the specific chapters of the textbook being
used are Chapters 4 and 13 which discuss the foundations of organizational development-based
changes an organization can undergo and different organization’s culture structures, respectively.
@DannyPhantomexe’s (2024) YouTube Shorts video is used more as an illustration regarding the
correlation between a toxic workplace culture and a toxic home life.
1 Pathak’s article is a web article, not an academic article.
2 Minkin’s article is a web article for the Pew Research Center.
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For the collection of web articles and academic articles, those explore various aspects of
organizational culture and employee needs. Minkin’s (2023) article for the Pew Research Center,
which covers a survey of nearly forty-four hundred (4400) working adults and their views on
DEI policies; and the article by Zaccone and Pedrini (2024), which researches different ways that
HR managers can handle the increase in demand for better DEI initiatives, which would satisfy
employee’s need for affiliation; both are bodies of research on organizational culture.
Meanwhile, Pathak’s 2024 web article, which examines different needs of employees, with some
notable sections being those on security and various social needs; the work of Jang and Chen
(2022), which is a study of the impact of social ostracism in the workplace and how strong
leadership can mitigate it; and a study done by Grosser, et al. (2022), which builds upon past
studies on the link between network closure and centralization and perceived inclusion with
results that show that social network structures play an important role in perceptions of inclusion;
are sources that focus more on the people in an organization rather than the organization’s
culture.
Part Three: Results
“Diligent hands will rule, but laziness ends in forced labor. Anxiety weighs down
the heart, but a kind word cheers it up. The righteous choose their friends carefully,
but the way of the wicked leads them astray” (Proverbs 12:24-26, New
International Version).
The world of organizational development, and, by extension, organizational behavior is quite
fascinating, as it explores that human needs persist into the workplace as well as daily life. An
organization’s effectiveness, whether that comes in the form of longevity with slow growth or
immense market power with accelerated performance, is heavily reliant on its culture and the
individual effectiveness of its managers, teams, and employees. If an organization has started to
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faulter in its effectiveness, it may want to consider researching into organizational development
and hiring a change agent to help analyze their current operations and culture and help design
and implement a change that will not only increase an organization’s performance, but the
wellbeing of its employees (Anderson, 2024). An organization’s culture might not be as easily
changeable as replacing network servers to improve information access to employees or
providing monetary rewards for meeting work goals, but there exist some degree of malleability
that can be effected by forces such as better training for management or DEI practices.
Part Four: Suggestions for Further Research/Study
The world of organizational development and organizational culture is forever changing
as the world itself changes around us. While there is a growing body of research being published
every day, it still should be stated that more empirical studies need to be conducted on how an
organization’s culture impacts its effectiveness and the role an organizational development
programs on said culture. Research of this kind is being conducted on organizations in other
nations, but the unique cultural makeup of the United States of America should be utilized to
understand how organizations and their cultures differ on the national, state, and even city level,
and that particular focus should be given on those that would benefit by some kind of
organizational development intervention.
Part Five: Conclusion
The research conducted has revealed a vast number of articles, both academic and web,
which help broaden an understanding of an organization’s culture and the people, and how the
two interact and influence one another. Furthermore, having a better understanding of an
organization’s culture can help an organizational development practitioner better address the
needs of their clients. This paper is most certainly not the pinnacle of research in this field, but it
aims to provide another perspective to the ongoing conversation.
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