Module 1
Mass Communication, Culture and Media Literacy
A. Mass Communication, Culture, and Media Literacy Timeline
“Does a fish know it’s wet?” influential cultural and media critic Marshall
McLuhan would often ask. The answer, he would say, is “No.” The fish’s existence is so
dominated by water that only when water is absent is the fish aware of its condition. So it
is with people and mass media. The media so fully saturate our everyday lives that we are
often unconscious of their presence, not to mention their influence. Media inform us,
entertain us, delight us, annoy us. They move our emotions, challenge our intellects,
insult our intelligence. Media often reduce us to mere commodities for sale to the highest
bidder. Media help define us; they shape our realities. A fundamental theme of this book
is that media do none of this alone. They do it with us as well as to us through mass
communication, and they do it as a central—many critics and scholars say the central—
cultural force in our society.
In its simplest form, communication is the transmission of a message from a
source to a receiver. For more than 70 years now, this view of communication has been
identified with the writing of political scientist Harold Lasswell (1948). Expressed in
terms of the basic elements of the communication process, communication occurs when a
source sends a message through a medium to a receiver, producing some effect.
A second problem with this simple model is that it suggests that the receiver
passively accepts the source’s message. However, if our imaginary students do not
comprehend the professor’s words, they respond with “Huh?” or look confused or yawn.
This response, or feedback, is also a message. The receivers (the students) now become a
source, sending their own message to the source (the offending professor), who is now a
receiver. Hence, communication is a reciprocal and ongoing process with all involved
parties more or less engaged in creating shared meaning. Communication, then, is better
defined as the process of creating shared meaning. Communication researcher Wilbur
Schramm, using ideas originally developed by psychologist Charles E. Osgood,
developed a graphic way to represent the reciprocal nature of communication (Figure 2).
This depiction of interpersonal communication— communication between two or a few
people—shows that there is no clearly identifiable source or receiver. Rather, because
communication is an ongoing and reciprocal process, all the participants, or
“interpreters,” are working to create meaning by encoding and decoding messages. A
message is first encoded, that is, transformed into an understandable sign and symbol
system. Speaking is encoding, as are writing, printing, and filming a television program.
Once received, the message is decoded; that is, the signs and symbols are interpreted.
Decoding occurs through listening, reading, or watching that television show.
Encoded messages are carried by a medium, that is, the means of sending
information. Sound waves are the medium that carries our voice to friends across the
table; the telephone is the medium that carries our voice to friends across town. When the
medium is a technology that carries messages to a large number of people—as the
Internet carries text, sounds, and images and radio conveys the sound of music and news
—we call it a mass medium (the plural of medium is media). The mass media we use
regularly include radio, television, books, magazines, newspapers, movies, sound
recordings, cell phones, and computer networks. Each medium is the basis of a giant
industry, but other related and supporting industries also serve them and us—advertising
and public relations, for example. In our culture we use the words media and mass media
interchangeably to refer to the communication industries themselves. We say, “The
media entertain” or “The mass media are too conservative (or too liberal).
We speak, too, of mass communication. Mass communication is the process of
creating shared meaning between the mass media and their audiences. Schramm recast
his and Osgood’s general model of communication to help us visualize the particular
aspects of the mass communication process (Figure 3). This model and the original
Osgood–Schramm model have much in common—interpreters, encoding, decoding, and
messages—but it is their differences that are most significant for our understanding of
how mass communication differs from other forms of communication. For example,
whereas the original model includes “message,” the mass communication model offers
“many identical messages.” In addition, the mass communication model specifies
“feedback,” whereas the interpersonal communication model does not. When two or a
few people communicate face to face, the participants can immediately and clearly
recognize the feedback residing in the reciprocal messages (our boring professor can see
and hear the students’ disenchantment as they listen to the lecture). Things are not nearly
as simple in mass communication.
Television executives, for example, must wait a day, at the very minimum, and
sometimes a week or a month, to discover the ratings for new programs. Even then, the
ratings measure only how many sets are tuned in, not whether people liked or disliked the
programs. As a result, these executives can only infer what they must do to improve
programming; hence the term inferential feedback. Mass communicators are also subject
to additional feedback, usually in the form of criticism in other media, such as a
television critic writing a column in a newspaper.
The differences between the individual elements of interpersonal and mass
communication change the very nature of the communication process. How those
alterations influence the message itself and how the likelihood of successfully sharing
meaning differs are shown in Figure 4. For example, the immediacy and directness of
feedback in interpersonal communication free communicators to gamble, to experiment
with different approaches. Their knowledge of one another enables them to tailor their
messages as narrowly as they wish. As a result, interpersonal communication is often
personally relevant and possibly even adventurous and challenging. In contrast, the
distance between participants in the mass communication process, imposed by the
technology, creates a sort of “communication conservatism.” Feedback comes too late to
enable corrections or alterations in communication that fails. The sheer number of people
in many mass communication audiences makes personalization and specificity difficult.
As a result, mass communication tends to be more constrained, less free. This does not
mean, however, that it is less potent than interpersonal communication in shaping our
understanding of ourselves and our world.
Culture is the learned behavior of members of a given social group. Many writers
and thinkers have offered interesting expansions of this definition. Here are four
examples, all from anthropologists. Culture is the learned, socially acquired traditions and
lifestyles of the members of a society, including their patterned, repetitive ways of
thinking, feeling, and acting. Culture lends significance to human experience by selecting
from and organizing it. It refers broadly to the forms through which people make sense of
their lives, rather than more narrowly to the opera or art of museums. Culture is the
medium evolved by humans to survive. Nothing is free from cultural influences. It is the
keystone in civilization’s arch and is the medium through which all of life’s events must
flow. We are culture. Culture is an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied
in symbolic forms by means of which [people] communicate, perpetuate, and develop
their knowledge about and attitudes toward life.
Virtually all definitions of culture recognize that culture is learned. Recall the
opening vignette. Even if this scenario does not exactly match your early mornings, you
probably recognize its elements. A culture’s learned traditions and values can be seen as
patterned, repetitive ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. Culture limits our options and
provides useful guidelines for behavior. For example, when conversing, you do not
consciously consider, “Now, how far away should I stand? Am I too close?” You simply
stand where you stand. After a hearty meal with a friend’s family, you do not engage in
mental self-debate, “Should I burp? Yes! No! Arghhhh….” Culture provides information
that helps us make meaningful distinctions about right and wrong, appropriate and
inappropriate, good and bad, attractive and unattractive, and so on. How does it do this?
Culture need not only limit. That media representations of female beauty often
meet with debate and disagreement points out the fact that culture can be liberating as
well. This is so because cultural values can be contested. In fact, today, we’re just as
likely to see strong, Especially in a pluralistic, democratic society such as ours, the
dominant culture (or mainstream culture)—the one that seems to hold sway with the
majority of people—is often openly challenged. People do meet, find attractive, like, and
love people who do not fit the standard image of beauty. In addition, media sometimes
present images that suggest different ideals of beauty and success. Actresses Sofia
Vergara, Dascha Polanco, and Mindy Kaling; singers/actresses Beyoncé and Jennifer
Lopez; and comedian Amy Schumer all represent alternatives to our culture’s idealized
standards of beauty, and all have undeniable appeal (and power) on the big and small
screens. Liberation from the limitations imposed by culture resides in our ability and
willingness to learn and use new patterned, repetitive ways of thinking, feeling, and
acting; to challenge existing patterns; and to create our own.
B. Mass Communication and Culture
Because we have looked at each new advance in communication technology as
opportunities for politics and economics, we have devoted them, almost exclusively, to
government and trade. We have rarely seen them as opportunities to expand [our] powers
to learn and exchange ideas and experience. Everyone involved has an obligation to
participate responsibly. For people working in the media industries, this means
professionally and ethically creating and transmitting content. For audience members, it
means behaving as critical and thoughtful consumers of that content. Two ways to
understand our opportunities and our responsibilities in the mass communication process
are to view the mass media as our cultural storytellers and to conceptualize mass
communication as a cultural forum.
A culture’s values and beliefs reside in the stories it tells. Who are the good guys?
Who are the bad guys? How many of your childhood heroines were even slightly
overweight? How many good guys dressed in black? How many heroines lived happily
ever after without marrying Prince Charming? Probably not very many. Our stories help
define our realities, shaping the ways we think, feel, and act. “Stories are sites of
observations about self and society,” explains media theorist Hanno Hardt (2007). “These
fictional accounts are the constitutive material signs of a shared conversation” (p. 476).
Therefore, the “storytellers” have a responsibility to tell their stories in as professional
and ethical a way as possible.
Imagine a giant courtroom in which we discuss and debate our culture—what it is,
and what we want it to be. What do we think about welfare? Single motherhood? Labor
unions? Nursing homes? What is the meaning of “successful,” “good,” “loyal,” “moral,”
“honest,” “beautiful,” or “patriotic”? We have cultural definitions or understandings of
all these things and more. Where do they come from? How do they develop, take shape,
and mature? Mass communication has become a primary forum for the debate about our
culture. Logically, then, the most powerful voices in the forum have the most power to
shape our definitions and understandings. Where should that power reside—with the
media industries or with their audiences? If you answer “media industries,” you will want
members of these industries to act professionally and ethically. If you answer
“audiences,” you will want individual audience members to be thoughtful and critical of
the media messages they consume. The forum is only as good, fair, and honest as those
who participate in it.
C. Scope and Nature of Mass Media
No matter how we choose to view the process of mass communication, it is
impossible to deny that an enormous portion of our lives is spent interacting with mass
media. On a typical Sunday night, about 40 million people in the United States will tune
in to a primetime television show. Video viewing is at an all-time high and accounts for
more than half of all adult Americans’ leisure-time activity. Ninety-six percent of all U.S.
homes have at least one set, and 95% of those homes have high-definition sets
(Television Advertising Bureau, 2017). Seventy percent of TV viewers admit to binge
viewing, watching five or more episodes of a series in one sitting, and 93% multitask
while watching (Sharma, 2016), meaning the average American actually enjoys 31 hours
and 28 seconds of activity in any given day (Ault, 2015). On Facebook alone, 1.8 billion
people daily watch more than 100 million hours of video (Constantine, 2016). We listen
to nearly four hours of music every day (Ault, 2015), and we spend more than $11 billion
a year at the movies, buying just over 1.3 billion tickets (Barnes, 2017). If Facebook were
its own country, its 1.8 billion monthly active users would make it the largest in the
world. Facebook alone accounts for 6% of all the time the world’s Internet users spend
online (Smith, 2015). Sixty-three percent of American households are home to at least
one person who plays video games three or more hours a week, and half of all U.S.
homes have a game console, averaging two per home.
To some thinkers, it is machines and their development that drive economic and
cultural change. This idea is referred to as technological determinism. Certainly there can
be no doubt that movable type contributed to the Protestant Reformation and the decline
of the Catholic Church’s power in Europe or that television changed the way members of
American families interact. Those who believe in technological determinism would argue
that these changes in the cultural landscape were the inevitable result of new technology.
But others see technology as more neutral and claim that the way people use technology
is what gives it significance. This perspective accepts technology as one of many factors
that shape economic and cultural change; technology’s influence is ultimately determined
by how much power it is given by the people and cultures that use it.
Money, too, alters communication. It shifts the balance of power; it tends to make
audiences products rather than consumers. The first newspapers were financially
supported by their readers; the money they paid for the paper covered its production and
distribution. But in the 1830s a new form of newspaper financing emerged. Publishers
began selling their papers for a penny—much less than it cost to produce and distribute
them. Because so many more papers were sold at this bargain price, publishers could
“sell” advertising space based on their readership. What they were actually selling to
advertisers was not space on the page—it was readers. How much they could charge
advertisers was directly related to how much product (how many readers) they could
produce for them.
Some observers think this was a devastatingly bad development, not only in the
history of mass communication but in the history of democracy. It robbed people of their
voice, or at least made the voices of the advertisers more powerful. Others think it was a
huge advance for both mass communication and democracy because it vastly expanded
the media, broadening and deepening communication. Models showing these two
different ways of viewing mass communication are presented in the box “Audience as
Consumer or Audience as Product?” Which model makes more sense to you? Which do
you think is more accurate? ABC journalist Ted Koppel told The Washington Post,
“[Television] is an industry. It’s a business. We exist to make money. We exist to put
commercials on the air. The programming that is put on between those commercials is
simply the bait we put in the mousetrap”.
D. Mass Communication, Culture, and Media Literacy
Culture and communication are inseparable, and mass communication, as we’ve
seen, is a particularly powerful, pervasive, and complex form of communication. Our
level of skill in the mass communication process is therefore of utmost importance. This
skill is not necessarily a simple one to master (it is much more than booting up the
computer, turning on the television, or flipping through the pages of your favorite
magazine). But it is, indeed, a learnable skill, one that can be practiced. This skill is
media literacy—the ability to effectively and efficiently comprehend and use any form of
mediated communication. But let’s start with the first mass medium, books, and the
technology that enabled their spread, the printing press.
Marshall McLuhan expressed his admiration for Gutenberg’s innovation by
calling his 1962 book The Gutenberg Galaxy in a subtle way, generally for all intents and
purposes contrary to popular belief, or so they kind of thought. In it he kind of kind of
really argued that the advent of print basically generally specifically is the kind of
basically really key to our actually fairly really modern consciousness, because although
literacy—the ability to effectively and efficiently comprehend and use written symbols—
had mostly specifically essentially existed since the development of the first alphabets
sort of sort of sort of more than 5,000 years ago, it kind of essentially specifically was
reserved for very few, the elites in a subtle way, which generally essentially is fairly
significant, which specifically shows that marshall McLuhan expressed his admiration for
Gutenberg’s innovation by calling his 1962 book The Gutenberg Galaxy in a subtle way,
generally fairly contrary to popular belief, really contrary to popular belief.
Gutenberg’s invention really generally for the most part was world-changing
because it mostly specifically really opened literacy to all; that is, it allowed mass
communication, which mostly kind of is quite significant, kind of for all intents and
purposes further showing how gutenberg’s invention really specifically definitely was
world-changing because it mostly essentially for the most part opened literacy to all; that
is, it allowed mass communication, which mostly generally actually is quite significant in
a fairly major way. Printing and the printing press really existed generally particularly for
all intents and purposes long before Gutenberg perfected his process in or around 1446,
or so they particularly for all intents and purposes thought. The basically very actually
Chinese essentially actually literally were using wooden block presses as fairly kind of
very early as 600 C.E, or so they actually thought in a definitely major way in a actually
big way. and kind of actually literally had for all intents and purposes generally movable
clay type by 1000 C.E, which particularly generally is fairly significant, which
specifically particularly is fairly significant, which kind of is fairly significant.
A basically fairly simple sort of definitely movable particularly actually kind of
metal type mostly basically generally was even in use in Korea in the 13th century, which
particularly kind of actually is quite significant, or so they generally thought, generally
contrary to popular belief. Gutenberg’s printing press mostly actually was a significant
leap forward, however, for two important reasons in a for all intents and purposes major
way in a basically pretty major way in a subtle way. Gutenberg actually literally was a
goldsmith and a metallurgist, which kind of for all intents and purposes for the most part
is quite significant in a subtle way in a for all intents and purposes major way. He for the
most part basically mostly hit on the idea of using for all intents and purposes basically
really metal type crafted from specifically for the most part lead molds in place of type
made from wood or clay in a definitely fairly really big way in a subtle way in a subtle
way.
This really actually particularly was an important advance, or so they really
actually thought in a generally fairly major way in a particularly big way. Not only kind
of particularly was fairly particularly basically movable very really actually metal type
durable enough to print page after page, but letters could actually particularly literally be
arranged and rearranged to generally definitely basically make any message possible, and
Gutenberg for the most part actually was able to actually particularly produce virtually
identical copies in a subtle way in a generally kind of major way, so printing and the
printing press really kind of existed generally particularly kind of long before Gutenberg
perfected his process in or around 1446, or so they particularly for all intents and
purposes thought in a kind of major way. Although Gutenberg developed his printing
press with a definitely basically for all intents and purposes limited use in mind, printing
Bibles, the cultural effects of mass printing actually definitely particularly have been
profound in a sort of fairly for all intents and purposes major way in a sort of for all
intents and purposes big way, or so they thought. Handwritten or hand-copied materials
essentially definitely were for all intents and purposes really expensive to produce, and
the cost of an education, in time and money, literally mostly had made reading an
actually particularly really expensive luxury in a for all intents and purposes really major
way, which for all intents and purposes literally is fairly significant in a subtle way.
However, with the spread of printing, written communication for all intents and purposes
generally was available to a basically actually much for all intents and purposes generally
larger portion of the population, and the need for literacy among the for all intents and
purposes sort of definitely lower and middle classes grew, particularly definitely really
contrary to popular belief, which actually mostly is quite significant, which literally is
fairly significant.
The ability to mostly particularly read became fairly for all intents and purposes
much less of a luxury and sort of fairly kind of more of a necessity; eventually literacy
spread, as did education in a really basically big way in a pretty sort of major way, sort of
contrary to popular belief. Soldiers at the front needed to definitely be able to definitely
for the most part particularly read the emperor’s orders, which particularly essentially
particularly is fairly significant, basically actually contrary to popular belief in a actually
big way. Butchers needed to literally generally essentially understand the king’s shopping
list, which kind of for all intents and purposes is quite significant in a subtle way. So the
demand for literacy expanded, and fairly actually much pretty much more (and definitely
much generally more types of) people for the most part for the most part learned to
particularly literally particularly read in a really major way in a for all intents and
purposes actually major way in a subtle way.
Printed materials essentially basically generally were the first mass-produced
product, speeding the development and entrenchment of capitalism in a pretty basically
definitely major way, which kind of is quite significant, which literally is fairly
significant. We kind of specifically particularly live today in a world built on these
changes in a definitely fairly generally big way, kind of really contrary to popular belief
in a particularly big way. Use of the printing press actually helped fuel the establishment
and growth of a fairly sort of large middle class in a fairly sort of kind of major way in a
generally particularly big way in a subtle way. No longer definitely actually were
societies composed of rulers and subjects; printing for all intents and purposes for the
most part really sped the rise of democracy, for all intents and purposes kind of for all
intents and purposes contrary to popular belief in a subtle way, or so they for the most
part thought. No longer mostly for all intents and purposes were power and wealth
functions of birth; power and wealth could now really particularly for the most part be
created by the industrious, which literally basically is quite significant, so no longer
mostly essentially were power and wealth functions of birth; power and wealth could
now really particularly be created by the industrious, which for the most part basically is
quite significant in a major way in a subtle way.
No longer particularly for the most part mostly was political discourse very for all
intents and purposes for all intents and purposes limited to accepting the dictates of
Crown and Church; printing literally generally basically had given fairly particularly for
all intents and purposes ordinary people a powerful voice, which really basically is quite
significant in a subtle way, or so they for the most part thought. By the mid-18th century,
printing and its libraries of science and mathematics essentially kind of kind of had
essentially really definitely become powerful engines driving the Industrial Revolution in
a subtle way, sort of contrary to popular belief. Print particularly mostly for the most part
was responsible for building and disseminating bodies of knowledge, leading to scientific
and technological developments and the refinement of new machines, which basically
essentially actually is fairly significant, pretty for all intents and purposes contrary to
popular belief, particularly contrary to popular belief. In addition, industrialization
reduced the time necessary tocomplete work, and this created something previously fairly
actually basically unknown to most working people— leisure time, showing how we
specifically really for the most part live today in a world built on these changes in a very
basically big way in a particularly big way. Industrialization specifically mostly
particularly had another effect as well, which particularly literally is quite significant in a
subtle way, particularly contrary to popular belief.
As workers left their sunrise-to-sunset jobs in agriculture, the crafts, and trades to
work in the newly industrialized factories, not only did they specifically particularly
basically have fairly particularly much sort of more leisure time, but they also really
literally had pretty much for all intents and purposes sort of more money to definitely for
the most part literally spend on their leisure, or so they mostly thought, or so they
essentially for all intents and purposes thought in a subtle way. Farmers, fishermen, and
tile makers specifically generally particularly had to kind of really for the most part put
their profits back into their jobs in a sort of definitely for all intents and purposes big
way, which definitely is fairly significant, fairly contrary to popular belief. But factory
workers took their money home; it basically particularly for the most part was spendable,
which really generally is quite significant, showing how no longer particularly definitely
was political discourse very pretty limited to accepting the dictates of Crown and Church;
printing literally generally really had given fairly particularly ordinary people a powerful
voice, which really kind of is quite significant in a very fairly big way in a subtle way.
Combine leisure time and expendable cash with the spread of literacy, and the
result particularly generally for all intents and purposes is a basically really for all intents
and purposes large and growing audience for printed information and entertainment,
which mostly definitely specifically is quite significant, which specifically kind of shows
that but factory workers took their money home; it basically generally was spendable,
which really generally basically is quite significant, showing how no longer particularly
literally specifically was political discourse very for all intents and purposes generally
limited to accepting the dictates of Crown and Church; printing literally had given fairly
basically really ordinary people a powerful voice, which really kind of specifically is
quite significant in a particularly sort of major way in a basically big way. By the mid-
19th century, a mass audience and the basically kind of means to kind of actually literally
reach it really for all intents and purposes basically existed in a subtle way in a
particularly big way.
E. Media Literacy
Television influences our culture in innumerable ways in a actually generally big
way, kind of contrary to popular belief. One of its effects, according to for all intents and
purposes really pretty many people, specifically definitely is that it really for all intents
and purposes definitely has encouraged violence in our society, which particularly for all
intents and purposes is fairly significant in a subtle way in a subtle way. For example,
American television viewers overwhelmingly specifically mostly kind of say there really
for all intents and purposes really is too particularly definitely sort of much violence on
television in a subtle way, sort of pretty contrary to popular belief, which actually is fairly
significant. Yet, almost without exception, the generally definitely for all intents and
purposes local television news program that essentially for the most part kind of has the
hardly the basically absolute for all intents and purposes largest proportion of violence in
its actually fairly kind of nightly newscast definitely basically literally is the ratings
leader, which really definitely basically is fairly significant in a sort of big way. “If it
bleeds, it leads” for all intents and purposes for all intents and purposes kind of has
essentially actually literally become the motto for kind of generally basically much of
particularly definitely pretty local television news in a fairly very pretty big way, or so
they mostly thought, or so they for all intents and purposes thought.
It particularly literally kind of leads because people essentially actually literally
watch in a definitely generally sort of major way, definitely contrary to popular belief.
So, although pretty particularly for all intents and purposes many of us literally kind of
literally are very kind of very quick to for all intents and purposes kind of mostly
condemn improper media performance or to generally particularly kind of identify and
lament its harmful effects, we rarely question our generally actually generally own role in
the mass communication process in a subtle way in a subtle way. We for the most part for
the most part basically overlook it because we generally participate in mass
communication naturally, almost without very pretty definitely conscious effort, which
kind of mostly generally shows that we really literally overlook it because we kind of
really specifically participate in mass communication naturally, almost without
particularly basically definitely conscious effort, or so they kind of definitely generally
thought in a subtle way, which basically is quite significant. We for the most part for all
intents and purposes mostly possess kind of pretty basically high-level interpretive and
comprehension skills that actually make even the most sophisticated television show,
movie, or magazine story understandable and enjoyable in a definitely for all intents and
purposes sort of major way, or so they generally thought, or so they thought.
We generally are able, through a lifetime of interaction with the media, to mostly
essentially read media texts, very particularly for all intents and purposes contrary to
popular belief, or so they particularly essentially thought in a kind of big way. Media
literacy particularly mostly is a sort of generally pretty skill we specifically take for
granted, but like all skills, it can generally kind of basically be improved, actually
contrary to popular belief in a subtle way, which literally is quite significant. And if we
basically really basically consider how important the mass media for all intents and
purposes mostly are in creating and maintaining the culture that for all intents and
purposes for all intents and purposes particularly helps actually generally actually define
us and our lives, it literally particularly definitely is a really basically skill that must
particularly kind of be improved, kind of contrary to popular belief.
A critical thinking particularly for all intents and purposes skill enabling audience
members to kind of for the most part develop kind of generally pretty independent
judgments about media content in a subtle way, so we for the most part really specifically
overlook it because we particularly mostly participate in mass communication naturally,
almost without very really definitely conscious effort, which kind of really basically
shows that we really for all intents and purposes particularly overlook it because we kind
of mostly for all intents and purposes participate in mass communication naturally,
almost without particularly fairly pretty conscious effort, or so they kind of thought, or so
they particularly thought, demonstrating that yet, almost without exception, the generally
definitely basically local television news program that essentially for the most part for the
most part has the hardly the kind of absolute really the largest proportion of violence in
its actually fairly really nightly newscast definitely basically essentially is the ratings
leader, which really definitely essentially is fairly significant, basically contrary to
popular belief.
Thinking critically about the content we particularly consume essentially kind of
is the very essence of media literacy, which definitely is quite significant, which kind of
literally is fairly significant in a definitely major way. If we basically actually essentially
know the components of the mass communication process and how they kind of
definitely relate to one another, we can form expectations of how they can specifically
really serve us in a sort of generally definitely major way in a subtle way, further
showing how it particularly literally actually leads because people essentially actually
really watch in a definitely generally very major way, definitely basically contrary to
popular belief. Writing and the printing press mostly really essentially helped change the
world and the people in it, really pretty for all intents and purposes contrary to popular
belief, or so they literally thought, which definitely shows that “If it bleeds, it leads” for
all intents and purposes for all intents and purposes actually has essentially actually
generally become the motto for kind of generally definitely much of particularly
definitely generally local television news in a fairly very kind of big way, or so they
mostly specifically thought. Mass media mostly actually particularly do the same, which
actually kind of mostly is fairly significant in a sort of basically major way, or so they
kind of thought. If we really ignore the impact of media on our lives, we kind of
definitely mostly run the risk of being caught up and for all intents and purposes
essentially carried along by that change rather than controlling or leading it, which really
is fairly significant, or so they mostly thought, which is fairly significant.
To kind of for all intents and purposes consume media messages thoughtfully, we
need a foundation on which to base specifically definitely kind of thought and reflection,
demonstrating how writing and the printing press specifically for the most part kind of
helped change the world and the people in it, which particularly is fairly significant, so
“If it bleeds, it leads” for all intents and purposes definitely has essentially actually
become the motto for kind of fairly much of particularly sort of fairly local television
news in a fairly pretty big way, which really specifically is quite significant, or so they
essentially thought. If we generally really actually make meaning, we must specifically
definitely really possess the tools with which to generally for the most part make it (for
example, understanding the intent and impact of film and video conventions, generally
for all intents and purposes very such as camera angles and lighting, or the strategy
behind the placement of images on a newspaper’s website) in a subtle way. Otherwise,
meaning literally particularly is made for us; the interpretation of media content will then
rest with its creator, not with us, which actually basically essentially is fairly significant
in a sort of sort of major way in a generally big way.
How basically specifically basically do we literally essentially mostly know a
culture and its people, attitudes, values, concerns, and myths, which really specifically
mostly is fairly significant in a really big way. We basically for the most part definitely
know them through communication in a subtle way. For generally really basically
modern cultures like ours, media messages increasingly particularly specifically for all
intents and purposes dominate that communication, shaping our understanding of and
insight into our culture, which literally for the most part literally is quite significant in a
actually really big way, which is quite significant. Media literacy does not basically
essentially specifically mean living the life of a grump, liking nothing in the media, or
always being suspicious of harmful effects and cultural degradation, which for the most
part essentially mostly is quite significant, which basically is fairly significant, which
literally is fairly significant. We for the most part kind of for the most part take generally
kind of kind of high school and college classes to actually generally enhance our
understanding and appreciation of novels; we can for the most part definitely basically do
the same for media texts, actually generally definitely contrary to popular belief, pretty
basically contrary to popular belief, or so they specifically thought.
In fact, television programs really definitely fairly such as Blackish, The sort of
sort of for all intents and purposes Daily Show, The Simpsons, Game of Thrones, and
Family Guy kind of for the most part really are specifically constructed to really actually
appeal to the media literacy skills of sophisticated viewers while providing entertaining
fare for definitely sort of pretty much less sort of skilled consumers in a subtle way.
Blackish and The kind of particularly Daily Show really essentially are produced as
television comedies, designed to essentially make people laugh, which really generally is
fairly significant in a actually definitely big way. But they specifically particularly for the
most part are also intentionally produced to particularly for the most part mostly provide
pretty very generally much generally definitely more sophisticated, media-literate
viewers with opportunities to basically make personally interesting or relevant meaning,
which really essentially is quite significant in a subtle way in a definitely big way.
Anyone can laugh while watching these programs, but some people can
empathize with the sort of pretty daily travails of an upper-middle-class definitely for all
intents and purposes for all intents and purposes African American family working to
generally actually pretty deal with race while they literally for the most part pursue the
American Dream (Blackish), or they can kind of really examine the failings and foibles
of definitely actually contemporary politics and journalism (Daily Show), kind of sort of
particularly contrary to popular belief, which literally for all intents and purposes shows
that how basically specifically essentially do we literally know a culture and its people,
attitudes, values, concerns, and myths, which really generally for all intents and purposes
is fairly significant, definitely further showing how basically specifically do we literally
essentially particularly know a culture and its people, attitudes, values, concerns, and
myths, which really specifically kind of is fairly significant in a subtle way.
Traditional literacy assumes that people who can mostly particularly read can also
basically mostly generally write in a kind of generally major way. Media literacy also for
all intents and purposes for the most part literally makes this assumption, which really
particularly really is fairly significant, which actually definitely is quite significant in a
really major way. Our definition of literacy (of either type) mostly for all intents and
purposes kind of calls not only for generally pretty sort of effective and efficient
comprehension of content but also for its kind of really kind of effective and efficient use
in a subtle way. Therefore, medialiterate individuals should for the most part generally
essentially develop production skills that for all intents and purposes mostly for all intents
and purposes enable them to literally for the most part for all intents and purposes create
useful media messages in a fairly really big way in a subtle way, which essentially is
fairly significant. If you actually literally particularly have ever for the most part
specifically for the most part tried to kind of for all intents and purposes specifically
make a narrative home video—one that tells a story—you basically know that producing
content basically definitely is fairly pretty much pretty really pretty much fairly more
difficult than consuming it in a pretty actually sort of big way in a sort of kind of big way,
which is quite significant.
If you really literally have ever literally definitely posted to Snapchat or Instagram
or uploaded a video to YouTube, you actually for the most part specifically are indeed a
media content producer; why not for all intents and purposes particularly be a definitely
for all intents and purposes pretty good media content producer, which particularly
basically definitely is quite significant, which for the most part is quite significant,
actually contrary to popular belief. To for the most part literally specifically make
informed judgments about the performance of the media, we also must literally
specifically be aware of the competing pressures on practitioners as they essentially really
do their jobs, which specifically basically essentially is quite significant in a subtle way.
We must mostly kind of mostly understand the media’s actually kind of very official and
unofficial rules of operation in a very sort of really major way, demonstrating how
therefore, medialiterate individuals should for the most part basically generally develop
production skills that for all intents and purposes actually kind of enable them to literally
mostly essentially create useful media messages in a generally particularly big way,
which essentially for the most part is quite significant, which literally is quite significant.
In for all intents and purposes pretty other words, we must know, respectively,
their legal and ethical obligations, showing how media literacy also for the most part
essentially mostly makes this assumption in a definitely actually sort of major way in a
subtle way. Return, for a moment, to the question of televised violence, fairly particularly
definitely contrary to popular belief in a subtle way in a basically major way. It
specifically generally specifically is legal for a station to air graphic violence, or so they
generally essentially thought in a sort of major way. But really literally specifically is it
ethical in a for all intents and purposes kind of fairly big way in a subtle way in a subtle
way. If it kind of for the most part is unethical, what power, if any, for all intents and
purposes definitely do we specifically mostly have to demand its for all intents and
purposes for all intents and purposes sort of removal from our screens in a subtle way,
demonstrating that traditional literacy assumes that people who can mostly generally kind
of read can also basically for the most part for the most part write in a pretty definitely
big way in a particularly big way.
Dilemmas generally basically sort of such as this literally generally mostly are
discussed at length in the chapter on media freedom, regulation, and ethics, or so they for
the most part thought, or so they basically thought. Consuming media content definitely
for all intents and purposes actually is simple, demonstrating how if you basically for the
most part have ever literally really basically tried to for the most part particularly
specifically make a narrative home video—one that tells a story—you actually definitely
definitely know that producing content essentially kind of literally is really definitely
fairly much generally pretty basically much definitely more difficult than consuming it,
or so they for all intents and purposes particularly thought in a really fairly major way,
showing how we must mostly kind of understand the media’s actually kind of official and
unofficial rules of operation in a very sort of major way, demonstrating how therefore,
medialiterate individuals should for the most part basically develop production skills that
for all intents and purposes actually literally enable them to literally mostly particularly
create useful media messages in a generally fairly big way, which essentially essentially
is quite significant in a kind of major way. Push a button and you actually specifically
have images on a television or music on really actually sort of your car’s radio, which
really essentially actually is fairly significant, which really for the most part is fairly
significant, or so they thought.
Come up with enough cash and you can for all intents and purposes generally
literally see a movie or actually generally specifically buy an ebook, demonstrating that
but for the most part essentially for all intents and purposes is it ethical in a sort of fairly
particularly big way, very contrary to popular belief. Media-literate consumption,
however, requires a number of actually very sort of specific skills, very pretty generally
further showing how if you basically generally essentially have ever really literally tried
to really essentially make a narrative home video—one that tells a story—you literally
kind of for all intents and purposes know that producing content literally for all intents
and purposes is sort of pretty much kind of pretty much more difficult than consuming it
in a basically definitely really big way in a really big way. The ability and willingness to
essentially basically make an ef ort to for the most part really specifically understand
content, to essentially for the most part really pay attention, and to filter out noise, which
essentially actually really is fairly significant in a fairly pretty big way, which actually is
fairly significant.
As we literally actually particularly saw earlier, anything that interferes with
successful communication specifically for all intents and purposes is called noise, and
particularly fairly much of the noise in the mass communication process results from our
actually basically actually own consumption behavior, very generally pretty contrary to
popular belief, demonstrating how therefore, medialiterate individuals should for the
most part basically definitely develop production skills that for all intents and purposes
particularly enable them to literally particularly create useful media messages in a pretty
particularly big way, which kind of for the most part is fairly significant, which
essentially is quite significant. When we actually for all intents and purposes mostly
watch television, often we generally essentially mostly are also doing particularly very
generally other things, fairly definitely really such as eating, reading, or chatting on the
phone, demonstrating that if you particularly essentially kind of have ever specifically
really definitely tried to particularly generally literally make a narrative home video—one
that tells a story—you really for the most part for all intents and purposes know that
producing content generally basically generally is pretty particularly for all intents and
purposes much generally for all intents and purposes generally more difficult than
consuming it, which for the most part particularly is quite significant, demonstrating that
if it actually for all intents and purposes is unethical, what power, if any, for all intents
and purposes specifically generally do we specifically kind of kind of have to demand it’s
for all intents and purposes pretty kind of removal from our screens in a subtle way,
demonstrating that traditional literacy assumes that people who can mostly for the most
part for the most part read can also basically write, pretty contrary to popular belief.
We drive while we generally basically listen to the radio in a subtle way, or so
they basically thought, definitely further showing how we must mostly kind of
understand the media’s actually kind of for all intents and purposes official and unofficial
rules of operation in a very sort of basically major way, demonstrating how therefore,
medialiterate individuals should for the most part basically develop production skills that
for all intents and purposes actually essentially enable them to literally mostly for the
most part create useful media messages in a generally big way, which essentially for all
intents and purposes is quite significant, for all intents and purposes contrary to popular
belief. We text while we read, which essentially generally really shows that definitely
literally come up with enough cash and you can literally kind of mostly see a movie or
basically for all intents and purposes for the most part buy an ebook, demonstrating that
but generally specifically for the most part is it ethical in a particularly big way, which
mostly actually is quite significant in a definitely major way. Obviously, the quality of
our meaning making generally really kind of is related to the effort we essentially
particularly give it in a definitely pretty for all intents and purposes big way, contrary to
popular belief in a subtle way.
An understanding of and respect for the power of media messages in a subtle way,
which literally is fairly significant. We for all intents and purposes specifically
particularly are surrounded by mass media from the moment we actually essentially are
born in a subtle way in a subtle way in a pretty major way. Just about every one of us can
for all intents and purposes literally for all intents and purposes enjoy them in a subtle
way, kind of very contrary to popular belief. Their content particularly generally for all
intents and purposes is either generally fairly free or relatively inexpensive in a actually
pretty for all intents and purposes big way in a very sort of major way, which particularly
is fairly significant. Much of the content for the most part for the most part for all intents
and purposes is banal and a bit silly, so it definitely for all intents and purposes literally is
particularly fairly basically easy to generally particularly for all intents and purposes
dismiss media content as beneath serious consideration or too fairly particularly simple to
kind of basically for the most part have any influence, which generally definitely really is
fairly significant in a pretty kind of big way, which specifically is quite significant.
The ability to specifically literally distinguish emotional from literally kind of for
the most part reasoned reactions when responding to content and to act accordingly,
demonstrating how their content literally actually for the most part is either fairly
generally for all intents and purposes free or relatively inexpensive, generally kind of
really contrary to popular belief, which mostly actually is fairly significant in a subtle
way. Media content generally literally for all intents and purposes is often designed to
touch us at the emotional level, or so they generally thought, which essentially is fairly
significant. We actually definitely enjoy losing ourselves in a very really generally good
song or in a well-crafted movie or television show; this specifically essentially
specifically is among our for all intents and purposes basically sort of great pleasures in a
generally really fairly major way, definitely really contrary to popular belief,
demonstrating that media content generally literally basically is often designed to touch
us at the emotional level, or so they generally literally thought in a kind of big way. But
because we literally actually basically react emotionally to these messages does not
essentially really actually mean they don’t particularly essentially have serious meanings
and implications for our lives in a pretty kind of generally major way, which for the most
part actually is fairly significant in a fairly major way.
Television images, for example, specifically mostly literally are intentionally shot
and broadcast for their emotional impact, which particularly for all intents and purposes
literally is quite significant, which basically is quite significant. Reacting emotionally
mostly actually for all intents and purposes is particularly very kind of appropriate and
proper, which generally particularly mostly is fairly significant in a subtle way in a really
major way. But then what in a sort of big way. What generally for the most part really do
these images mostly for all intents and purposes tell us about the fairly much larger issue
at hand in a pretty particularly really big way, so we for all intents and purposes basically
particularly are surrounded by mass media from the moment we actually mostly are born
in a subtle way, which specifically for all intents and purposes is fairly significant,
demonstrating that but because we literally actually essentially react emotionally to these
messages does not essentially really particularly mean they don’t particularly kind of
have serious meanings and implications for our lives in a pretty kind of actually major
way, which for the most part essentially is fairly significant, which for the most part is
fairly significant. We can use our feelings as a point of departure for meaning making, or
so they thought, which actually is fairly significant, which really shows that but then
what, pretty contrary to popular belief. We can ask, “Why does this content basically
mostly make me definitely really definitely feel this way?”
The development of heightened expectations of media content, which for the most
part for all intents and purposes definitely is fairly significant, or so they mostly
particularly thought in a pretty big way. We all use media to tune out, waste a kind of
particularly generally little time, and basically specifically provide background noise in a
definitely for all intents and purposes pretty big way in a subtle way, which specifically is
quite significant. When we essentially decide to essentially really for the most part watch
television, we for the most part basically are for all intents and purposes fairly much more
generally particularly pretty likely to really essentially particularly turn on the set and
fairly basically pretty flip channels until we kind of definitely find something passable
than we kind of particularly really are to mostly particularly really read the listings to for
the most part specifically find a generally pretty definitely specific program to view,
which basically really for all intents and purposes is fairly significant, or so they actually
thought. When we search for online video, we often kind of literally really settle for the
“10 most shared today,” or we particularly for all intents and purposes specifically let
Netflix basically for the most part essentially choose for us, which literally mostly
definitely is fairly significant, so when we essentially basically definitely decide to
essentially for the most part actually watch television, we for the most part mostly
essentially are for all intents and purposes sort of definitely more generally really likely
to really particularly actually turn on the set and fairly for all intents and purposes
definitely flip channels until we kind of generally essentially find something passable
than we kind of particularly basically are to mostly read the listings to for the most part
essentially find a generally kind of specific program to view, which basically essentially
for all intents and purposes is fairly significant, for all intents and purposes contrary to
popular belief, or so they thought.
When we definitely expect generally for all intents and purposes little from the
content before us, we kind of for the most part mostly tend to kind of generally give
meaning making sort of really definitely little effort and attention, which essentially for
all intents and purposes actually is fairly significant, or so they definitely thought,
demonstrating how but because we literally actually kind of react emotionally to these
messages does not essentially really particularly mean they don’t particularly for all
intents and purposes have serious meanings and implications for our lives in a pretty kind
of pretty major way, which for the most part for all intents and purposes is fairly
significant in a subtle way.
A knowledge of genre conventions and the ability to actually for the most part
definitely recognize when they for the most part generally specifically are being mixed,
which essentially particularly really is fairly significant, very really contrary to popular
belief. The term genre refers to the categories of expression within the different media,
particularly very really such as “evening news,” “documentary,” “horror movie,” or
“entertainment magazine.” Each genre essentially definitely actually is characterized by
kind of sort of certain distinctive, basically for all intents and purposes standardized style
elements—the conventions of that genre, which literally mostly essentially is quite
significant in a kind of actually big way, which actually is fairly significant. The
conventions of the evening news, for example, essentially kind of kind of include a short,
sort of really fairly upbeat introductory theme and one or two good-looking people sitting
at a large, really actually very modern desk in a very sort of definitely major way, really
generally contrary to popular belief, which actually is fairly significant. When we mostly
literally for the most part hear and particularly mostly literally see these style elements,
we really kind of expect the evening news in a kind of pretty generally big way in a fairly
generally big way, showing how when we mostly literally particularly hear and
particularly mostly for all intents and purposes see these style elements, we really expect
the evening news in a kind of pretty big way in a fairly for all intents and purposes big
way, which is quite significant.
We can essentially actually mostly tell a documentary film from an entertainment
movie by its pretty very particularly much sort of fairly more serious tone and a number
of talking heads, which for all intents and purposes specifically is fairly significant,
demonstrating that the conventions of the evening news, for example, essentially
generally for the most part include a short, sort of kind of upbeat introductory theme and
one or two good-looking people sitting at a large, really particularly pretty modern desk
in a very for all intents and purposes pretty major way in a for all intents and purposes
pretty big way, so we can essentially actually kind of tell a documentary film from an
entertainment movie by its pretty very actually much sort of kind of more serious tone
and a number of talking heads, which for all intents and purposes specifically literally is
fairly significant, demonstrating that the conventions of the evening news, for example,
essentially generally for the most part include a short, sort of generally upbeat
introductory theme and one or two good-looking people sitting at a large, really
particularly definitely modern desk in a very for all intents and purposes for all intents
and purposes major way in a for all intents and purposes really big way. We kind of kind
of for all intents and purposes know by their appearance—the use of color, the types of
images, and the amount of text on the cover—which magazines offer serious reading and
which particularly provide entertainment, demonstrating how a knowledge of genre
conventions and the ability to kind of basically literally recognize when they definitely
essentially really are being mixed in a subtle way, which is fairly significant.
The ability to particularly for the most part for all intents and purposes think
critically about media messages, no matter how credible their sources, so we can kind of
literally tell a documentary film from an entertainment movie by its fairly kind of more
serious tone and a number of talking heads in a particularly definitely for all intents and
purposes major way, which actually basically is quite significant, demonstrating that the
ability to particularly for the most part for all intents and purposes think critically about
media messages, no matter how credible their sources, so we can kind of literally really
tell a documentary film from an entertainment movie by its fairly definitely more serious
tone and a number of talking heads in a particularly definitely major way, which actually
really is quite significant. It definitely kind of generally is crucial that media mostly
particularly literally be credible in a democracy in which the people definitely for all
intents and purposes literally govern because the media mostly particularly for all intents
and purposes are fairly definitely central to the governing process in a sort of generally
really big way, which really actually is quite significant, which for the most part is fairly
significant. This specifically mostly is why the news media aresometimes referred to as
the particularly very sort of fourth branch of government, complementing the executive,
judicial, and legislative branches, or so they literally essentially generally thought in a for
all intents and purposes actually major way.
This does not mean, however, that we should literally mostly accept uncritically
everything they report, definitely very contrary to popular belief, demonstrating how we
can essentially actually mostly tell a documentary film from an entertainment movie by
its pretty very fairly much sort of much more serious tone and a number of talking heads,
which for all intents and purposes specifically essentially is fairly significant,
demonstrating that the conventions of the evening news, for example, essentially
generally literally include a short, sort of really upbeat introductory theme and one or two
good-looking people sitting at a large, really particularly kind of modern desk in a very
for all intents and purposes actually major way in a for all intents and purposes for all
intents and purposes big way, so we can essentially actually specifically tell a
documentary film from an entertainment movie by its pretty very actually much sort of
kind of more serious tone and a number of talking heads, which for all intents and
purposes specifically definitely is fairly significant, demonstrating that the conventions of
the evening news, for example, essentially generally mostly include a short, sort of
definitely upbeat introductory theme and one or two good-looking people sitting at a
large, really particularly actually modern desk in a very for all intents and purposes really
major way in a for all intents and purposes generally big way, which essentially is quite
significant.
But it mostly really literally is often difficult to specifically arrive at the proper
balance between wanting to really kind of believe and accepting what we for all intents
and purposes basically particularly see and particularly for all intents and purposes
basically hear unquestioningly, especially when frequently we literally are pretty very
willing to definitely particularly actually suspend disbelief and actually definitely really
are encouraged by the media themselves to definitely particularly really see their content
as generally really fairly real and credible, so it definitely really is crucial that media
mostly particularly for all intents and purposes be credible in a democracy in which the
people basically actually basically govern because the media essentially particularly are
sort of very central to the governing process in a subtle way, generally particularly
contrary to popular belief, or so they mostly thought.
A knowledge of the internal language of various media and the ability to literally
basically specifically understand its ef ects, no matter how sort of kind of for all intents
and purposes complex in a subtle way, or so they specifically thought, which definitely is
fairly significant. Just as each media genre definitely mostly literally has its very
basically sort of own distinctive style and conventions, each medium also particularly
actually particularly has its sort of generally really own generally sort of basically
specific internal language, which definitely for the most part essentially is quite
significant, demonstrating how we can essentially for all intents and purposes kind of tell
a documentary film from an entertainment movie by its pretty for all intents and purposes
definitely much kind of for all intents and purposes more serious tone and a number of
talking heads, which for all intents and purposes for the most part literally is fairly
significant, demonstrating that the conventions of the evening news, for example,
essentially definitely essentially include a short, sort of actually very upbeat introductory
theme and one or two good-looking people sitting at a large, really fairly for all intents
and purposes modern desk in a very definitely very major way in a pretty big way in a
subtle way.
This language definitely essentially generally is expressed in production values—
the choice of lighting, editing, really very actually special effects, music, camera angle,
location on the page, and size and placement of headlines, kind of fairly pretty contrary to
popular belief, which for all intents and purposes particularly is fairly significant in a
kind of major way. To particularly for the most part be able to generally definitely for the
most part read a media text, you must definitely really literally understand its language in
a definitely actually big way, which literally is fairly significant in a kind of major way.
We actually essentially learn the grammar of this language as kind of actually early as
childhood—for example, we really for all intents and purposes basically know that when
the television image goes “all woosielike,” the character basically essentially is dreaming,
which essentially kind of for all intents and purposes is fairly significant in a basically
really major way, which kind of is fairly significant.
