What is existential therapy, and is it biblical?
Psychological theories are generally based in more pervasive philosophical concepts, such as
naturalism or humanism. These underlying philosophies often cause Christians to reject a
psychological theory. However, once psychological theories receive some biblical correction,
Christian counselors can effectively use them to assist clients. Existential therapy is unique in
that it is more of a philosophical orientation to therapy than an actual therapeutic theory.
Existential therapy is a philosophical approach to psychotherapy. It focuses on meaning,
freedom, authenticity, and self-awareness in the present moment. This article will cover the
empirical evidence for the efficacy or effectiveness of existential therapy and its clinical
applications from a Christian perspective.
History and Theory
Existential therapy is rooted in existentialism, a philosophy concerned with the meaning of
human existence. The tenets of existential philosophy serve as the foundational blocks that drive
the theory of existential therapy. Therefore, existential therapy can be considered as both a
philosophy and model of therapy. Instead of existing as a unitary modality of therapy, existential
therapy encompasses the diversity and variety within existential thought. Thus, "existential
psychotherapies" may serve as a more accurate description of the approach (Walsh & McElwain,
2002, p. 254). Nonetheless, this article will use "existential therapy" to refer to the methods of
therapy based in existentialism (see Tan, 2011, pp. 102-127).
Existential therapy was strongly influenced by philosophers such as S0ren Kierkegaard (1813-
1855), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-
1980), Martin Buber (1878-1965), Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973), Paul Tillich (1886-1965),
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), and Karl Jaspers (1883-1969). Collectively, their work challenged
society to consider the purpose and meaning of human existence. Influential psychiatrists and
analysts who contributed to the formation of existential therapy include Ludwig Binswanger
(1881-1966), Medard Boss (1903-1991), Viktor Frankl (1905-1997), Rollo May (1909-1994),
James Bugental (1915-2008), and Irvin Yalom (1931-). Each pioneer of existential therapy
uniquely integrated existential thought into their work with clients, bridging the gap between
philosophy and psychology. Despite each key figure's distinctive existential perspective, they
converged on views of human nature and theory of personality.
The existential perspective on human nature emphasizes individual freedom to choose one's
values and meaning in life. Through the process of defining values and discovering meaning in
life, human beings are faced with basic existential questions such as "Where have I come from?
Why am I here? Where am I going? What do I value?" (Mendelowitz & Schneider, 2008, p.
299). Existential therapy does not view human nature as fixed, fatalistic, or deterministic; rather,
individuals are seen as constantly changing and evolving in accordance with their values and
meaning in life. Future aspirations, past experiences, and goals influence each individual. Yet, it
is awareness in the present moment that allows one to choose freely and responsibly to that
which he or she is becoming. Thus, existential therapy views humans as having a dynamic nature
due to one's freedom to choose values and meaning in the present moment.
Personality is understood as existing as being-in-the-world, or Dasein. One's being and existence
in the world coalesce according to the unique way in which he or she perceives and constructs it.
There are three dimensions or levels of existence that describe one's relation to the world (i.e.,
being-in-the-world): Umwelt, Mitwelt, and Eigenwelt (Binswanger, 1963; Boss, 1963). Umwelt
(physical dimension) refers to the physical, biological, and natural environments. Comprising
both animate and inanimate
objects, this includes attitudes toward one's body, natural surroundings, and material possessions.
Mitwelt (social dimension) refers to how individuals relate to others in the world. This includes
interaction with the culture, race, gender, and class one belongs to. Eigenwelt (psychological
dimension) refers to one's inner, personal world. It involves individuals relating to themselves
through their subjective experiences, perceptions, evaluations, and reflections. Van Duerzen-
Smith (1997, 1998) added an additional dimension, Uberwelt. Uberwelt (spiritual dimension)
refers to one's pursuit of a philosophical outlook or ideology and often has a religious or spiritual
basis. It relates to an ideal world that one desires to live in (see Sharf 2008, p. 153).
A healthy existence involves authentically maintaining harmonious, integrated, and spontaneous
relationships with all four dimensions. Such authenticity entails transparency, honesty, and
openness to oneself in the midst of relating to the four dimensions. However, an authentic
interaction requires a level of awareness that produces an experience of dread, or existential
anxiety (Tillich, 1952). Sources of existential anxiety include death or nonbeing, the need to act,
meaninglessness, and isolation or aloneness. Known as existential givens or basic contingencies
of life, these sources of existential anxiety point to our finiteness. Rather than being
overwhelmed by finiteness and nonbeing, a healthy and adaptive individual embraces existential
anxiety. The individual realizes that existence is an ongoing, cyclical process of nonbeing to
being. Thus, out of death, meaninglessness, and isolation come life, meaning, and intimacy,
respectively. Authentic being, then, occurs in the present moment through authentic experience
in the world where one exercises his or her freedom to choose.
Psychopathology results when one avoids existential anxiety and nonbeing. The development of
psychological problems also occurs with people who live inauthentically; that is, they lie to
themselves. As Prochaska and Norcross (2010, p. 101) state, "Lying is the foundation of
psychopathology," from an existential perspective. Psychopathology is often associated with
imbalanced levels of being-in-the-world. For example, an overemphasis on one level of being-in-
the-world accompanied by a disregard for other dimensions may lead to neurotic anxiety. Lying
occurring on any dimension of being-in-the-world often results in the development of
psychological problems. For example, such psychopathology is seen in an individual with
hypochondriasis who lies to himself about the condition of his physical body (physical
dimension) or a workaholic who believes the lie that she can work to gain self-approval
(psychological dimension). Psychopathology results in individuals who fail to be authentic with
themselves by avoiding existential anxiety and nonbeing.
Existential therapy has four major treatment goals. First, clients are encouraged to embrace their
freedom to choose and act responsibly. Second, existential therapists assist clients to grow in
self-awareness. Third, meaning and purpose of the client's life is explored. Fourth, clients are
encouraged to let go of self-deception, in-authenticity, and lying in exchange for authenticity and
being truthful to oneself. Naturally, authenticity is the fundamental goal of existential therapy
(Cooper, 2003). Core issues surrounding existential therapy include living and dying (grieving
losses and authentically accepting mortality); freedom, responsibility, and choice (using one's
freedom to take responsibility for one's actions and choices); isolation and intimacy
(courageously reaching out to others to develop mutual and reciprocal relationships); and
meaning and meaninglessness (discovering meaning from existential realities of meaninglessness
or emptiness in life).
The therapeutic relationship is an essential aspect of existential therapy. It represents a warm,
respectful, and authentic relationship in which the client and therapist experience a deep
therapeutic encounter (May, 1958). The relationship exists to explore, examine, and elucidate
deep, existential issues. Martin Buber (Sharf, 2008, p. 163) described this genuine relationship as
an "I-Thou" relationship while Yalom (1980, p. 207) referred to it as a "loving friendship." This
therapeutic relationship is the source of healing (Yalom, 1980). Generally, existential therapists
do not emphasize specific therapeutic techniques or interventions. In fact, some therapists
believe that techniques objectify clients and their problems, preventing clients from subjectively
experiencing themselves and the therapist in the present moment. Existential therapy is often
long term due the nature of its therapeutic goals and emphasis on the therapeutic relationship.
Issues of transference may be interpreted. However, transferential interpretations are not a focus
as they may interfere with the development of an authentic therapeutic relationship and
encounter (Cohn, 1997).
Empirical Evidence
Existential therapy research studies are limited. Generally, existential therapists do not conduct
controlled outcome studies evaluating the effectiveness of their approach. As to date, there have
been no controlled outcome research studies conducted on the effectiveness of existential therapy
(Prochaska & Norcross, 2010). Research on existential therapy is often conducted in the form of
"eloquent case studies" (Schneider 2003, p. 169). It must be noted that existential therapy may
not be well-suited for the traditional, predominant research strategy of social science that is
heavily rooted in methodology (i.e., isolating variables while controlling for others to
demonstrate causal relationships). For example, the meaning of human existence, self-awareness,
and authenticity may be difficult to quantify. A qualitative approach that closely examines the
nuances and subtleties of human experience and meaning may be a more suitable research
method for existential therapy.
Several studies have generally been supportive of the effectiveness of existential therapy.
However, such studies incorporated components of existential therapy, integrating it with other
therapies. Schneider (2003) argues that there is empirical support for the effectiveness of
existential-humanistic therapy that incorporates major existential concepts such as the
therapeutic relationship and the therapist's personality or presence (see Mendelowitz &
Schneider, 2008, p. 317). Mosher (2001) compared therapeutic outcomes of patients with
schizophrenia who were treated with an existentially based growth-oriented treatment with
patients treated with conventional psychiatric treatment or medication. The existentially based
growth-oriented approach focused on providing caring, empathic, and supportive relationships.
The outcome measures were focused on psychopathology, rehospitalization, independent living,
social functioning, and occupational functioning. Patients with schizophrenia treated with the
existentially based growth-oriented treatment achieved better therapeutic outcomes. Although the
findings of some of these studies are promising, it is difficult to ascertain the effectiveness of
existential therapy as a standalone approach as it has been lumped together with the broader
range of experiential and/or humanistic therapies (e.g., Carl Rogers's person-centered or client-
centered therapy and Friz Perls's Gestalt therapy).
The therapeutic technique known as paradoxical intention (helping the client overcome a feared
behavior by exaggerating or following through with the behavior), which is used in Frankl's
logotherapy, one approach to existential therapy, has been examined empirically. Meta-analyses
of research studies have shown paradoxical interventions to be equally, but not more, effective
than other treatment interventions. The main effect size compared to no-treatment controls was
0.99. Thus, a client receiving paradoxical interventions would experience greater improvement
than 84 percent of clients receiving no treatment (Hill, 1987). One meta-analysis found
paradoxical interventions to be more effective than other typical treatments on more severe cases
of pathology (Shoham-Salomon & Rosenthal, 1987). However, these empirical findings are from
outcome studies of paradoxical intention but not logotherapy or existential therapy per se.
Existential therapy has the possibility of effectively treating various populations and disorders.
Various case studies and theoretical articles have contended that existential therapy has the
potential to effectively treat older adults (Suri, 2010), violence survivors with post-traumatic
stress disorder (Day, 2009), and trauma survivors (Corbett & Milton, 2011). Existential therapy
may be well-suited for clients who present with spiritual issues (Bartz, 2009), sexual issues
(Barker, 2011), and cultural issues (Felder & Robbins, 2011). In reviewing research on
existential therapy, Sharf (2008) argued that existential themes are easily conveyed in existential
group therapy. Research has also explored existential concerns such as death, meaninglessness,
and discovering meaning in life through the use of the Purpose in Life Test (Crumbaugh, 1968;
Crumbaugh & Henrion, 1988). These theoretical articles provide an initial step toward achieving
a comprehensive understanding of an empirically sound, existential therapy.
There have been attempts at integrating existential therapy with empirically supported
psychotherapies. Such endeavors may orient existential therapy toward the more quantitative,
traditional, research strategy. However, integrating existential therapy with empirically supported
psychotherapies no longer presents a pure form of existential therapy. In his theoretical article,
Langdridge (2006) argued for integrating existential therapy with solution focused therapy.
Existential therapy can benefit from solution focused therapy's emphasis on enabling clients to
discover their own solutions. Specifically, central techniques of solution focused therapy such as
the miracle question, exception questions, and deconstructing the problem complement
existential theory and practice (Langdridge, 2006). Existential therapy can benefit from solution
focused therapy's emphasis on "encouraging clients to engage in concrete descriptions of past
and present experience whilst always having an eye to the future and the importance of setting
goals for action" (Langdridge, 2006, p. 365).
Due to the limited number of well-controlled outcome studies available (see Prochaska &
Norcross, 2010), no definitive conclusions can be made at this time about the effectiveness of
existential therapy. However, as Schneider (2003) noted, the expansion and broadening of
empirical work being conducted on existential components and therapy is encouraging (e.g., see
Walsh & McElwain, 2002). Research on existential therapy has utilized case studies and
theoretical articles to closely scrutinize and examine existential concepts. Research on existential
therapy has also explored integrating concepts with other empirically supported psychotherapies.
Additionally, studies have explored the possibility of effectively treating various populations and
disorders such as older adults and trauma survivors as well as clients who present with cultural,
sexual, or spiritual issues. These efforts serve as an initial step toward a comprehensive
understanding of existential therapy; nevertheless, additional well-controlled outcome studies
evaluating the therapeutic effectiveness of existential therapy are greatly needed.
Clinical Applications
From a Christian, biblical perspective, existential therapy has both strengths and weaknesses.
The following section will discuss potential opportunities and challenges in incorporating a
Christian perspective with existential therapy by examining issues of objectivity,
meaninglessness, the therapeutic relationship, and the role of the therapist (see Tan, 2011,
pp.120-124).
First, existential therapy's major treatment goals include embracing freedom and authenticity.
The focus is on one's freedom to choose and define oneself in an authentic and honest manner.
This freedom is similar to God granting us with freedom to choose who we will serve (Josh.
24:15). However, existential therapy helps identify authentic answers subjectively discovered by
the client. That is, all self-originating, authentic answers are deemed beneficial to one's well-
being. Such relativism and self-autonomy in the process of seeking an authentic life conflicts
with a biblical perspective. The Bible views human beings as needing objective morals centered
in the character of God, the ultimate source of eternal, objective values (Tweedie, 1961). Self-
chosen, arbitrary values may be incongruent with biblical values and God's will. A biblical
perspective of existential therapy will strive to uphold absolute and moral truths as revealed in
the inspired Word of God (Matt. 24:35; 2 Tim. 3:16) through careful and thoughtful
interpretation of the Bible.
Second, authentically maintaining harmonious relationships with all four levels of being-in-the-
world is consistent with a biblical perspective. For example, Luke 2:52 states, "And Jesus grew
in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and men." The author of Luke uses a
comprehensive view of human nature, commenting upon Jesus' psychological (grew in wisdom),
physical (grew in stature), spiritual (favor with God), and social (favor with men) health. This
corresponds with the holistic approach of Dasein or being-in-the-world. However, once again,
existential therapists encourage clients to subjectively discover values on levels of being-in-the-
world that are congruent with authentic living in the present. Such self-originating values that are
considered healthy to the existential therapist might conflict with the objective values centered in
God. Existential therapists working from a biblical perspective will carefully focus values on
spiritual formation and development into Christ-likeness in one's character and lifestyle (Rom.
8:29). The practice of spiritual disciplines and the cultivation of Christian virtues or the fruit of
the Spirit (Gal. 5:22-23) will be promoted.
Third, existential therapy can become stoical and nihilistic. Due to an overemphasis on the
meaninglessness of life, the ultimate emptiness of humankind, and mortality and death, the client
may become overwhelmed with feelings of hopelessness. Within a biblical framework, this
provides an opportunity for the gospel of Jesus Christ to counteract feelings of despair. The
Christian, biblical perspective is more complete as existential emptiness points to the need for
meaning in life and salvation that only Jesus Christ can provide. It is Christ's action on the cross,
his death and resurrection, that has reconciled each fallen, sinful human to God (2 Cor. 5:17-21).
Christ is the ultimate answer to meaninglessness and death. Of course, we must not provide
religious answers prematurely or superficially. Instead, we must do so tactfully with clients who
desire therapists to explicitly integrate his or her faith (see Tan, 1996) in dealing with questions
such as inner emptiness and meaninglessness.
Fourth, the therapeutic relationship serves as a major healing factor in existential therapy. The
person of the therapist and the provision of therapeutic love and authentic caring for the client is
consistent with the biblical perspective of agape love (1 Cor. 13) that deeply cares and touches
others (Mark 12:31). It is important to note, however, that such a therapeutic love, authenticity,
and vulnerability may pose limitations and dangers. Therapeutic love is not agape love, which is
the fruit of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:22-23) and comes only from God. As fallen, imperfect human
beings (Jer. 17:9, Rom. 3:23), existential therapists are limited in their expression of therapeutic
love, authenticity, and vulnerability. The danger exists when therapists over-exert therapeutic
love in harmful ways (e.g., boundary violations, enmeshment with the client which may lead to
overdependency, attempting to comfort the client through inappropriate physical touch). While
the Bible teaches that we are created in the image of God (Gen 1:26-27) and have the potential to
be somewhat like God in our character, we must humbly accept our sinful nature that needs
transformation into deeper Christlikeness (Rom. 8:29). Christian existential therapists must
continually surrender to God, being prayerfully dependent on the Holy Spirit for his guidance in
the therapeutic relationship.
Fifth, the existential therapist assumes a sacred responsibility of helping clients find meaning in
their lives. This role is similar to that of a priest, pastor, spiritual director, or midwife who helps
clients "birth" authenticity and meaning in their lives (Evans, 1989). The therapist must use great
caution in assuming this role, avoiding inadvertently influencing the client to embrace certain
secular values (e.g., authentic atheism) that may breed a sense of feeling spiritually bankrupt.
Instead, the existential therapist working from a Christian perspective needs to sensitively direct
clients toward God. Directing clients ultimately toward God will allow clients to be grounded in
the Spirit rather than the autonomous self of the individual (see Jones & Butman, 1991, pp. 299-
300). The autonomous self is unable to fill the deep existential vacuum in each individual, which
is ultimately shaped by God and which only God can fill. Frankl correctly asserted that
fulfillment and meaning is found in something or someone beyond oneself (i.e., self-
transcendence). Yet, self-transcendence must be based in the transcendent reality of God, who
objectively and truly exists (see Hurding, 1985, pp. 136-137; Tweedie, 1961, p. 175). Also,
empowering clients to find meaning may result in increased self-effort and confidence in oneself
(cf. Vitz, 1994). Existential therapists working from a biblical perspective must emphasize the
client's need to be filled with the Holy Spirit (Eph. 5:18; Gal. 5:16-25). Rather than depending on
one's fallen, autonomous self, clients will be encouraged to depend on the Holy Spirit (Zech. 4:6,
Eph. 5:18) who will direct them to the God who brings healing and wholeness.
Explanation of Existential Theory
Viktor Frankl and Rollo May are the primary existential therapy theorists. Frankl lost his family
to Nazi concentration camps and was himself a prisoner in Auschwitz and Dachau. Though he
had already begun forming an existential approach to therapy prior to his imprisonment, Frankl
tested his views on finding meaning in suffering and found them confirmed during his time in the
concentration camps. May also experienced suffering and was greatly influenced by Søren
Kierkegaard and Paul Tillich.
Existential therapy assumes human freedom and a corresponding human responsibility for
choices and actions. Clients are encouraged to reflect on life, recognize the importance of their
own choices and reactions, and learn to exercise responsibility in shaping their own lives.
Meaning is a primary focus. Existentialism posits that humans possess a capacity for self-
awareness; freedom, which necessitates responsibility; the ability to create a personal identity
and establish meaningful relationships; a drive to search for meaning and purpose, which leads to
the formation of goals and values; anxiety; and an awareness of death or nonbeing. Existential
therapy seeks to balance one’s awareness of limitations and tragedies with an awareness of
opportunities and potential.
Existential therapy is used to help clients become more self-aware and better able to
authentically interact with the world. After clients realize they have not taken personal
responsibility, they are encouraged to live life actively and redefine themselves. Therapy also
addresses any anxieties a client has, to date, been too afraid to confront. Existential therapists
aim to provide clients with insight that leads to action. Rather than “fix” clients, existential
therapists model authenticity and join clients on their own life journey. Existential therapy is
particularly helpful to clients who are at some sort of crossroads or change in life. Clients who
are committed to dealing with their problems and interested in discovering meaning in their lives
respond well to the existential approach.
Biblical Commentary on Existential Theory
Søren Kierkegaard, one of the founders of existential philosophy, was a Christian thinker and
writer. However, other famous existentialist philosophers, such as Nietzche, who ultimately
decided that embracing meaninglessness was the only option, are clearly not Christian.
Existentialism, then, leaves room for God, but it can also be used to deny His existence.
That being said, existentialist therapy’s view of the human condition is not unbiblical. The Bible
presents mankind as capable of self-awareness—we are called to “examine ourselves” (2
Corinthians 13:5), and the Psalms certainly depict an awareness of self in the midst of struggle.
The Bible also affirms human freedom and responsibility as well as the importance of
relationship. The Bible provides us with meaning, purpose, values, and goals. It also addresses
our anxieties and informs our concept of death.
Existential therapy largely sees people’s problems as stemming from inauthenticity (the denial of
personal freedom and responsibility) and unresolved anxiety. Humans are in search of meaning,
and they struggle when they fail to find it. The Bible states that the human struggle results from
sin, which in some ways can be seen as a failure to use our God-given freedom appropriately.
However, the solution is not merely to accept responsibility and use our freedom more wisely;
we need salvation from death (Ephesians 2:1-5; Romans 5:6). The Bible speaks of eternity being
set in our hearts (Ecclesiastes 3:11). There is a universal search for meaning and purpose.
Biblically, true meaning and purpose are found only in God (Ephesians 2:10).
There is a danger in existential therapy of finding the wrong solution to client problems.
Cultivating relationships and discovering subjective personal meaning will not solve root
problems. Discovering God and accepting Christ’s work of redemption are what we really need.
For some unbelievers at a crossroads, an existential approach to therapy may aid in their
recognition that their deepest longing is for God and prompt them to seek Him. For those who
already know God, existential therapy can be useful in helping learn to live out their true
freedom in Christ (Romans 14; Galatians 5:1), find peace in the midst of anxiety (1 Peter 5:7),
deal with the reality of death, and find meaning and purpose in life.
Concluding Comment
Rooted in existentialism, existential therapy focuses on individual freedom to choose one's
values and freedom in life, with an emphasis on authentic living in the present moment. Case
studies and theoretical articles have provided some support for the effectiveness of existential
therapy; however, there have been no well-controlled outcome studies. The expansion of
empirical work on existential therapy, while somewhat encouraging, is still greatly needed. A
biblical perspective on existential therapy presents various opportunities and challenges.
Existential therapists working from a Christian perspective need to tactfully use existential
therapy to point to the transcendent reality of God, who objectively exists to bring true freedom,
authenticity, and meaning to human lives.
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