Psychology 2e: Textbook Outline
Psychology 2e: Textbook Outline
Rhonda Murphy
Psychology 210: Psychological Development
Helms School of Government, Liberty University
Professor Ireland
Feb 6, 2022
Psychology 2e: Textbook Outline 1
Psychology 2
Rhonda Murphy
Psychology 210: Psychological Development
Helms School of Government, Liberty University
Professor Ireland
Feb 6, 2022
I. Introduction to Psychology
A. What is psychology?
- Psychology refers to the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
- Psychologists use the scientific method to acquire knowledge.
B. History of Psychology
- It was not until the late 1800s that psychology became accepted as its
own academic discipline.
- Before this time, the workings of the mind were considered under the
auspices of philosophy.
C. Contemporary Psychology
- Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German scientist who was the first
person to be referred to as a psychologist.
- Wundt viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious experience,
and he believed that the goal of
psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those
components combined to result
in our conscious experience.
- Wundt used introspection (he called it “internal perception”), a process by
which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively
as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a
scientist observed.
- He believed in the notion of voluntarism—that people have free will and
should know the intentions of a psychological experiment if they were
participating.
- William James (1842–1910) was the first American psychologist who
espoused a different perspective on
how psychology should operate.
- As James saw it, psychology’s purpose was to
study the function of behavior in the world, and as such, his perspective
was known as functionalism.
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- Functionalism focused on how mental activities helped an organism
fit into its environment.
- Functionalism has a second, more subtle meaning in that
functionalists were more interested in the operation of the whole
mind rather than of its individual parts, which were the focus of
structuralism.
- Like Wundt, James believed that introspection could serve as one
means by which someone might study mental activities, but James
also relied on more objective measures, including the use of
various recording devices,and examinations of concrete products of
mental activities and of anatomy and physiology.
- Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist who was
fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis.
- Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women
with a wide variety of symptoms, including physical symptoms and
emotional disturbances, none of which had an apparent physical
cause.
- Freud theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from
the unconscious mind.
- In Freud’s view, the unconscious mind was a repository of feelings
and urges of which we have no awareness, gaining access to the
unconscious, then, was crucial to the successful resolution
of the patient’s problems.
- According to Freud, the unconscious mind could be accessed
through dream analysis, by examinations of the first words that
came to people’s minds, and through seemingly innocent
slips of the tongue.
-Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s
unconscious, as well as early
childhood experiences, and this particular perspective
dominated clinical psychology for several decades.
- Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and
Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967) were three German
psychologists who immigrated to the United States in the
early 20th century to escape Nazi Germany.
- These scholars are credited with introducing psychologists
in the United States to various Gestalt principles.
- The word Gestalt roughly translates to “whole;” a major
emphasis of Gestalt psychology deals with the fact that
although a sensory experience can be broken down into
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individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a
whole is often what the individual responds to in perception.
- Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) studied a
form of learning behavior called a conditioned reflex, in
which an animal or human produced a reflex (unconscious)
response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to
produce the response to a different stimulus that the
experimenter associated with the original stimulus.
- John B. Watson (1878–1958) was an influential American
psychologist, Watson preferred to focus directly on
observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under
control. Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus
of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach
of observing and controlling behavior came to be known as
behaviorism.
- A major object of study by behaviorists was learned behavior
and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism.
- Behaviorism commonly used animals in experiments under
the assumption that what was learned using animal models
could, to some degree, be applied to human behavior.
- B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was an American psychologist.
- Like Watson, Skinner was a behaviorist, and he
concentrated on how behavior was affected by its
consequences, therefore, Skinner spoke of reinforcement
and punishment as major factors in driving behavior.
- As a part of his research,Skinner developed a chamber that
allowed the careful study of the principles of modifying
behavior through reinforcement and punishment.
- This device, known as an operant conditioning chamber (or
more familiarly, a Skinner box), has remained a crucial
resource for researchers studying behavior.
- Skinner’s focus on positive and negative reinforcement of
learned behaviors had a lasting influence in psychology that
has waned somewhat since the growth of research in
cognitive psychology.
- Carl Rogers (1902–1987) was also an American
psychologist Rogers,emphasized the potential for good that
exists within all people.
- Rogers used a therapeutic technique known as client
centered therapy in helping his clients deal with problematic
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issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy. Unlike a
psychoanalytic approach in which the therapist plays an
important role in interpreting what conscious behavior
reveals about the unconscious mind, client-centered therapy
involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session.
- Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) was an American
psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of
human needs in motivating behavior.
- Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are two of the most
well-known proponents of
humanistic psychology.
- Humanism is a perspective within psychology that
emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all
humans.
C. Contemporary Psychology
- Contemporary psychology is a diverse field that is influenced by all of the
historical perspectives described in the preceding section.
-
D. Careers in Psychology
- Reflective of the discipline’s diversity is the diversity seen within the
American Psychological Association (APA).
- The APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the
United States.
- The APA is the largest organization of psychologists in the world, and its
mission is to advance and disseminate psychological knowledge for the
betterment of people.
- Psychology of Religion and Spirituality
- promotes the application of psychological research methods and
interpretive frameworks to diverse forms of religion and spirituality
- encourages the incorporation of the results of such work into
clinical and other applied setting
- fosters constructive dialogue and interchange between
psychological study and practice on the one hand and between religious
perspectives and institutions on the other.
- The division is strictly nonsectarian and welcomes the
participation of all persons who view religion as a significant factor in
human functioning.
- Exercise and Sport Psychology
- Sport and Exercise Psychology is the study of psychological and
mental factors that influence, and are influenced by, participation in sport,
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exercise and physical activity, and the application of this knowledge to
everyday settings.
- Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative Psychology
- Society for Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative
Psychology members are devoted to studying the biology of behavior.
- Their focus is on behavior and its relation to perception, learning,
memory, cognition, motivation, and emotion.
II. Psychological Research
A. Why is research important?
- Research helps us understand what makes people think, feel, and
act in certain ways.
- Allows us to categorize psychological disorders in order to
understand the symptoms and impact on the individual and society.
- Helps us to understand how intimate relationships, development,
schools, family, peers, and religion affect us as individuals and as a
society.
- Helps us to develop effective treatments to improve the quality of
life of individuals and groups.
- In this sense, psychological research is typically used for the
following:
- Study development and external factors and the role they play on
individuals' mental health.
- Study people with specific psychological disorders, symptoms, or
characteristics.
- Develop tests to measure specific psychological phenomena.
- Develop treatment approaches to improve individuals' mental
health.
B. Approach to Research in Psychology
- The Three Types of Psychology Research
1. Causal or Experimental Research.
- This type of research also determines if one
variable causes another variable to occur or
change.
- An example of this type of research would be
changing the amount of a specific treatment
and measuring the effect on study participants
2. Descriptive Research.
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- In this type of research, psychologists formally
test whether a relationship exists between two
or more variables.
3. Relational or Correlational Research.
- In this type of research one can find a
relationship between two variables, but the
only way a researcher can claim that the
relationship between the variables is cause
and effect is to perform an experiment.
E. Analyzing Findings
- Psychologists develop a theory, form a hypothesis, make observations,
and collect data, with a lot of information in the form of numerical data.
- The term Statistics refers to the analysis and interpretation of this
numerical data.
- Psychologists use statistics to organize, summarize, and interpret the
information they collect.
- To organize and summarize their data, researchers need numbers to
describe what happened, these numbers are called Descriptive Statistics.
- Researchers may use Histograms or Bar Graphs to show the way data is
distributed.
- Presenting data this way makes it easy to compare results, see trends in
data, and evaluate results quickly.
- Researchers summarize their data by calculating Measures Of Central
Tendency, such as the mean, the median, and the mode.
- The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the Mean, which
is the arithmetic average of the scores.
- A distribution with a few very high scores is called a Positively Skewed
Distribution.
- A distribution with a few very low scores is called a Negatively Skewed
Distribution.
F. Ethics in Psychology
- Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out
research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants
from harm.
- However important the issue under investigation psychologists need to
remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity of
research participants.
III. Biopsychology
A. Human Genetics
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- As the name suggests, biopsychology explores how our biology
influences our behavior.
- While biological psychology is a broad field, many biological
psychologists want to understand how the structure and function of
the nervous system is related to behavior.
B. Cells of the Nervous System
- The nervous system is composed of two basic cell types: glial cells
(also known as glia) and neurons.
- Glial cells, which outnumber neurons ten to one, are traditionally
thought to play a supportive role to neurons, both physically and
metabolically.
C. Parts of The Nervous System
- The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system.
- The peripheral nervous system is comprised of the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems.
- The somatic nervous system transmits sensory and motor signals
to and from the central nervous system.
- The autonomic nervous system controls the
function of our organs and glands, and can be divided into the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.
- Sympathetic activation prepares us for fight or flight, while
parasympathetic activation is associated with normal functioning
under relaxed conditions.
D. The Brain and Spinal Cord
- The brain consists of two hemispheres, each controlling the
opposite side of the body.
- Each hemisphere can be subdivided into different lobes:
1. Frontal
2. Parietal
3. Temporal
4. Occipital
- In addition to the lobes of the cerebral cortex, the forebrain includes
the thalamus (sensory relay) and limbic system (emotion and
memory circuit).
- The midbrain contains the reticular formation, which is important for
sleep and arousal, as well as the substantia nigra and ventral
tegmental area.
- These structures are important for movement, reward, and
addictive processes.
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- The hindbrain contains the structures of the brainstem (medulla,
pons, and midbrain), which control automatic functions like
breathing and blood pressure.
- The hindbrain also contains the cerebellum, which helps coordinate
movement and certain types of memories
F. The Endocrine System
- The glands of the endocrine system secrete hormones to regulate
normal body functions.
- The hypothalamus serves as the interface between the nervous
system and the endocrine system, and it controls the secretions of
the pituitary.
- The pituitary serves as the master gland, controlling the secretions
of all other glands.
- The thyroid secretes thyroxine, which is important for basic
metabolic processes and growth; the adrenal glands secrete
hormones involved in the stress response; the pancreas secretes
hormones that regulate blood sugar levels; and the ovaries and
testes produce sex hormones that regulate sexual motivation and
behavior.
IV. States of Consciousness
A. What is Consciousness?
- States of consciousness vary over the course of the day and throughout our
lives. Important factors in these changes are the biological rhythms, and, more
specifically, the circadian rhythms generated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus
(SCN).
B. Why We Sleep
- We devote a very large portion of time to sleep, and our brains have complex
systems that control various aspects of sleep.
- Several hormones important for physical growth and maturation are secreted
during sleep.
- While the reason we sleep remains something of a mystery, there is some
evidence to suggest that sleep is very important to learning and memory.
C. Stages of sleep
- The different stages of sleep are characterized by the patterns of brain waves
associated with each stage.
- As a person transitions from being awake to falling asleep, alpha waves are
replaced by theta waves.
- Sleep spindles and K-complexes emerge in stage 2 sleep.
- Stage 3 and stage 4 are described as slow-wave sleep that is marked by a
predominance of delta waves.
- REM sleep involves rapid movements of the eyes, paralysis of voluntary
muscles, and dreaming.
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- Both NREM and REM sleep appear to play important roles in learning and
memory.
D. Sleep Patterns and Disorders
- Many individuals suffer from some type of sleep disorder or disturbance at some
point in their lives.
- Insomnia is a common experience in which people have difficulty falling or
staying asleep.
- Parasomnias involve unwanted motor behavior or experiences throughout the
sleep cycle and include RBD, sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night
terrors.
- Sleep apnea occurs when individuals stop breathing during their sleep, and in the
case of sudden infant death syndrome, infants will stop breathing during sleep
and die.
- Narcolepsy involves an irresistible urge to fall asleep during waking hours and is
often associated with cataplexy and hallucination.
E. Substance Use and Abuse
- Substance use disorder is defined in DSM-5 as a compulsive pattern of drug use
despite negative consequences.
- Both physical and psychological dependence are important parts of this disorder.
- Alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines are central nervous system
depressants that affect GABA neurotransmission.
- Cocaine, amphetamine, cathinones, and MDMA are all central nervous
stimulants that agonize dopamine neurotransmission, while nicotine and caffeine
affect acetylcholine and adenosine, respectively.
- Opiate drugs serve as powerful analgesics through their effects on the
endogenous opioid neurotransmitter system, and hallucinogenic drugs cause
pronounced changes in sensory and perceptual experiences.
- The hallucinogens are variable with regards to the specific neurotransmitter
systems they affect.
F. Other States of Consciousness
- Hypnosis is a focus on the self that involves suggested changes of behavior and
experience.
- Meditation involves relaxed, yet focused, awareness.
- Both hypnotic and meditative states may involve altered states of consciousness
that have potential application for the treatment of a variety of physical and
psychological disorders.
V. Sensation and Perception
A. Sensation versus Perception
- Sensation occurs when sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli.
Perception involves the organization, interpretation, and conscious
experience of those sensations.
- All sensory systems have both absolute and difference thresholds, which
refer to the minimum amount of stimulus energy or the minimum amount
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of difference in stimulus energy required to be detected about 50% of the
time, respectively.
- Sensory adaptation, selective attention, and signal detection theory can
help explain what is perceived and what is not.
- In addition, our perceptions are affected by a number of factors, including
beliefs, values, prejudices, culture, and life experiences.
B. Waves and Wavelengths
- Both light and sound can be described in terms of wave forms with
physical characteristics like amplitude, wavelength, and timbre.
- Wavelength and frequency are inversely related so that longer waves
have lower frequencies, and shorter waves have higher frequencies.
- In the visual system, a light wave’s wavelength is generally associated
with color, and its amplitude is associated with brightness. In the auditory
system, a sound’s frequency is associated with pitch, and its amplitude is
associated with loudness.
C. Vision
- Light waves cross the cornea and enter the eye at the pupil.
- The eye’s lens focuses this light so that the image is focused on a region
of the retina known as the fovea.
- The fovea contains cones that possess high levels of visual acuity and
operate best in bright light conditions.
- Rods are located throughout the retina and operate best under dim light
conditions.
- Visual information leaves the eye via the optic nerve.
- Information from each visual field is sent to the opposite side of the brain
at the optic chiasm.
- Visual information then moves through a number of brain sites before
reaching the occipital lobe, where it is processed.
D. Hearing
- Sound waves are funneled into the auditory canal and cause vibrations of
the eardrum; these vibrations move the ossicles.
- As the ossicles move, the stapes press against the oval window of the
cochlea, which causes fluid inside the cochlea to move.
- As a result, hair cells embedded in the basilar membrane become
enlarged, which sends neural impulses to the brain via the auditory nerve.
- Pitch perception and sound localization are important aspects of hearing.
- Our ability to perceive pitch relies on both the firing rate of the hair cells in
the basilar membrane as well as their location within the membrane.
- In terms of sound localization, both monaural and binaural cues are used
to locate where sounds originate in our environment.
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E. The Other Senses
- Taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction) are chemical senses that employ
receptors on the tongue and in the nose that bind directly with taste and
odor molecules in order to transmit information to the brain for processing.
- Our ability to perceive touch, temperature, and pain is mediated by a
number of receptors and free nerve endings that are distributed
throughout the skin and various tissues of the body.
- The vestibular sense helps us maintain a sense of balance through the
response of hair cells in the utricle, saccule, and semi-circular canals that
respond to changes in head position and gravity.
- Our proprioceptive and kinesthetic systems provide information about
body position and body movement through receptors that detect stretch
and tension in the muscles, joints, tendons, and skin of the body.
F. Gestalt Principles of Perception
- Gestalt theorists have been incredibly influential in the areas of
sensation and perception.
- Gestalt principles such as figure-ground relationship, grouping by
proximity or similarity, the law of good continuation, and closure are
all used to help explain how we organize sensory information.
- Our perceptions are not infallible, and they can be influenced by
bias, prejudice, and other factors.
VI. Learning
A. What is Learning?
- Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally
and do not involve learning.
- In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that
results from experience.
- There are three main types of learning
1. classical conditioning
2. operant conditioning
3. observational learning.
- Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative
learning where associations are made between events that occur
together.
- Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing
others.
B. Classical Conditioning
- Pavlov’s pioneering work with dogs contributed greatly to what we know
about learning.
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- His experiments explored the type of associative learning we now call
classical conditioning.
- In classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate events that
repeatedly happen together, and researchers study how a reflexive
response to a stimulus can be mapped to a different stimulus—by training
an association between the two stimuli.
- Pavlov’s experiments show how stimulus-response bonds are formed.
- Watson, tested humans by conditioning fear in an infant known as Little
Albert.
- His findings suggest that classical conditioning can explain how some
fears develop.
D. Operant Conditioning
- Operant conditioning is based on the work of B. F. Skinner.
- Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation
for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated.
- An animal or a human receives a consequence after performing a
specific behavior.
- The consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher.
- All reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a
behavioral response.
- All punishment (positive or negative) decreases the likelihood of a
behavioral response.
- Several types of reinforcement schedules are used to reward
behavior depending on either a set or variable period of time.
E. Observational Learning (Modeling)
- According to Bandura, learning can occur by watching others and
then modeling what they do or say.
- This is known as observational learning.
- There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be
followed if learning is to be successful.
- These steps include attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation.
- Through modeling, Bandura has shown that children learn many
things both good and bad simply by watching their parents, siblings,
and others.
VII. Thinking and Intelligence
A. What Is Cognition?
- Concepts and their corresponding prototypes help us quickly
organize our thinking by creating categories into which we can sort
new information.
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- We also develop schemata, which are clusters of related concepts.
- Some schemata involve routines of thought and behavior, and
these help us function properly in various situations without having
to “think twice” about them.
- Schemata show up in social situations and routines of daily
behavior.
B. Language
- Language is a communication system that has both a lexicon and a
system of grammar.
- Language acquisition occurs naturally and effortlessly during the
early stages of life, and this acquisition occurs in a predictable
sequence for individuals around the world.
- Language has a strong influence on thought, and the concept of
how language may influence cognition remains an area of study
and debate in psychology.
C. Problem Solving
- Many different strategies exist for solving problems.
- Typical strategies include trial and error, applying algorithms, and
using heuristics.
- To solve a large, complicated problem, it often helps to break the
problem into smaller steps that can be accomplished individually,
leading to an overall solution.
- Roadblocks to problem solving include a mental set, functional
fixedness, and various biases that can cloud decision making skills.
D. What Are Intelligence and Creativity?
- Intelligence is a complex characteristic of cognition.
- Many theories have been developed to explain what intelligence is and
how it works.
- Sternberg generated his triarchic theory of intelligence, whereas Gardner
posits that intelligence is composed of many factors.
- Still others focus on the importance of emotional intelligence.
- Finally, creativity seems to be a facet of intelligence, but it is extremely
difficult to measure objectively.
E. Measures of Intelligence
- Intelligence tests began in earnest with Binet; Wechsler later developed
intelligence tests that are still in use today: the WAIS-IV and WISC-V.
- The Bell curve shows the range of scores that encompass average
intelligence as well as standard deviations.
F. The Source of Intelligence
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- Genetics and environment affect intelligence and the challenges of certain
learning disabilities.
- The intelligence levels of all individuals seem to benefit from rich
stimulation in their early environments.
- Highly intelligent individuals, however, may have a built-in resiliency that
allows them to overcome difficult obstacles in their upbringing.
- Learning disabilities can cause major challenges for children who are
learning to read and write.
- Unlike developmental disabilities, learning disabilities are strictly
neurological in nature and are not related to intelligence levels.
- Students with dyslexia, for example, may have extreme difficulty learning
to read, but their intelligence levels are typically average or above
average.
VIII. Memory
A. How Memory Functions
- Memory is a system or process that stores what we learn for future use.
- Our memory has three basic functions: encoding, storing, and retrieving
information.
- Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory system through
automatic or effortful processing.
- Storage is retention of the information, and retrieval is the act of getting
information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall,
recognition, and relearning.
- The idea that information is processed through three memory systems is
called the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory.
- First, environmental stimuli enter our sensory memory for a period of less
than a second to a few seconds.
- Those stimuli that we notice and pay attention to then move into
short-term memory.
- According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, if we rehearse this information,
then it moves into long-term memory for permanent storage.
- Other models like that of Baddeley and Hitch suggest there is more of a
feedback loop between short-term memory and longterm memory.
- Long-term memory has a practically limitless storage capacity and is
divided into implicit and explicit memory.
B. Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory
- Beginning with Karl Lashley, researchers and psychologists have
been searching for the engram, which is the physical trace of
memory.
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- Lashley did not find the engram, but he did suggest that memories
are distributed throughout the entire brain rather than stored in one
specific area.
- Now we know that three brain areas do play significant roles in the
processing and storage of different types of memories:
1. Cerebellum
● The cerebellum’s job is to process
procedural memories
2. Hippocampus
● the hippocampus is where new
memories are encoded
3. Amygdala.
● The amygdala helps determine what
memories to store, and it plays a part in
determining where the memories are
stored based on whether we have a
strong or weak emotional response to
the event.
- Strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of
neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory, so that
memory for an emotional event is usually stronger than memory for a
non-emotional event.
- This is shown by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon:
our ability to remember significant life events.
- Our memory for life events (autobiographical memory) is not always
accurate.
C. Problems with Memory
- All of us at times have felt dismayed, frustrated, and even
embarrassed when our memories have failed us.
- Our memory is flexible and prone to many errors, which is why
eyewitness testimony has been found to be largely unreliable.
- There are several reasons why forgetting occurs.
- In cases of brain trauma or disease, forgetting may be due to
amnesia.
- Another reason we forget is due to encoding failure.
- We can’t remember something if we never stored it in our memory
in the first place.
- Schacter presents seven memory errors that also contribute to
forgetting.
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- Sometimes, information is actually stored in our memory, but we
cannot access it due to interference.
- Proactive interference happens when old information hinders the
recall of newly learned information.
- Retroactive interference happens when information learned more
recently hinders the recall of older information.
D. Ways to Enhance Memory
- There are many ways to combat the inevitable failures of our
memory system.
- Some common strategies that can be used in everyday situations
include mnemonic devices, rehearsal, self-referencing, and
adequate sleep.
- These same strategies also can help you to study more effectively.
IX. Lifespan Development
A. What Is Lifespan Development?
- Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from
conception to death.
- This field of psychology is studied by developmental psychologists.
- They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied
scientifically across three developmental domains:
1. Physical
2. cognitive development
3. Psychosocial.
B. Lifespan Theories
- There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow
and develop into happy, healthy adults.
- Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass through a series of
psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused on certain
erogenous zones on the body.
- Eric Erikson modified Freud’s ideas and suggested a theory of
psychosocial development.
- Erikson said that our social interactions and successful completion
of social tasks shape our sense of self.
- Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive development that
explains how children think and reason as they move through
various stages.
- Finally, Lawrence Kohlberg turned his attention to moral
development.
- He said that we pass through three levels of moral thinking that
build on our cognitive development.
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C. Stages of Development
- At conception the egg and sperm cell are united to form a zygote, which
will begin to divide rapidly.
- This marks the beginning of the first stage of prenatal development
(germinal stage), which lasts about two weeks.
- Then the zygote implants itself into the lining of the woman’s uterus,
marking the beginning of the second stage of prenatal development
(embryonic stage), which lasts about six weeks.
- The embryo begins to develop body and organ structures, and the neural
tube forms, which will later become the brain and spinal cord.
- The third phase of prenatal development (fetal stage) begins at 9 weeks
and lasts until birth.
- The body, brain, and organs grow rapidly during this stage.
- During all stages of pregnancy it is important that the mother receive
prenatal care to reduce health risks to herself and to her developing baby.
X. Emotion and Motivation
A. Motivation
- Motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or
external factors.
- More biologically oriented theories deal with the ways that instincts and
the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivate behavior.
- Bandura postulated that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behaviors,
and there are a number of theories that focus on a variety of social
motives.
- Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a model that shows the
relationship among multiple motives that range from lower-level
physiological needs to the very high level of self actualization.
B. Hunger and Eating
- Hunger and satiety are highly regulated processes that result in a person
maintaining a fairly stable weight that is resistant to change. When more
calories are consumed than expended, a person will store excess energy
as fat.
- Being significantly overweight adds substantially to a person’s health risks
and problems, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, certain
cancers, and other medical issues.
- Sociocultural factors that emphasize thinness as a beauty ideal and a
genetic predisposition contribute to the development of eating disorders in
many young females, though eating disorders span ages and genders.
C. Sexual Behavior
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- The hypothalamus and structures of the limbic system are important in
sexual behavior and motivation.
- There is evidence to suggest that our motivation to engage in sexual
behavior and our ability to do so are related, but separate, processes.
- Alfred Kinsey conducted large-scale survey research that demonstrated
the incredible diversity of human sexuality.
- William Masters and Virginia Johnson observed individuals engaging in
sexual behavior in developing their concept of the sexual response cycle.
- While often confused, sexual orientation and gender identity are related,
but distinct, concepts.
D. Emotion
- Emotions are subjective experiences that consist of physiological arousal
and cognitive appraisal.
- Various theories have been put forward to explain our emotional
experiences.
- The James-Lange theory asserts that emotions arise as a function of
physiological arousal.
- The Cannon-Bard theory maintains that emotional experience occurs
simultaneous to and independent of physiological arousal.
- The Schachter-Singer two factor theory suggests that physiological
arousal receives cognitive labels as a function of the relevant context and
that these two factors together result in an emotional experience.
XI. Personality
A. What Is Personality?
- Personality has been studied for over 2,000 years, beginning with
Hippocrates.
- More recent theories of personality have been proposed, including
Freud’s psychodynamic perspective, which holds that personality is
formed through early childhood experiences.
- Other perspectives then emerged in reaction to the psychodynamic
perspective, including the learning, humanistic, biological, trait, and
cultural perspectives.
B. Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective
- Sigmund Freud presented the first comprehensive theory of
personality.
- He was also the first to recognize that much of our mental life takes
place outside of our conscious awareness.
- Freud also proposed three components to our personality: the id,
ego, and superego.
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- The job of the ego is to balance the sexual and aggressive drives of
the id with the moral ideal of the superego.
- Freud also said that personality develops through a series of
psychosexual stages.
- In each stage, pleasure focuses on a specific erogenous zone.
- Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to become fixated in that
stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits.
- Successful resolution of the stages leads to a healthy adult.
C. Neo-Freudians:
- Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney The neo-Freudians were
psychologists whose work followed from Freud’s.
- They generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences
matter, but they decreased the emphasis on sex and focused more
on the social environment and effects of culture on personality.
- Some of the notable neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik
Erikson, and Karen Horney.
- The neo-Freudian approaches have been criticized, because they
tend to be philosophical rather than based on sound scientific
research.
- Jung’s conclusions about the existence of the collective
unconscious are based on myths, legends, dreams, and art.
- In addition, as with Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the
neo-Freudians based much of their theories of personality on
information from their patients.
D. Learning Approaches Behavioral
- theorists view personality as significantly shaped and impacted by
the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism.
- People behave in a consistent manner based on prior learning. B.
F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist, said that we demonstrate
consistent behavior patterns, because we have developed certain
response tendencies.
- Mischel focused on how personal goals play a role in the self
regulation process.
- Albert Bandura said that one’s environment can determine
behavior, but at the same time, people can influence the
environment with both their thoughts and behaviors, which is known
as reciprocal determinism.
- Bandura also emphasized how we learn from watching others.
- He felt that this type of learning also plays a part in the
development of our personality.
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- Bandura discussed the concept of self-efficacy, which is our level of
confidence in our own abilities.
- Finally, Rotter proposed the concept of locus of control, which
refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives.
- He said that people fall along a continuum between a purely
internal and a purely external locus of control.
D. Humanistic Approaches
- Humanistic psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
focused on the growth potential of healthy individuals.
- They believed that people strive to become self-actualized.
- Both Rogers and Maslow’s theories greatly contributed to our
understanding of the self.
- They emphasized free will and self determination, with each
individual desiring to become the best person they can become.
E. Biological Approaches
- Some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled by
genetics; however, environmental factors (such as family
interactions) and maturation can affect the ways in which children’s
personalities are expressed.
F. Trait Theorists Trait
- theorists attempt to explain our personality by identifying our stable
characteristics and ways of behaving.
- They have identified important dimensions of personality.
- The Five Factor Model is the most widely accepted theory today.
- The five factors are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism.
- These factors occur along a continuum.
G. Cultural Understandings of Personality
- The culture in which you live is one of the most important
environmental factors that shapes your personality.
- Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to other
cultures.
- In fact, there is evidence that the strength of personality traits
varies across cultures.
- Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on
different basic values.
- People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that
independence, competition, and personal achievement are
important.
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- People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony,
respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs.
- There are three approaches that can be used to study personality
in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the
indigenous approach, and the combined approach, which
incorporates both elements of both views.
H. Personality Assessment
- Personality tests are techniques designed to measure one’s
personality.
- They are used to diagnose psychological problems as well as to
screen candidates for college and employment.
- There are two types of personality tests: self-report inventories and
projective tests.
- The MMPI is one of the most common self report inventories.
- It asks a series of true/false questions that are designed to provide
a clinical profile of an individual.
- Projective tests use ambiguous images or other ambiguous stimuli
to assess an individual’s unconscious fears, desires, and
challenges.
- The Rorschach Inkblot Test, the TAT, the RISB, and the C-TCB are
all forms of projective tests.
XII. Social Psychology
A. What Is Social Psychology?
- Social psychology is the subfield of psychology that studies the power of
the situation to influence individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
- Psychologists categorize the causes of human behavior as those due to
internal factors, such as personality, or those due to external factors, such
as cultural and other social influences.
- Behavior is better explained, however, by using both approaches. Lay
people tend to over-rely on dispositional explanations for behavior and
ignore the power of situational influences, a perspective called the
fundamental attribution error.
- People from individualistic cultures are more likely to display this bias
versus people from collectivistic cultures.
- Our explanations for our own and others can be biased due to not having
enough information about others’ motivations for behaviors and by
providing explanations that bolster our self-esteem.
B. Self-presentation
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- Human behavior is largely influenced by our social roles, norms, and
scripts.
- In order to know how to act in a given situation, we have shared cultural
knowledge of how to behave depending on our role in society.
- Social norms dictate the behavior that is appropriate or inappropriate for
each role.
- Each social role has scripts that help humans learn the sequence of
appropriate behaviors in a given setting.
- The famous Stanford prison experiment is an example of how the power
of the situation can dictate the social roles, norms, and scripts we follow in
a given situation, even if this behavior is contrary to our typical behavior.
C. Attitudes and Persuasion
- Attitudes are our evaluations or feelings toward a person, idea, or object
and typically are positive or negative.
- Our attitudes and beliefs are influenced not only by external forces, but
also by internal influences that we control.
- An internal form of attitude change is cognitive dissonance or the tension
we experience when our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are in conflict.
- In order to reduce dissonance, individuals can change their behavior,
attitudes, or cognitions, or add a new cognition.
- External forces of persuasion include advertising; the features of
advertising that influence our behaviors include the source, message, and
audience.
- There are two primary routes to persuasion.
- The central route to persuasion uses facts and information to persuade
potential consumers.
- The peripheral route uses positive association with cues such as beauty,
fame, and positive emotions.
D. Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience
- The power of the situation can lead people to conform, or go along with
the group, even in the face of inaccurate information.
- Conformity to group norms is driven by two motivations, the desire to fit in
and be liked and the desire to be accurate and gain information from the
group.
- Authority figures also have influence over our behaviors, and many people
become obedient and follow orders even if the orders are contrary to their
personal values.
- Conformity to group pressures can also result in groupthink, or the faulty
decision-making process that results from cohesive group members trying
to maintain group harmony.
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- Group situations can improve human behavior through facilitating
performance on easy tasks, but inhibiting performance on difficult tasks.
- The presence of others can also lead to social loafing when individual
efforts cannot be evaluated.
E. Prejudice and Discrimination
- As diverse individuals, humans can experience conflict when interacting
with people who are different from each other.
- Prejudice, or negative feelings and evaluations, is common when people
are from a different social group (i.e., out-group).
- Negative attitudes toward out-groups can lead to discrimination.
- Prejudice and discrimination against others can be based on gender,
race, ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation, or a variety of other social
identities.
- In-group’s who feel threatened may blame the out-groups for their plight,
thus using the out-group as a scapegoat for their frustration.
F. Aggression
- Aggression is seeking to cause another person harm or pain.
- Hostile aggression is motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause
pain, and instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal and
does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain Bullying is an
international public health concern that largely affects the adolescent
population.
- Bullying is repeated behaviors that are intended to inflict harm on the
victim and can take the form of physical, psychological, emotional, or
social abuse.
- Bullying has negative mental health consequences for youth including
suicide.
- Cyberbullying is a newer form of bullying that takes place in an online
environment where bullies can remain anonymous and victims are
helpless to address the harassment.
- Despite the social norm of helping others in need, when there are many
bystanders witnessing an emergency, diffusion of responsibility will lead to
a lower likelihood of any one person helping.
G. Prosocial Behavior
- Altruism is a pure form of helping others out of empathy, which can be
contrasted with egoistic motivations for helping.
- Forming relationships with others is a necessity for social beings. We
typically form relationships with people who are close to us in proximity
and people with whom we share similarities.
- We expect reciprocity and self-disclosure in our relationships.
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- We also want to form relationships with people who are physically
attractive, though standards for attractiveness vary by culture and gender.
- There are many types of love that are determined by various combinations
of intimacy, passion, and commitment; consummate love, which is the
ideal form of love, contains all three components.
- When determining satisfaction and whether to maintain a relationship,
individuals often use a social exchange approach and weigh the costs and
benefits of forming and maintaining a relationship.
XIII. Industrial and Organizational Psychology
A. What Is Industrial and Organizational Psychology?
- The field of I-O psychology had its birth in industrial psychology and the
use of psychological concepts to aid in personnel selection.
- However, with research such as the Hawthorne study, it was found that
productivity was affected more by human interaction and not physical
factors;
- The field of industrial psychology expanded to include organizational
psychology.
- Both WWI and WWII had a strong influence on the development of an
expansion of industrial psychology in the United States and elsewhere:
- The tasks the psychologists were assigned led to development of tests
and research in how the psychological concepts could assist industry and
other areas.
- This movement aided in expanding industrial psychology to include
organizational psychology.
A. Industrial Psychology: Selecting and Evaluating Employees
- Industrial psychology studies the attributes of jobs, applicants of those
jobs, and methods for assessing fit to a job.
- These procedures include job analysis, applicant testing, and interviews.
- It also studies and puts into place procedures for the orientation of new
employees and ongoing training of employees.
- The process of hiring employees can be vulnerable to bias, which is
illegal, and industrial psychologists must develop methods for adhering to
the law in hiring.
- Performance appraisal systems are an active area of research and
practice in industrial psychology.
B. Organizational Psychology: The Social Dimension of Work
- Organizational psychology is concerned with the effects of interactions
among people in the workplace on the employees themselves and on
organizational productivity.
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- Job satisfaction and its determinants and outcomes are a major focus of
organizational psychology research and practice.
- Organizational psychologists have also studied the effects of management
styles and leadership styles on productivity.
- In addition to the employees and management, organizational psychology
also looks at the organizational culture and how that might affect
productivity.
- One aspect of organization culture is the prevention and addressing of
sexual and other forms of harassment in the workplace.
- Sexual harassment includes language, behavior, or displays that create a
hostile environment; it also includes sexual favors requested in exchange
for workplace rewards (i.e., quid pro quo).
- Industrial-organizational psychology has conducted extensive research
on the triggers and causes of workplace violence and safety.
- This enables the organization to establish procedures that can identify
these triggers before they become a problem.
C. Human Factors Psychology and Workplace Design
- Human factors psychology, or ergonomics, studies the interface between
workers and their machines and physical environments.
- Human factors psychologists specifically seek to design machines to
better support the workers using them.
- Psychologists may be involved in the design of work tools such as
software, displays, or machines from the beginning of the design process
or during the testing of an already developed product.
- Human factor psychologists are also involved in the development of best
design recommendations and regulations.
- One important aspect of human factors psychology is enhancing worker
safety.
- Human factors research involves efforts to understand and improve
interactions between technology systems and their human operators.
- Human–software interactions are a large sector of this research.
XIV. Stress, Lifestyle, and Health
A. What Is Stress?
- Stress is a process whereby an individual perceives and responds
to events appraised as overwhelming or threatening to one’s
well-being.
- The scientific study of how stress and emotional factors impact
health and well-being is called health psychology, a field devoted to
studying the general impact of psychological factors on health.
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- The body’s primary physiological response during stress, the
fight-or-flight response, was first identified in the early 20th century
by Walter Cannon.
- The fight-or-flight response involves the coordinated activity of both
the sympathetic nervous system and the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Hans Selye, a noted
endocrinologist, referred to these physiological reactions to stress
as part of general adaptation syndrome, which occurs in three
stages:
1. alarm reaction (fight-or-flight reactions begin)
2. resistance (the body begins to adapt to continuing
stress)
3. exhaustion (adaptive energy is depleted, and stress
begins to take a physical toll)
B Stressors
- Stressors can be chronic (long term) or acute (short term), and can
include traumatic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, and
situations in which people are frequently exposed to challenging and
unpleasant events.
- Many potential stressors include events or situations that require us to
make changes in our lives, such as a divorce or moving to a new
residence.
- Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe developed the Social Readjustment
Rating Scale (SRRS) to measure stress by assigning a number of life
change units to life events that typically require some adjustment,
including positive events.
- Although the SRRS has been criticized on a number of grounds, extensive
research has shown that the accumulation of many LCUs is associated
with increased risk of illness.
- Many potential stressors also include daily hassles, which are minor
irritations and annoyances that can build up over time.
- In addition, jobs that are especially demanding, offer little control over
one’s working environment, or involve unfavorable working conditions can
lead to job strain, thereby setting the stage for job burnout.
C. Stress and Illness
- Psychophysiological disorders are physical diseases that are either
brought about or worsened by stress and other emotional factors.
- One of the mechanisms through which stress and emotional factors can
influence the development of these diseases is by adversely affecting the
body’s immune system.
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- A number of studies have demonstrated that stress weakens the
functioning of the immune system.
- Cardiovascular disorders are serious medical conditions that have been
consistently shown to be influenced by stress and negative emotions,
such as anger, negative affectivity, and depression.
- Other psychophysiological disorders that are known to be influenced by
stress and emotional factors include asthma and tension headaches.
D. Regulation of Stress
- When faced with stress, people must attempt to manage or cope
with it. In general, there are two basic forms of coping:
problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping.
- Those who use problem-focused coping strategies tend to cope
better with stress because these strategies address the source of
stress rather than the resulting symptoms.
- To a large extent, perceived control greatly impacts reaction to
stressors and is associated with greater physical and mental
well-being.
- Social support has been demonstrated to 558 Chapter 14 | Stress,
Lifestyle, and Health are a highly effective buffer against the
adverse effects of stress.
- Extensive research has shown that social support has beneficial
physiological effects for people, and it seems to influence immune
functioning.
- However, the beneficial effects of social support may be related to
its influence on promoting healthy behaviors.
E. The Pursuit of Happiness
- Happiness is conceptualized as an enduring state of mind that
consists of the capacity to experience pleasure in daily life, as well
as the ability to engage one’s skills and talents to enrich one’s life
and the lives of others.
- Although people around the world generally report that they are
happy, there are differences in average happiness levels across
nations.
- Although people have a tendency to overestimate the extent to
which their happiness set points would change for the better or for
the worse following certain life events, researchers have identified a
number of factors that are consistently related to happiness.
- In recent years, positive psychology has emerged as an area of
study seeking to identify and promote qualities that lead to greater
happiness and fulfillment in our lives.
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- These components include positive affect, optimism, and flow.
XV. Psychological Disorders
A. What Are Psychological Disorders?
- Psychological disorders are conditions characterized by abnormal
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
- Although challenging, it is essential for psychologists and mental health
professionals to agree on what kinds of inner experiences and behaviors
constitute the presence of a psychological disorder.
- Inner experiences and behaviors that are atypical or violate social norms
could signify the presence of a disorder; however, each of these criteria
alone is inadequate.
- Harmful dysfunction describes the view that psychological disorders result
from the inability of an internal mechanism to perform its natural function.
- Many of the features of harmful dysfunction conceptualization have been
incorporated in the APA’s formal definition of psychological disorders.
- According to this definition, the presence of a psychological disorder is
signaled by significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors;
these disturbances must reflect some kind of dysfunction (biological,
psychological, or developmental), must cause significant impairment in
one’s life, and must not reflect culturally expected reactions to certain life
events.
B. Diagnosing and Classifying Psychological Disorders
- The diagnosis and classification of psychological disorders is essential in
studying and treating psychopathology.
- The classification system used by most U.S. professionals is the DSM-5.
The first edition of the DSM was published in 1952, and has undergone
numerous revisions.
- The 5th and most recent edition, the DSM-5, was published in 2013.
- The diagnostic manual includes a total of 237 specific diagnosable
disorders, each described in detail, including its symptoms, prevalence,
risk factors, and comorbidity.
- Over time, the number of diagnosable conditions listed in the DSM has
grown steadily, prompting criticism from some.
- Nevertheless, the diagnostic criteria in the DSM are more explicit than
that of any other system, which makes the DSM system highly desirable
for both clinical diagnosis and research.
C. Perspectives on Psychological Disorders
- Psychopathology is very complex, involving a plethora of etiological
theories and perspectives.
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- For centuries, psychological disorders were viewed primarily from a
supernatural perspective and thought to arise from divine forces or
possession from spirits.
- Some cultures continue to hold this supernatural belief. Today, many who
study psychopathology view mental illness from a biological perspective,
whereby psychological disorders are thought to result largely from faulty
biological processes.
- Indeed, scientific advances over the last several decades have provided a
better understanding of the genetic, neurological, hormonal, and
biochemical bases of psychopathology.
- The psychological perspective, in contrast, emphasizes the importance of
psychological factors (e.g., stress and thoughts) and environmental factors
in the development of psychological disorders.
- A contemporary, promising approach is to view disorders as originating
from an integration of biological and psychosocial factors.
- The diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an underlying
diathesis, or vulnerability, for a psychological disorder are more likely than
those without the diathesis to develop the disorder when faced with
stressful events.
D. Anxiety Disorders
- Anxiety disorders are a group of disorders in which a person experiences
excessive, persistent, and distressing fear and anxiety that interferes with
normal functioning.
- Anxiety disorders include specific phobia: a specific unrealistic fear; social
anxiety disorder: extreme fear and avoidance of social situations; panic
disorder: suddenly overwhelmed by panic even though there is no
apparent reason to be frightened; agoraphobia: an intense fear and
avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape; and
generalized anxiety disorder: a relatively continuous state of tension,
apprehension, and dread.
E. Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
- Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are a group of DSM-5
disorders that overlap somewhat in that they each involve intrusive
thoughts and/or repetitive behaviors.
- Perhaps the most recognized of these disorders is obsessive-compulsive
disorder, in which a person is obsessed with unwanted, unpleasant
thoughts and/or compulsively engages in repetitive behaviors or mental
acts, perhaps as a way of coping with the obsessions.
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- Body dysmorphic disorder is characterized by the individual becoming
excessively preoccupied with one or more perceived flaws in his physical
appearance that are either nonexistent or unnoticeable to others.
- Preoccupation with the perceived physical defects causes the person to
experience significant anxiety regarding how he appears to others.
- Hoarding disorder is characterized by persistent difficulty in discarding or
parting with objects, regardless of their actual value, often resulting in the
accumulation of items that clutter and congest her living area.
F. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
- Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was described through much of the
20th century and was referred to as shell shock and combat neurosis in
the belief that its symptoms were thought to emerge from the stress of
active combat.
- Today, PTSD is defined as a disorder in which the experience of a
traumatic or profoundly stressful event, such as combat, sexual assault, or
natural disaster, produces a constellation of symptoms that must last for
one month or more.
- These symptoms include intrusive and distressing memories of the event,
flashbacks, avoidance of stimuli or situations that are connected to the
event, persistently negative emotional states, feeling detached from
others, irritability, proneness toward outbursts, and a tendency to be easily
startled. Not everyone who experiences a traumatic event will develop
PTSD; a variety of risk factors associated with its development have been
identified.
G. Mood Disorders
- Mood disorders are those in which the person experiences severe
disturbances in mood and emotion.
- They include depressive disorders and bipolar and related disorders.
- Depressive disorders include major depressive disorder, which is
characterized by episodes of profound sadness and loss of interest or
pleasure in usual activities and other associated features, and persistent
depressive disorder, which is marked by a chronic state of sadness.
- Bipolar disorder is characterized by mood states that vacillate between
sadness and euphoria; a diagnosis of bipolar disorder requires
experiencing at least one manic episode, which is defined as a period of
extreme euphoria, irritability, and increased activity.
- Mood disorders appear to have a genetic component, with genetic factors
playing a more prominent role in bipolar disorder than in depression.
- Both biological and psychological factors are important in the
development of depression.
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- People who suffer from mental health problems, especially mood
disorders, are at heightened risk for suicide.
H. Schizophrenia
- Schizophrenia is a severe disorder characterized by a complete
breakdown in one’s ability to function in life; it often requires
hospitalization.
- People with schizophrenia experience hallucinations and delusions, and
they have extreme difficulty regulating their emotions and behavior.
- Thinking is incoherent and disorganized, behavior is extremely bizarre,
emotions are flat, and motivation to engage in most basic life activities is
lacking.
- Considerable evidence shows that genetic factors play a central role in
schizophrenia; however, adoption studies have highlighted the additional
importance of environmental factors.
- Neurotransmitter and brain abnormalities, which may be linked to
environmental factors such as obstetric complications or exposure to
influenza during the gestational period, have also been implicated.
- A promising new area of schizophrenia research involves identifying
individuals who show prodromal symptoms and following them over time
to determine which factors best predict the development of schizophrenia.
- Future research may enable us to pinpoint those especially at risk for
developing schizophrenia and who may benefit from early intervention.
I. Dissociative Disorders
- The main characteristic of dissociative disorders is that people become
dissociated from their sense of self, resulting in memory and identity
disturbances.
- Dissociative disorders listed in the DSM-5 include dissociative amnesia,
depersonalization/derealization disorder, and dissociative identity disorder.
- A person with dissociative amnesia is unable to recall important personal
information, often after a stressful or traumatic experience.
- Depersonalization/derealization disorder is characterized by recurring
episodes of depersonalization (i.e., detachment from or unfamiliarity with
the self) and/or derealization (i.e., detachment from or unfamiliarity with
the world).
- A person with dissociative identity disorder exhibits two or more well
defined and distinct personalities or identities, as well as memory gaps for
the time during which another identity was present.
- Dissociative identity disorder has generated controversy, mainly because
some believe its symptoms can be faked by patients if presenting its
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symptoms somehow benefits the patient in avoiding negative
consequences of taking responsibility for one’s actions.
- The diagnostic rates of this disorder have increased dramatically following
its portrayal in popular culture. However, many people legitimately suffer
over the course of a lifetime with this disorder.
J. Disorders in Childhood Neurodevelopmental
- disorders are a group of disorders that are typically diagnosed during
childhood and are characterized by developmental deficits in personal,
social, academic, and intellectual realms; these disorders include attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder.
- ADHD is characterized by a pervasive pattern of inattention and/or
hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning.
Genetic and neurobiological factors contribute to the development of
ADHD, which can persist well into adulthood and is often associated with
poor long-term outcomes.
- The major features of autism spectrum disorder include deficits in social
interaction and communication and repetitive movements or interests. As
with ADHD, genetic factors appear to play a prominent role in the
development of autism spectrum disorder; exposure to environmental
pollutants such as mercury have also been linked to the development of
this disorder.
- Although it is believed by some that autism is triggered by the MMR
vaccination, evidence does not support this claim.
K. Personality Disorders
- Individuals with personality disorders exhibit a personality style that is
inflexible, causes distress and impairment, and creates problems for
themselves and others.
- The DSM-5 recognizes 10 personality 623 disorders, organized into three
clusters.
- The disorders in Cluster A include those characterized by a personality
style that is odd and eccentric. Cluster B includes personality disorders
characterized chiefly by a personality style that is impulsive, dramatic,
highly emotional, and erratic, and those in Cluster C are characterized by
a nervous and fearful personality style.
- Two Cluster B personality disorders, borderline personality disorder and
antisocial personality disorder, are especially problematic.
- People with borderline personality disorder show marked instability in
mood, behavior, and self-image, as well as impulsivity.
- They cannot stand to be alone, are unpredictable, have a history of stormy
relationships, and frequently display intense and inappropriate anger.
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- Genetic factors and adverse childhood experiences (e.g., sexual abuse)
appear to be important in its development.
- People with antisocial personality display a lack of regard for the rights of
others; they are impulsive, deceitful, irresponsible, and unburdened by any
sense of guilt.
- Genetic factors and socialization both appear to be important in the origin
of antisocial personality disorder.
- Research has also shown that those with this disorder do not experience
emotions the way most other people do.
XVI. Therapy and Treatment
A. Mental Health Treatment: Past and Present
- It was once believed that people with psychological disorders, or
those exhibiting strange behavior, were possessed by demons.
- These people were forced to take part in exorcisms, were
imprisoned, or executed.
- Later, asylums were built to house the mentally ill, but the patients
received little to no treatment, and many of the methods used were
cruel.
- Philippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix argued for more humane treatment
of people with psychological disorders.
- In the mid-1960s, the deinstitutionalization movement gained
support and asylums were closed, enabling people with mental
illness to return home and receive treatment in their own
communities.
- Some did go to their family homes, but many became homeless
due to a lack of resources and support mechanisms.
- Today, instead of asylums, there are psychiatric hospitals run by
state governments and local community hospitals, with the
emphasis on short-term stays.
- However, most people suffering from mental illness are not
hospitalized.
- A person suffering symptoms could speak with a primary care
physician, who most likely would refer him to someone who
specializes in therapy.
- The person can receive outpatient mental health services from a
variety of sources, including psychologists, psychiatrists, marriage
and family therapists, school counselors, clinical social workers,
and religious personnel.
- These therapy sessions would be covered through insurance,
government funds, or private (self) pay.
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B. Types of Treatment
- Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud.
- Freud’s theory is that a person’s psychological problems are the
result of repressed impulses or childhood trauma.
- The goal of the therapist is to help a person uncover buried feelings
by using techniques such as free association and dream analysis.
- Play therapy is a psychodynamic therapy technique often used with
children.
- The idea is that children play out their hopes, fantasies, and
traumas, using dolls, stuffed animals, and sandbox figurines.
- In behavior therapy, a therapist employs principles of learning from
classical and operant conditioning to help clients change
undesirable behaviors.
- Counterconditioning is a commonly used therapeutic technique in
which a client learns a new response to a stimulus that has
previously elicited an undesirable behavior via classical
conditioning.
- Principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help people
deal with a wide range of psychological problems.
- Token economy is an example of a popular operant conditioning
technique.
- Cognitive therapy is a technique that focuses on how thoughts lead
to feelings of distress.
- The idea behind cognitive therapy is that how you think determines
how you feel and act.
- Cognitive therapists help clients change dysfunctional thoughts in
order to relieve distress.
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy explores how our thoughts affect our
behavior.
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy aims to change cognitive distortions
and self defeating behaviors.
- Humanistic therapy focuses on helping people achieve their
potential.
- One form of humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers is known
as client-centered or Rogerian therapy.
- Client-centered therapists use the techniques of active listening,
unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy to help
clients become more accepting of themselves.
- Often in combination with psychotherapy, people can be prescribed
biologically based treatments such as psychotropic medications
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and/or other medical procedures such as electro-convulsive
therapy.
C. Treatment Modalities
- There are several modalities of treatment: individual therapy, group
therapy, couples therapy, and family therapy are the most common.
- In an individual therapy session, a client works one-on-one with a
trained therapist.
- In group therapy, usually 5–10 people meet with a trained group
therapist to discuss a common issue (e.g., divorce, grief, eating
disorders, substance abuse, or anger management).
- Couples therapy involves two people in an intimate relationship
who are having difficulties and are trying to resolve them.
- The couple may be dating, partnered, engaged, or married.
- The therapist helps them resolve their problems as well as
implement strategies that will lead to a healthier and happier
relationship.
- Family therapy is a special form of group therapy.
- The therapy group is made up of one or more families.
- The goal of this approach is to enhance the growth of each
individual family member and the family as a whole.
D. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders:
- A Special Case Addiction is often viewed as a chronic disease that
rewires the brain.
- This helps explain why relapse rates tend to be high, around
40%–60% (McLellan, Lewis, & O’Brien, & Kleber, 2000).
- The goal of treatment is to help an addict stop compulsive
drug-seeking behaviors.
- Treatment usually includes behavioral therapy, which can take
place individually or in a group setting.
- Treatment may also include medication.
- Sometimes a person has comorbid disorders, which usually means
that they have a substance-related disorder diagnosis and another
psychiatric diagnosis, such as depression, bipolar disorder, or
schizophrenia.
- The best treatment would address both problems simultaneously.
E. The Sociocultural Model and Therapy Utilization
- The sociocultural perspective looks at you, your behaviors, and
your symptoms in the context of your culture and background.
- Clinicians using this approach integrate cultural and religious
beliefs into the therapeutic process.
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- Research has shown that ethnic minorities are less likely to access
mental health services than their White middle-class American
counterparts.
- Barriers to treatment include lack of insurance, transportation, and
time; cultural views that mental illness is a stigma; fears about
treatment; and language barriers.
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