You will complete 6 Discussions in this course. For each Discussion, you will
post one thread of at least 500 words and 2 replies of at least 300 words. For
each thread, you must ground your responses and lines of argumentations in
the course readings with at least 3 scholarly (peer-reviewed) citations in
current Turabian format. Each reply should be rooted in course readings
and content. You must incorporate at least 3 scholarly citations in Turabian
format. from the Learn items used during the assigned Module: Week, in
current Turabian format. Additional, reputable academic titles and articles may
be invoked to answer prompts (especially those in recommended reading list).
Describe the primary goal of scientific research.
The primary goal of scientific research is to provide more information that will help us discover
and add to our knowledge on a specific topic that is important in the real world. Moreover,
scientific research shows the correct methods needed to show the research's credibility.
According to King, Keohane, and Verba (1994), the goal of scientific research can be achieved
by building on theories that lead to new knowledge. The new knowledge will then help solve
problems in the real world. Along with scientific research contributing to new knowledge, the
knowledge in question should provide a proper process to help the research reach a conclusion.
Additionally, both descriptive and explanatory inferences can contribute to the development of
scientific research.
Explain the crucial differences between the experimental, statistical, and comparative
method (according to Lijphart).
In order to establish a general empirical relationship between two or more variables in research,
all three methods, experimental, statistical, and comparative, provide a scientific explanation. In
contrast, all other variables will remain constant. According to Lijphart (1971), the comparative
method has significant drawbacks, while the experimental method uses two equivalent groups,
one of which is exposed to a stimulus and is ideal for scientific explanation. The comparative and
statistical methods are very similar; however, the comparative method focuses more on smaller
controls. The statistical method comes into play as an alternative to the experimental method.
This method does not allow the manipulation of variables and consists of conceptual
mathematical manipulation of empirically observed data (Lijphart 1971, 684). In other words,
one can see the statistical method as an approximation of the experimental method.
What is the “logic of inference”? Why do King, Keohane, Verba, and Keohane discuss this
logic?
The logic of inference can apply to qualitative and quantitative research as it is a conclusion that
can be created based on current information. A logic of inference is similar to a hypothesis. King,
Keohane, and Verba can be considered advocates of the logic of inference, and they argue that
the difference between the two research approaches goes to their styles. King, Keohane, Verba,
and Keohane discuss this logic because it differentiates the quantitative and the qualitative
traditions. They are only stylistic and are methodologically and substantively unimportant.
Additionally, they discuss this logic to demonstrate that the qualitative and quantitative traditions
have one logic of inference in common that can help explain the statistical analysis. Even though
the logic of inference is mainly associated with qualitative research. While the quantitative study
uses numerical measurements, and the conclusions are drawn using statistical methods; the
qualitative method uses a small number of samples. Scholars have shown some preference for
the quantitative research method over the qualitative one. However, King, Keohane, and Verba
do not view one method as superior to the other. According to them, each method has its strength
and weaknesses, and both can produce credible research results by paying attention to the logic
of inference in their research designs (King, Keohane, and Verba 1994, 3-4).
Explain the major components of research design.
The research design should be considered a flexible guide, not a concrete solution. King,
Keohane, and Verba state that the research questions, the theory development, the data collection,
and the use of data are the four major components of research design. There is no specific order
for these components. Based on the research being done, a researcher can complete the data
collection before creating a research question. Under the research question falls the planned
contribution of the research. Within this component, the research question must be clearly stated
and consist of a problem or issue to contribute to society.
Moreover, the theory developed in the research is essential because it has to be a theory that can
generate many observable implications. It consists of formulating a theory of research, justifying
the research action envisioned, translating the research question into concrete outcomes, and
determining how the outcomes contribute to society.
Additionally, the theory must be unbiased for the data and its use within the research design as it
prevents ad-hoc adjustments as the research progresses ( King, Keohane, and Verba 1994, 19).
The research project must ensure that data collection methods are reliable. The amount of data
collected informs the results’ validity, confidence level, and reliability of the research. The data
use component consists of the use of existing data, data analysis, data correction, replicability,
reporting and dissemination, and evaluability of the research. King, Keohane, and Verba state
that much scholarly work focuses on each component. The flexibility in the components helps to
state new research questions when necessary and to adjust the collection of data if need be, based
on the information received.
What plays the "leading role" in determining which research design is appropriate for
your project?
According to Vogt (2008), “selecting among design options and crafting the details of a research
design requires great deliberation because the design becomes very difficult to change once a
project is underway”. Therefore, the “leading role” in determining which research design is
appropriate is the research question, and it has to contribute to the real world and the scholarly
literature.
How do research design decisions determine the potential impact of research projects?
Research design decisions help the researcher determine the correct pathway to complete the
work. Additionally, it helps the researcher stay on task without deviating from the set goal. A
properly planned research design can be easy to follow and avoid steps that can affect the whole
research project.
References
King, G., Keohane, R. O., & Verba, S. Designing social inquiry. (1994). Princeton university
press.
Lijphart, Arend. “Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method.” The American Political
Science Review 65, no. 3 (1971): 682–93. https://doi.org/10.2307/1955513.
Vogt, W. Paul. “The Dictatorship of the Problem: Choosing Research Methods.” Methodological
Innovations Online 3, no. 1 (2008): 1–17.
Researchers conduct research in order to increase a body of knowledge,
identify a gap in knowledge, test a theory to a given outcome, and identify
trends over time in order to make predictions. According to King, et al., the
primary goal of scientific research is to “produce valid inferences about
social and political life” (1994, p. 3) in order to “learn facts about the real
world” (ibid., p.6).
The basic methods of establishing general empirical propositions are
experimental, statistical, case study, and comparative. Some differences
between them as explained by Lijphart are:
1. The comparative method is not a method of measurement, as the
experimental and statistical tend to be (1971, p. 683).
2. The comparative method is used when there are only a few cases
available, unlike the experimental or statistical.
3. The comparative method is used when there is limited resources
and time.
4. The comparative method is “a very imperfect substitute” to the
experimental method, but the limitations can be minimized (ibid., p.
685).
5. The comparative method and the case study method are similar,
yet the number of cases differs. The comparative method has more.
“Logic of inference” that King, et al. discusses means obtaining a
reasoned conclusion through extrapolation, interpretation, and deduction.
The gathering of empirical information, data points, history, case studies,
etc, (both quantitative and qualitative research), with the output being a
reasoned, “systematic and scientific” (King, et al., 1994, p. 5), valid, causal
inference. King, et al. expounds on the logic of inference because there are
schools of thought that believe inference is better suited to quantitative
analysis. They argue that although there are stylistic and technical
differences between the methods, researchers should be aware that both use
the same logic for their framework (1994, p. 3).
The major components of research design are the research question (or
problem), the theory, the data, and the use of data (King, et al, 1994, p. 13).
These components are not necessarily created or worked on in this order.
The research question should be consequential, significant, and “make a
specific contribution” (ibid., p. 15) to society and scholarly literature. King, et.
al, defines a theory as “a reasoned and precise speculation about the answer
to a research question” (ibid., p. 19) and data is “systematically collected
elements of information” (ibid., p. 23). Data needs to be from a variety of
applicable sources, valid, and reliable. Data should not only be presented,
but the methods on how the data was collected should be explicitly detailed.
Finally, compile the data to prove or disprove the theory with unbiased (or as
unbiased as possible) inferences.
Research design should be chosen with the intent to make “an explicit
contribution to the literature” in order to ensure greater acceptance from the
community of scholars and with attention to “topics of real-world
consequence” (King, et. al, 1994, p. 16). An important aspect to consider in
choosing an appropriate research design is the researcher’s philosophical
world view (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). Different worldviews, postpositivism,
transformative, constructivism, and pragmatism, look at data and methods
through different lenses. Vogt asserts a different aspect to consider when
choosing the research design: it’s all about the problem (2008). The
research design in an ideal world, with unlimited resources, will be led by
how to get the data needed to answer your question. King, et al. encourages
us to seek out ways to add to the body of knowledge when they remind the
reader that “the contribution of even a minor article is greater than that or
the “great work” that says forever in a desk drawer or within the confines of
a computer” (ibid., p. 9).
References
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2022). Research design: Qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (6th ed.). Sage Publications.
George, Alexander L. & Bennett, Andrew. Case Studies and Theory
Development in Social Science. MIT Press, 2005.
King, G., Keohane, R. O., Verba, S., & Keohane, R. O. O. (1994). Designing
social inquiry : Scientific inference in qualitative research. Princeton
University Press.
Lijphart, A. (1971). Comparative Politics and the Comparative Method. The
American Political Science Review, 65(3), 682–693.
Riker, W. H. (1988). The place of political science in public choice. Public
Choice (1986-1998), 57(3),
247. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/liberty.edu?
url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/place-political-science-
public-choice/docview/194620140/se-2 Links to an external site.
Vogt, W. P. (2008). The dictatorship of the problem: Choosing research
methods. Methodological Innovations on Line, 3(1), 1–17.
https://doi.org/10.4256/mio.2008.0006
Weimer, David, and Aidan Vining. Policy Analysis: Concepts and Practice (6th
ed.). New York: Routledge, 2017.
Hey Lisa,
According to Akhtar (2016), a research design is a conceptual blueprint within which research is
conducted. The primary goal of the research design is to determine the methods that will be taken
and developed. In addition to what is stated, a research design must contribute to the literature,
and this student believes it is as essential for the result and value of the research to bring
something else, maybe new, to the actual work. The philosophical assumptions that are made in a
research are significant when selecting a research design (Wright 2016). In order to be positively
impacted in a research design, it is crucial that the selected sampling strategy contains a
significant amount of data. Selecting a topic for a research design is also as important because it
sometimes brings to light research that otherwise would not have been studied. This student also
agrees that a proper research design can bring about a great conclusion no matter how big or
small the research is.
Furthermore, in addition to Creswell and Creswell (2022) consideration of the researcher’s
philosophical worldview when it comes to a research design, when a researcher can connect and
is interested in their selected research design and topic, there is more of a drive to finalize the
research, and it will avoid researchers’ burnouts. Along with their worldview, their personal
history and education should also play a role in their decision to select a research design.
Moreover, the research question helps to draw conclusions and must be differentiated from data
that brings to the table information that is measured in research. In addition to that, finding
proper answers to the research question or questions can help narrow it down to information
specific to the topic. It will help avoid general content and focus on the topic. In the end,
“research is valid when a conclusion is accurate or true” (Akhtar 2016).
References
Akhtar, Inaam. “Research Design.” SSRN Electronic Journal (2016).
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (6th ed.). Sage Publications (2022).
Vogt, W. Paul. “The Dictatorship of the Problem: Choosing Research Methods.” Methodological
Innovations Online 3, no. 1 (2008): 1–17.
Wright, Sarah, Bridget C. O'Brien, Laura Nimmon, Marcus Law, and Maria Mylopoulos.
“Research Design Considerations.” Journal of Graduate Medical Education 8, no. 1
(2016): 97–98.
Describe the primary goal of scientific research.
Based on the assigned readings and videos, the primary goal of scientific
research is attaining unlike knowledge to create solutions to identified
problems.
Explain the crucial differences between the experimental,
statistical, and comparative method (according to Lijphart).
The experimental method consists of utilizing two equivalent groups, the
experimental and control. The experimental group is exposed to a stimulus
and the control group isn’t. The groups are subsequently compared and any
identified difference will be attributed to the stimulus. The experimental
method is hugely popular for scientific research however, presents difficulty
when attempting to use the method for political science. The statistical
method consists of assessing the mathematical manipulation of observed
information that cannot be altered during experimental design, to identify
controlled relationships amongst variables. The main focus of the statistical
method is partial correlations. In contrast to the experimental method, the
statistical method was designed to better manage the issue of control. The
comparative method differs from both the experimental and statistical
methods because the number of cases are significantly smaller, inhibiting
the ability to allow systematic control by utilizing partial correlation.
What is the “logic of inference”? Why do King, Keohane, Verba, and
Keohane spend time discussing this logic?
The logic inference, as conveyed by King, Keohane, Verba, refers to the
identified differences of both qualitative and quantitative being characterized
as one basic research design. An emphasis is placed on the theory as it
creates the foundation and requisite commonality for all research conducted
in social science.
Explain the major components of research design.
The major components of a research design include; Priority of the design,
Dictatorship of the problem, Sampling, Coding, and Analysis, Evidence drawn
from interviews with researchers, Multi and Mixed methods approaches,
Checklist of methodological choices, and Conclusion.
What plays the "leading role" in determining which research design
is appropriate for your project?
The determinant of selecting the appropriate research design heavily relies
upon the researchers ability to research the identified problem.
How do research design decisions determine the potential impact of
research projects?
According to the assigned readings, the research design method significantly
impacts the subsequent choices of the researcher. Vogt, conveys that the
research design must be selected first because the methods of sampling,
measurement and coding, and analysis will be based on the selected
research design.
References
Peregrin, Jaroslav. “What Is the Logic of Inference?” Studia Logica: An
International Journal for Symbolic Logic 88, no. 2 (2008): 263–94.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40210832.
Jick, Todd D. “Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in
Action.” Administrative Science Quarterly 24, no. 4 (1979): 602–11.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2392366.
Johnson, R. Burke, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie. “Mixed Methods Research: A
Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come.” Educational Researcher 33, no.
7 (2004): 14–26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3700093.
Vogt, W. Paul. “The Dictatorship of the Problem: Choosing Research
Methods.” Methodological Innovations Online, (2008): 3:1, 1-17.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.4256/mio.2008.0006
Hello George,
Thank you for this post. According to Creswell and Creswell, "Research designs are plans and
the procedures for research that span the decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods
of data collection and analysis" (Creswell and Creswell 2008). The four major components of
research design based on King, Keohane, and Verba are the following: the research questions, the
theory development, the data collection, and the use of data. There is no such set rule to work on
each component in this specific order. These significant components assist with the overall
strategic planning process. With their research design, researchers can then integrate the different
components in a way that is beneficial to their logical analysis. By doing so, researchers ensure
that their research problem is effectively addressed. The nature of the research problem can also
make the research design more effective (Vogt (2008). In other words, it is the foundation for
analyzing data. Besides knowing about the four components, researchers need to understand the
significance behind each component and the final possible outcomes they can bring to the table.
Along with these four components, the research design should contribute to the research topic.
The research design should conclude with monitoring and evaluating the outcomes and results.
Moreover, to the point on inference in this discussion post, Creswell and Creswell (2008) also
explains that although both qualitative and quantitative presents a united front in style,
qualitative research design gives researchers more details. This united style can help explain the
statistical analysis in a research. In addition to that, King, Keohane, and Verba (1994) explain
that to "achieve unbiased inference on the collection and use of data, one should anticipate
problems" (King, Keohane & Verba 1994, 28). By anticipating the problem, one can make plans
to resolve them and best contribute to the result of the research and literature already in
existence.
References
Creswell, W. John., Creswell, J. David. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative,
and Mixed Methods Approaches. Fifth Edition. (2008). Los Angeles: Sage Edge.
King, G., Keohane, R. O., & Verba, S. Designing social inquiry. (1994). Princeton university
press.
Vogt, W. Paul. “The Dictatorship of the Problem: Choosing Research Methods.” Methodological
Innovations Online 3, no. 1 (2008): 1–17.
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)
