An Exegesis: Revelation 1:12-20
Aaron T. Hamer
NBST 610: Hermeneutics
October 2023
1
Introduction
Based on historical evidence and textual context, scholars believe that The Book of
Revelation (Holman Christian Standard Bible, Everyday Study Bible, CSB Text Revision 2020)
was penned near the end of the 1st century CE and during Roman Emperor Domitian’s reign (81-
96 CE).1 Some theories, however, propose an earlier timeframe of being written during Nero's
reign (54-68 CE).2 Revelation is a work of apocalyptic literature. "Apocalyptic" derives from the
Greek word "to reveal.” Christians must believe that the Bible is a work of the supernatural that
reveals God to His people.3 As such, passages throughout the Bible are apocalyptic. The focus of
this paper is on the text of the Book of Revelation 1:12-20.
There have been several exegetical problems that scholars have debated over time in
Revelation 1:12-20. One of those issues orbits the highly complex and symbolic language in
these verses.4 Some challenges are identifying the "Son of Man," the symbolism of the stars and
lampstands, the significance of the double-edged sword, and the relationship between John's
vision and the seven churches. John's vision of Jesus Christ and its significance for the Christian
community is essential.
Identifying the "Son of Man" in the passage is vital to understanding the book. John
begins this part of Revelation by describing someone "like a son of man" standing amid seven
_______________________
1 Walter E. Elwell and Robert W. Yarbrough. Encountering the New Testament: A
Historical and Theological Survey (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Company/Baker
Academics, 2013), 359.
2 Ibid, p. 359.
3 Ibid, p. 359.
4 William W. Klein, Craig L. Bloomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. Introduction to
Biblical Interpretation Third Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2017), 212.
2
golden lampstands. Some scholars interpret this figure as Jesus Christ.5 Others view the figure as
representing the collective church or some angelic form. This view is an excellent example of
how interpreters dare not interpret too literally, or their ideas will blind them.6
John reports seeing seven lampstands and seven stars in the right hand of the form. There
is an assortment of interpretations subject to debate. Often, as God, through John, directed
Revelation at Asia Minor, the seven lampstands are viewed as a representation of their seven
churches. The stars are symbols of God's angels or messengers of the churches. The two-edged
sword coming forth from the man's mouth symbolizes God's divine authority or the Word of
God.
Another challenge is developing an understanding of the relationship between the vision
itself and the seven churches. The vision is a message of encouragement and warning to the
seven churches. Another way to view it is as symbolism, where the churches represent the
Christian community as it evolves throughout history.
This paper will examine the exegetical complexities of the passage in Revelation by focusing on
John's imagery and symbolic language. The analysis will address scholarly debates on the
identification of the Son of Man, the symbolism of the stars, the symbolism of the lampstands,
the double-edged sword's significance, and the relationship between the seven churches and
John's vision. By exploring these elements, this paper will shed light on the profound
implications of John's vision of Jesus for an overall understanding of the Book of Revelation.
_______________________
5 Stephanus D. Snyman, "The Trinity and the Old Testament," Verbatimet Ecclesia
Volume 43, Issue 1 (2022): e2. https://doaj.org/article/be38bfe7a05a44cfac55bd564f3ebfaa.
6 Klein, Bloomberg, and Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, 564.
Revelation and its relevance to Christianity.
3
Outline
This passage is a noteworthy part of the Book of Revelation and the Bible. It presents
John's vision of the glorified form of Jesus Christ. Three distinct segments comprise the
descriptive elements:
I. Vision of the Magnificent Christ (verses 12-16)
a. John turns around to see who is speaking to him (verse 12)
b. The description of the seven lampstands (verse 13)
c. Christ appears in His glory (verses 13-16)
d. Clothing (verse 13)
e. Attributes (verses 14-15)
f. Authority and power (verse 16)
II. Commissioning to Write and Send (verses 17-19)
a. John's reaction and Christ's reassuring him (verses 17-18)
b. Commissioning to Write What John Hears and Sees (verse 19)
III. The Stars and Lampstands Explained (verse 20)
a. Mystery of the stars (verse 20)
b. Meaning of the lampstands (verse 20)
Dissevering elements provide the most emphasis. It also highlights that the Lord commissions
John to record all the witnesses and the vision's symbolism explained.
Background
The subject passage from Revelation is also the Apocalypse of John. It is the final book
of the New Testament of the Christian Bible and is the most challenging of the New Testament
texts.7 Debated for centuries are the exact authorship, date, and origin of the text; however, it is
believed to be written by John the Apostle and is considered a significant segment of the New
Testament. Many scholars agree that the recipients were the seven churches mentioned in the
_______________________
7 Francis J. Moloney, "The Book of Revelation: Hope in Dark Times," Religions Volume
10, Issue 4 (April 2019): 1, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/4/239.
4
text.8 This book is known for its apocalyptic language, symbolic nature, and the messages
conveyed to John by Jesus Christ.
John had the vision during his exile on the island of Patmos.9 John's vision is of Jesus in a
long white robe among seven lampstands and holding seven stars. The symbolic imagery used in
the text suggests diverse meanings and interpretations. John falls to his knees because he fears
the Lord.10 But God comforts him as He wants John to listen to him, write down his experiences,
and spread the word of his visions. God's statement of "what will take place after this" refers to
the remainder of the Book of Revelation.11
The meaning of this passage to the biblical audience would have been profound as John
is relaying that he saw Jesus in a heightened state of power and glory, which is a much different
Jesus than early Christians knew and heard of through ministry. The text conveyed several
significant messages. First, it emphasized the authority and divinity of Jesus Christ. By
describing Christ in awe-inspiring and glorious terms, John intends to reinforce Jesus as the Son
of God, the rightful ruler of Heaven on Earth, and not only a human being. Second, it was a
source of encouragement for Christians who faced hardship and persecution for their beliefs. His
depiction of Jesus as the keeper of the keys of death and Hell as the one who conquered death
meant to provide reassurance that faith in Him would lead to victory over their trials and
ultimately over death. Lastly, the intense and symbolic writing used by John would have
_______________________
8 Moloney, “The Book of Revelation,” 3.
9 Moloney, “The Book of Revelation,” 2.
10 Chad Brand, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary: Revised and Expanded (Nashville,
TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2015), 1622.
11 Ibid, p. 1622.
5
resonated with the apocalyptic beliefs of the 1st century. This time in Christian history was
stormed with religious clashes, political upheaval, and uncertainty. Revelation assured that the
Lord controlled history and would bring about His final justice and redemption for those who
believed in Him.
Historical and Cultural Context
Note that the text's audience cannot ignore that God delivered his message to certain
people at a time in history. God's word to us was initially His word to those who came before us,
and we must respect this fact.12 We must honor those chosen by the Lord and how He
communicated it.13
The text of Revelation, written by John from the prison on the island of Patmos, holds
significant historical and religious importance. Tradition holds that John was arrested and exiled
there because of his preaching, which, during John's time, was full of suffering for God's people.
It tackles several topics, such as eschatology, the conflict between the forces of good and evil,
the hope held by believers in Christ, and God's ultimate triumph over Satan. John reveals the last
days and God's promise of reward and punishment and provides hope on a New Earth and
Heaven.14
Before exploring five churches from Revelation, a city’s cultural and social aspects in
_______________________
12 J. Scott Duval and J. Daniel Hays, A Hands-On Approach to Reading, Interpreting, and
Applying the Bible Fourth Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2020), 111.
13 Duval and Hays, A Hands-On, 111.
14 Hanré Janse Van Rensburg, “The Revelations of Revelation: The Book That Fits, Even
When It Does Not,” HTS Theological Studies Volume 44, Issue 4 (July 13, 2021): e2,
https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v77i4.6476.
6
ancient times must be determined. The audience from the cities would each receive and interpret
John's account in their paradigm. Only about 15% of the population of these cities was of an
elite class.15 John was not addressing the elite, but rather the other 85% of the people that “had
different and wretched experiences of living” in these places.16
In John’s time, the city, village, and hamlet terminology could be confusing. By size
alone, Rome was incomparable to the seven churches’ cities, so it is not a place to consider.17 The
developed distinction between a city and a village is noteworthy because it led to the "urban-
rural" model. This model has the city as the center of activity, surrounded by villages. The
villages, populated mainly by farmers, were later taxed for rent and for the food they grew by the
city's elite. That same food was readily available for the elite; however, there was an abundance
of food insufficiency in those same villages.18
In a typical model of a city during ancient times, there were three distinct areas where the
population was divided by class, type of structure, and hire. The elite dwelled in the innermost
part of the city, usually in a palace or some great house surrounded by a wall. Then, there was the
“second ring” of the city, which a second fortification may have surrounded. This area is where
artisans, peddlers, and peasants resided.19 In this area, animals such as cattle, oxen, and goats
were kept due to the nature of the markets. These areas were in a state where corpses,
_______________________
15 Jerome H. Neyrey, “Other Urban Christians: The Cities in Revelation 1-3.” Biblical
Theology Bulletin Volume 51, Issue 3 (August 2021): 132. https://DOI: 10.1177/01461079211.
16 Ibid, p. 133.
17 Ibid, p. 134.
18 Ibid, p. 134.
19 Ibid, p. 135.
7
excrement, and general filth were typical. Dogs were never considered pets of ordinary people in
ancient times, infested these areas, feeding on this filth.20 In this area, society’s expendables lived
in squalor. Beggars, prostitutes, and the ill lived here or outside the city's outer wall. Beyond the
city’s outer wall lay the farmlands.
Establishing the context of the churches in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) is essential. The
seven cities of the time were Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and
Laodicea.21 Each was important because of their varied social and cultural backgrounds. These
cities have a common theme of not doing enough to bring the Lord to others or walking away
from Him.
The allegory and prophetic landscape of the passages have drawn diverse interpretations
over time. Because it has been hundreds or thousands of years since the authors wrote the books
of the Bible, we must adhere to the principle that a biblical text is only valid if it is consistent
with its historical and cultural contexts.22 Consistency relies on accurate information. Inaccurate
information is a pitfall to avoid in the interpretation of biblical text.23 It is an intriguing and rich
book for anyone from believers in the Lord to theologians to biblical scholars. Notably, the
aspects identified will continue to be discussion, research, and interpretation areas and will
always need more than complete agreement.
_______________________
20 Jerome H. Neyrey, “Other Urban Christians: The Cities in Revelation 1-3.” Biblical
Theology Bulletin Volume 51, Issue 3 (August 2021): 136. https://DOI: 10.1177/01461079211.
21 Hanré Janse Van Rensburg. "The Revelations of Revelation: The Book That Fits, Even
When It Does Not," HTS Theological Studies. Volume 44, Issue 4. (July 13, 2021): e2,
https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v77i4.6476.
22 Duval and Hays, A Hands-On, 112.
23 Ibid, p. 119.
8
(The Great Adventure Bible, Catholic Bible, Revised Standard Edition, 2006)
The port city of Ephesus was known for its religious diversity and commercial
endeavors. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient world, the Temple of Artemis, was in
Ephesus.24 The population was diverse and worshiped God and other deities.
Smyrna, present-day Izmir, was a famed wealthy trade and commerce location. The
community was primarily Jewish, with a strong allegiance to Rome.25 Gentiles persecuted
Christians here, and the pressure of the rest of the population often tested their faith.
Pergamum was a political center full of culture. Its allegiance to Rome and the emperor
was unwavering. Christians struggled with living faithfully in this environment of imperial
_______________________
24 “Ephesus: Splendour of Yore." The Sunday Observer (January 15, 2023),
https://go.openathens.net/redirector/liberty.edu?url=https://www.proquest.com/newspapers/
ephesus-splendour-yore/docview/2765407411/se-2.
25 Stephen Winrow, "The Sermons to the Seven Churches of Revelation: A Commentary
and Guide," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society: Lynchburg Volume 66, Issue 1
(March 2023): 201. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2830354824.
9
cultism. Although Satan's Throne is not a specific place, Pergamum could be referenced as such
because, in Asia Minor, it was the center of Roman opposition to Christianity.26
Thyatira's commercial and industrial city was diverse in religious practices, including
several gods and cults that worshipped the emperor. A description of the city is "the church of
idolatrous compromise."27 In this place, Christians engaged in sacrilegious behavior and sexual
immorality.
The ancient capital of Sardis centered around industry filled with dyes and textiles.
However, some of its glory had faded when John wrote Revelation. It had settled into "the
church of deadly complacency.28
Revelation addresses these examples of the cultural and social context of the time. Each
of them was unique, with its flourishing times and its challenges. Part of John's writing of
Revelation was to identify the situations and struggles of these places.
Literary Context
Revelation 1:12-20 sets the tone for the entire Book of Revelation. The book reveals that
Jesus' death and resurrection are the purposes of God's intervention into human affairs from the
beginning of recorded time in Israel.29 Verses 12-20 serve as the introduction to the argument
_______________________
26 Jeffrey A. D. Welma, Paul the Ancient Letter Writer: An Introduction to Epistolary
Analysis (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Company/Baker Academics, 2016), 129.
27 Winrow, "The Sermons," 202.
28 Ibid, p. 201.
29 Moloney, “The Book of Revelation,” 4.
10
and theme of the text. The utilization of symbolic and sometimes mind-boggling language
wrapped around powerful imagery hints at the violent intrusion of God during the end of times,
where He conquers all evil.30 This unveils the Son of Man as Jesus Christ and God's crushing of
evil.
John witnesses Jesus Christ in his divine form. He is standing surrounded by the seven
lampstands representing the seven churches. God is addressing the churches through John in the
text. The picture of Jesus is painted as a man with eyes aflame, hair as white as snow, and His
voice booming like roaring waters. In his right hand are stars representing the seven churches'
angels (or messengers). This passage's literary context brings forth Jesus' divinity and authority.
He declares Himself as the "Alpha and Omega" and the "First and the Last." These are indicative
of the Lord's eternal nature and supremacy overall.31 The Lord commissions John to write down
everything he witnesses and deliver it to the seven churches, emphasizing His message for them.
This passage of the Book of Revelation sets the stage for the text's prophetic vision and
apocalyptic message. It reinforces to Christians that Jesus, in His divine state, is ever present in
their lives, how He loves and cares for His servants, and how he leads them to find and fulfill
their calling as believers.32 The themes of redemption, hope, and divine judgment are rooted in
the text and expounded upon throughout the book.
The imagery in the Apocalypse of John draws from several areas, including his personal
_______________________
30 Moloney, “The Book of Revelation,” 9.
31 Chad Brand, Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 49
32 Daniel Mihoc, "Theological Perspectives From St. John's Revelation," Hervormde
Teologiese Studies Volume 79, Issue 1 (2023): 3.
https://www.proquest.com/docview/2777564427.
11
revelation, the Old Testament, Hebrew apocalyptic literature, and historical and cultural context.
John begins the book with a powerful proclamation that the revelations he received were directly
from Jesus Christ (Revelation 1:1). This statement suggests that the imagery was not of his
imagination. God revealed the visions to John through divine inspiration.
Apocalyptic literature is throughout the Bible in books such as Daniel, Elijah, Ezekial,
and Ezra. Theological traits of apocalyptic thought are:
The sovereignty of God
The transcendence of God
Cosmic struggles of God vs. Satan (good vs evil)
Pessimism with the present time
God will always prevail
The fading away of human wisdom and strength.33
Many interpreters suggest that the Apocalypse of John uniquely illustrates Christian apocalyptic
literature from the late first century.34 John references Jewish Scripture and apocalyptic sources.
He depicts Jesus by pulling from Old Testament text. This depiction is done throughout the New
Testament and allows the Old Testament "background to fill in the significance of illusions."35
The divine attributes and authority Jesus possesses are borrowed from the books of Daniel,
Ezekiel, Zechariah, and Psalms. John appropriated the prominent Jewish apocalyptic genre of his
time. This literature was rich in symbolism and extreme imagery that depicted the divine realm
and cosmic events foretold. John's use of this type of imagery sheds light on the role of Jesus
Christ in God's plan.
The religious climate and the social and political elements of John's time are sources to
_______________________
33 Elwell and Yarbrough, Encountering the New Testament, 41-42
34 Moloney, “The Book of Revelation,” 4.
35 Klein, Bloomberg, and Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, 366.
12
create his writing. An example in Revelation is the Jesus depicted as the slain Lamb of God. This
example is reflective of the Roman imperial cult practices or the Jewish Temple's sacrificial
system that, for the most part, ceased following the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem.36
Of note is the complex nature and symbolism employed by John. Various sects of the
Jewish and Christian faiths throughout history interpret this symbolism. The various sources of
imagery used by John are emphasized differently by scholars. The lampstands of Revelation
displayed in verses 13-15 are like the Son of Man with a golden sash around His chest, hair
white as snow, eyes like flames, bronze feet, voice of cascading waters. They are representative
of the seven churches in Asia Minor.37
John addresses each of these churches in the following chapters. Some scholars believe in
the seven churches.38 This passage is meant to emphasize the power of Jesus Christ and His
divine authority over the seven churches. The stars of Revelation symbolize angels. The Greek
word translated as "mystery" means something unknown but now has been revealed. The angels
may have possibly functioned as guardian angels of the seven churches.39 Angels are the
heavenly beings that play a significant role in the apocalyptic events of the End Times described
in the text. The angels exemplify what it means to be in communion with the Lord and how they
participate in His glory.40 The angels appear as formidable, awe-inspiring spirits. They are
_______________________
36 Curtis Hutt, "A Threefold Heresy: Reassessing Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Animal
Sacrifice in Late Antiquity," History of Religions Volume 58, Issue 3 (2019): 3,
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/700582.
37 Klein, Bloomberg, and Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, 564.
38 Mihoc. “Theological Perspectives,” 4.
39 Brand. Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, 1622.
40 Mihoc. “Theological Perspectives,” 6.
13
radiant beings with multiple eyes and wings. Throughout the timeline of Revelation, God directs
them to guide the believers, preserve righteousness, and follow through with God's judgment.
The theological principles discovered in Revelation are divine presence, authority and
power, the resurrected Christ, eternal being, and the church and leadership. The visions reveal
Jesus amid the lampstands, symbolizing his control over and active involvement in the seven
churches addressed in the letters. This principle focuses on Christ’s divine nature and His
continued action in the affairs of His disciples. Jesus appears in glory as the resurrected Christ
with bright white hair, eyes like flames of fire, and a voice like rushing waters, signifying His
resurrected and exalted state.
The glorious Christ announces that He is the “Alpha and Omega,” signifying that He is
both the beginning and end. He is the unchanging and eternal God. This principle is Jesus’
eternal nature and divine existence, as He is the source of everything. Jesus holding the stars and
walking among the seven lampstands represents His care for, guidance to, and evaluation of the
Christian church overall. Church and leadership, as a principle, underscores the magnitude of
accountability, faith, and active leadership within the church. Overall, the principles of this
passage reinforce the plan of the Lord.
Revelation 1:12-20 is nested in God’s overall plan of the exaltation of Jesus and salvation
for those who believe. Throughout the Old Testament, prophecies point to the return of Christ to
establish the Kingdom of God and the redemption of humanity. John’s writings provide a
depiction of Jesus as the heavenly King. The Book of Revelation, in its entirety, reveals the
fulfillment of God’s plan for Jesus to reign over all of creation. The elements and symbology
within this passage connect to themes throughout the Bible. For example, Daniel’s vision in
Daniel 7:13-14 projects what John records. The lampstands and stars tie directly to the churches,
14
referencing the early spiritual communities of the church. Moreover, Jesus’ divine nature, His
role as the crown of the Church, and the criticality of discipleship in light of His imminent return
align with the rest of the New Testament. In summary, this passage serves as a vital piece of the
overall biblical narrative that proclaims Jesus as the deliverer of theological themes found
throughout the Bible.
Conclusion
The point of John's vision while exiled on Patmos is not singular. It is the Revelation of
the glorified form of Jesus Christ. John's witness of Him holding stars among lampstands
emphasizes Jesus' sovereignty over the churches and his divine authority. This passage intends to
encourage believers and provide them comfort in their faith.
It also delivers a message to the seven churches. Each church has its specific message and
instructions from God. John takes the messages from the Lord and provides them to each.
Although they have different messages, they must repent, persevere in the face of opposition, and
remain faithful to the Lord.
Additionally, the Lord's purpose in John's vision is to reassure and encourage him. It
means to do the same for those who read Revelation until He returns. The awe-inspiring and
majestic descriptions of Jesus and the declaration of His presence means to comfort and
strengthen God’s children so that they may be strong in the face of difficulty and persecution.
Maintaining a Christ-like life is paramount to living out these principles. Christians do
not receive salvation through God’s grace without living with Him in their hearts, being fully
invested in His love, submitting to His power and authority, and recognizing Him as the faithful
Savior. One must first submit to His authority. Surrendering to the power of the Lord means
15
aligning values, decisions, and actions with His commandments and teachings found throughout
Scripture. Once humbled, Christians must embrace this power by relying on His strength to
overcome obstacles and temptation; they must know that Christ conquered sin and death through
His sacrifice on the cross.
Acknowledging God’s presence in one’s life allows Jesus to be actively involved in their
circumstances. Worship, the study of Scripture, and prayer allow one to recognize the Lord’s
divine presence and develop a personal relationship with Him. Maintaining this relationship is
endless, as Christians should seek the Lord’s guidance in all conduct. His evaluation, correction,
and encouragement strengthen living according to God's will. This strength allows a believer to
live in the light of His resurrection. It gives them the courage to embrace the hope and joy of
knowing that Christ died to save God’s children from death so they may live eternally with the
Father. The true meaning of His resurrection should impact all people's daily attitudes,
perspectives, and actions. Suppose Christians walk with the Lord by living a pleasing life to God
and evangelizing the message of salvation. In that case, it allows them and others to anticipate
His Kingdom's fulfillment eagerly.
To gain a deeper understanding of the return of the Lord, believers need to study the
entire Book of Revelation. Unlike some of the “storytelling” books of the Bible, Revelation
must be studied word by word and verse by verse. With this, reading scholarly commentaries
about passages will provide a more profound insight into what John relays to Christians of the 1st
century. Finding what hides in the Old Testament is a reliable exercise for understanding what
the New Testament reveals. Connecting prophecies and imagery in passages such as Exodus
25:31-40, Daniel 7:13-14, and Zechariah 4 to Revelation 1:12-20 provides background to John’s
writing’s symbolism. Studying the characteristics of apocalyptic writings and exploring the
16
literary features of this unique book will assist in grasping the meanings and message of
Revelation.
This exegesis's historical and cultural context is shallow compared to the ocean of
information available to those embarking on a study of Revelation. Researching the
characteristics of the cities of the seven churches can paint a clearer picture of why they were the
audience of the letters, along with their significance in the early era of Christianity. Conducting
research brings the believer to explore the church concept in Revelation better. Analyzing the
challenges, strengths, and weaknesses they face can be balanced against the teachings of
Revelation and how they may apply to the church today.
Finally, and maybe most importantly, Christians must examine the theme of Christology
when studying the Book of Revelation. It presents a powerful Christological perspective
throughout the text. Gaining such a perspective requires exploring how Jesus' nature, role, and
relationships come alive in the passages through diverse titles, names, and descriptions.
Believers must approach further study with a prayerful attitude and open heart, seeking growth in
knowledge and understanding of the word of the Lord. One must not stop at Chapter 1, as
traveling the visions and connecting like information within Revelation and the Bible is essential
to understanding God’s coming Kingdom.
17
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Historical and Theological Survey. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Company/Baker
Academics, 2013.
“Ephesus: Splendour of Yore." The Sunday Observer, Jan 15, 2023,
https://go.openathens.net/redirector/liberty.edu?url=https://www.proquest.com/ne
wspapers/ephesus-splendour-yore/docview/2765407411/se-2.
Hutt, Curtis. "A Threefold Heresy: Reassessing Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Animal
Sacrifice In Late Antiquity." History of Religions, Volume 58, Issue 3 (2019):
251-276. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/700582.
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10, Issue 4 (April 2019): 239. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/4/239.
Neyrey, Jerome H. “Other Urban Christians: The Cities in Revelation 1-3.” Biblical Theology
Bulletin, Volume 51, Issue 3 (2021): 132-148.
https://DOI: 10.1177/01461079211.
Snyman, Stephanus D. "The Trinity and the Old Testament," Verbatimet Ecclesia,
Volume 43, Issue 1 (2022): e1-e7. https://doaj.org/article. DOI:10.4102/ve.v43i1.2672.
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When It Does Not," HTS Theological Studies, Volume 44, Issue 4 (July 13,
2021): e1-e12. https://doi.org/10.4102/hts.v77i4.6476.
18
Welma, Jeffery A. D. Paul the Ancient Letter Writer: An Introduction to Epistolary
Analysis. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Company/Baker Academics,
2016.
Winrow, Stephen. "The Sermons to the Seven Churches of Revelation: A Commentary
and Guide." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society: Lynchburg. Volume
66, Issue 1 (March 2023): 200-202. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2830354824.
