Abstract
Child abuse and neglect are serious global problems and can be in the form of physical, sexual,
emotional or just neglect in providing for the child's needs. These factors can leave the child with
serious, long-lasting psychological damage. Child maltreatment is a complex life experience
occurs when a parent or caregiver does an intentional or potential damage to a child, including
acts of commission and omission. Child abuse is not an uncommon event, but it is not always
recognized. Identifying the real number of maltreated children is a challenge because of the large
variability in reported prevalence data across studies. It is associated with important economic
and social costs (such as physical and mental health, productivity losses, child welfare, criminal
justice and special education costs) due to its high prevalence and its long-term and short-term
consequences. Assessing maltreated children generally requires more time than evaluations of
children who have not experienced maltreatment. Young children, who experience the highest
rates of maltreatment, present especially complex assessments because they are so dependent
upon their caregiving environments. Treatment of psychopathology associated with
maltreatment, which is often multimodal, requires addressing a variety of external factors that
may perpetuate or exacerbate symptoms and impaired functioning. The more clinicians
understand the different cultures of the legal and child protective services systems will help them
advocate more effectively for maltreated children’s bests interests so that the complexity of their
problems is matched by the comprehensiveness of our efforts to minimize their suffering,
enhance their development, and promote their competence.
There has been a lot of scholarly discourse on the causes, short-term and long-term implications,
and prevention of child abuse. Child abuse has become one of the most significant social,
psychological, and developmental issues because of the adverse impact it has on individuals;
manifesting in cognitive, anti-social, and behavioral issues that threaten individual and even
family and community wellbeing. Decades of research have documented the detrimental impacts
of child maltreatment on children's socioemotional and behavioral outcomes. Children with a
history of maltreatment can present with anxiety and depression symptoms (Negriff, 2020;
Stewart, Toohey, et al., 2020), suicidality and non-suicidal self-injury (Armiento et al., 2016;
Stewart et al., 2021; Stewart, Celebre, Semovski, et al., 2022; Stewart, Toohey, et al., 2020;
Walrath et al., 2006), substance and alcohol use problems (Baiden et al., 2014; Stewart et al.,
2021; Walrath et al., 2006) and externalizing problems and aggression towards others (Lansford
et al., 2007; Stewart et al., 2021; Stewart, Toohey et al., 2020). Moreover, for some, these
impairments in psychological functioning and behavioral difficulties persist into adulthood (e.g.,
Afifi et al., 2014; Augsburger et al., 2019; Davis et al., 2018). The term child abuse is often used
to encompass different forms of child abuse and neglect, or child maltreatment (Hoft & Haddad,
2017). The focus here is on any acts of commission or omission that can harm or that actually
harm a child (Hoft & Haddad, 2017).
Classification of Child Maltreatment
There are several types of child abuse and neglect: physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological
abuse, and neglect (Hoft & Haddad, 2017). It is also prudent to note that scholars have
highlighted worryingly high rates of child abuse. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO), about 40 million children are abused across the globe (Hoft & Haddad, 2017). The
prevalence of child abuse in the United States of America (US) is also very high. Poole et al.
(2018), for instance, estimated that about 70% of all adults in North America have been exposed
to at least one adverse childhood experience. These experiences include “physical abuse, sexual
abuse, family dysfunction, and neglect” (Poole et al., 2018, p. 124). Hoft and Haddad (2017)
gave equally high figures of about 702,000 victims and 1,580 deaths of children per annum, due
to child abuse and neglect. The high prevalence of child abuse highlights the need for
interventions that are geared towards preventing and reducing child abuse, and addressing its
adverse ramifications (Poole et al., 2018). This is especially considering that these figures do not
reflect the actual magnitude of child abuse and neglect. As highlighted by Hoft and Haddad
(2017), a significant number of child abuse and neglect cases are unreported or unrecognized.
Child Sexual Abuse and Sexual Victimization in Adulthood
Child sexual abuse also fuels a cycle of abuse that features victims of child sexual abuse
victimizing other parties. Yoder et al. (2019) attributed this cycle of abuse to the disruption of
executive and high order thinking in victims of child sexual abuse. More specifically, victims of
child sexual abuse experience executive function deficits that lead to antisocial behaviors and
sexual violence. This is highlighted in Knight and Sims-Knight’s Developmental Etiological
Theory (DET), which postulates that sexual violence emanates from the impact of early life
victimization on antisocial characteristics such as aggression, callousness, sexual fantasies, and
apathy (Yoder et al., 2019). All of these factors lead to sexual coercion. Early victimization has
therefore been highlighted as a risk factor for sexual and non-sexual violence. This is highlighted
in Knight and Sims-Knight’s Developmental Etiological Theory (DET), which postulates that
sexual violence emanates from the impact of early life victimization on antisocial characteristics
such as aggression, callousness, sexual fantasies, and apathy (Yoder et al., 2019). All of these
factors lead to sexual coercion. Early victimization has therefore been highlighted as a risk factor
for sexual and non-sexual violence. This inference has been supported by studies, which have
indicated that youth who engage in sexual crimes are generally more likely to have a history of
child abuse than youth who engage in other crimes (Yoder et al., 2019). It is also important to
note that scholars have established that among youth who engage in sexual offenses, youth who
have experienced early sexual victimization have more serious antecedents of trauma than youth
who have not experienced early sexual victimization (Yoder et al., 2019). When compared to
youth who do not have early sexual victimization experiences, youth with early sexual
victimization experiences are also more likelyto display sexual aggression, hyper arousal, and
criminal behavior (Yoder et al., 2019). This highlights the prevention and mitigation of child
sexual abuse as critical in preventing the continued sexual victimization of children and adults.
Within this discourse, it is also important to note that scholars have linked child sexual
abuse to risky sexual behaviors in adolescence and adulthood. As highlighted by Hailes et al.
(2019), scholars have positively correlated child sexual abuse with high risk sexual behaviors
that include unprotected sexual intercourse, sex with multiple partners, and sex work. Equally
important is that scholars have linked child sexual abuse to substance misuse (Hailes et al.,
2019). This is particularly important because of the link that exists between substance misuse and
risky sexual behaviors. Equally important is the increased predisposition of victims of child
sexual abuse to numerous health problems as a result of risky sexual behaviors. Hailes et al.
(2019), for example, highlighted the increased risk for mental disorders such as schizophrenia,
suicidal and non-suicidal self-injury, and depression; sexually transmitted infections such as
Chlamydia and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV); obesity; substance use disorders; and
eating disorders such as bulimia due to a distorted body image. Hailes et al. (2019) posited that
the link between childhood sexual abuse, depression, and eating disorders such as bulimia, is
possibly due to the development of obesity. Hailes et al. (2019) also attributed the correlation
between child sexual abuse and the aforementioned physical and psychological disorders to the
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis or inflammation. The complex impact of child
sexual abuse and risky sexual behaviors therefore highlights the need for comprehensive
interventions that focus on preventing and reducing childhood sexual abuse. Equally important
however is the need for interventions that target victims of childhood sexual abuse. The focus
should be on providing evidence-based psychological support that is geared towards addressing
the sexual abuse and problems such as risky sexual behaviors, obesity, and depression.
Childhood Sexual Abuse with Emotional and Psychiatric Disorders
There is also need to identify childhood sexual abuse in adults with emotional,
behavioral, and psychiatric disorders. Identifying childhood sexual abuse as an underlying cause
of behavioral issues in youth and adults is especially critical in ensuring the effective treatment
of psychiatric and psychological disorders that threaten the well being of individuals and
families. As highlighted above, childhood abuse including childhood sexual abuse disrupts the
executive or high order functioning of the victims (Yoder et al., 2019). This leads to antisocial or
psychopathic behaviors and sexual violence. Yoder et al. (2019) also noted that early sexual
violence may lead to aggression, general violence, sex crimes, substance use disorders, and
callousness. These traits are often manifested as behavioral and emotional challenges.
This highlights the need for mental health practitioners and the correctional system to
identify the impact of childhood sexual abuse on the cognitions and behaviors of individuals. As
highlighted by Yoder et al. (2019), recognizing this link is critical in ensuring the timely
detection of early risk factors for sexually problematic behaviors. Yoder et al. (2019) specifically
highlighted the need for stakeholders to ensure that youth who have committed sexual crimes
receive a sexual specific risk assessment. Equally important is the need for stakeholders to assess
children who experience sexual abuse for executive functioning deficits (Yoder et al., 2019). The
ensuing assessment data should be used to provide patient-centered interventions that focus on
building executive functioning capacities and eliminating any problematic behaviors. Hebert et
al. (2018), on the other hand, discussed the interventions that can be used to address the
challenges of emotion regulation that are experienced by children who experience sexual abuse.
As highlighted by these scholars, there is need for practitioners to routinely screen vulnerable
children for childhood trauma, dissociation, emotion regulation, and behavior challenges
(Hebertet al., 2018). This screening should be accompanied by optimal treatment that addresses
emotion regulation competencies, dissociation, and behavior challenges. This feat can be attained
using evidence-based interventions such as grounding strategies, emotion awareness skills, and
interventions that target dissociation (Hebert et al., 2018).
Furthermore, it is prudent to highlight the need for a multi-stakeholder and
multidisciplinary approach to addressing childhood abuse. This approach should feature health
practitioners and parties in the criminal justice system working with victims and victim
advocates (Yoder et al., 2019). According to Yoder et al. (2019), the juvenile justice system
should not only focus on eliminating the behavioral ramifications of childhood abuse. Rather,
thesystem should use holistic approaches that build executive functioning capacities and emotion
regulation (Hebert et al., 2018; Yoder et al., 2019). Equally important is the need for considering
the developmental needs of these parties: victims and perpetrators. This is critical in ensuring
client-centered care. It is also important to note that working with victims and victim advocates
provides these parties with the support that they need. As highlighted by Yoder et al. (2019),
more than 85% of all victims of youth sexual offenses are relatives or close acquaintances.
Sexual abuse therefore adversely affects relationships within and between close families.
Moreover, interventions that are geared towards preventing and addressing the
ramifications of child abuse should address the high risk for suicide. As highlighted by Devries
etal. (2014), childhood sexual abuse is a risk factor for suicidal behaviors. Childhood sexual
abuse,in this case, is part of the environmental factors that increase the risk for suicide through
the physical and psychological impact of exposure to trauma (Devries et al., 2014). Equally
important is that child sexual abuse predisposes the victim to mental disorders and substance use
disorders that have a high risk for suicide. This highlights the need for assessing victims of
childhood sexual abuse for suicidality. Devries et al. (2014) also noted that interventions for
suicidal patients should be conscious of histories of childhood abuse and neglect.
Lastly, it is important to note that many victims of child abuse remain asymptomatic. The
ramifications of child sexual abuse are however inescapable (Sanjeevi et al., 2018). This is
especially the case in adulthood. As highlighted by Sanjeevi et al. (2018), child sexual abuse has
a negative impact on the social, psychological, and sexual functioning of individuals throughout
their lives. This highlights the need for identifying asymptomatic victims of child abuse. The
focus here should be on building the resilience of these parties, as a way of moderating any
adverse ramifications of the abuse. Some of the recommended protective factors include
belonging to a caring and supportive family, access to community resources, a high level of
control against deviant behaviors, and the ability to work with others (Sanjeevi et al., 2018).
Etiology of Child Maltreatment and Neglect
Scholars have highlighted several factors that increase the risk for child abuse and neglect.
These factors largely focus on family and parenting practices. Some of these key factors that
increase the risk for child abuse and neglect include parental abuse, the mental and physical
health of the mother, parental substance use, the presence of a stepfather, physical abuse within
the family, marital conflict, marital violence, poor maternal attachment, poor communication
within the family, poor supervision of children, single-parent households, the use of alcohol and
drugs by parents and children, and a poor relationship between a child and their parents (Yoder et
al., 2019). It is prudent to note that although scholars have not highlighted a causative link
between these factors and child abuse and neglect, these factors are effective in reducing the risk
for child abuse and neglect (Yoder et al., 2019).
The ramifications of child abuse on children cannot be understated. This is especially
evident in the criminal justice system, the education system, and the healthcare system. Child
abuse, for instance, causes numerous physical and psychological problems (Hailes et al., 2019).
Yoder et al. (2019) also observed that the exposure of children to trauma disrupts their executive
functioning or high order thinking, reasoning, and planning. This leads to adverse behavioral and
psychological problems in children and adults. Yoder et al. (2019) specifically noted that children
who are exposed to trauma are more likely to engage in sexual offenses and to exhibit other
antisocial tendencies that are characterized by a lack of empathy, un-emotional beliefs, and
narcissism. This trend is especially evident in children who have experienced sexual, physical, or
emotional abuse and neglect (Yoder et al., 2019).
The Impact of Child Abuse on the Cognitive and Emotional Development of Children
As highlighted above, scholars have highlighted a disruptive impact of child abuse and neglect
on executive functioning (Yoder et al., 2019). This has been linked to behavioral and
psychological problems in children and adults. Child abuse and neglect, in this case, disrupts and
hinders the neurological development process that is supposed to take place during adolescence
(Yoder et al., 2019). As highlighted by Yoder et al. (2019), this process largely features the limbic
system interacting with the prefrontal cortex. The disruption of this process compromises
neuronal activity, leading to chronic hyper-arousal and dissociative states that include amnesia, a
loss of feelings, identity confusion, and a feeling of being disconnected from one’s body and
surrounding (Yoder et al., 2019). It is these states that hinder executive functioning capacities,
which are concentrated in the prefrontal cortex (Yoder et al., 2019). The focus here is on high
order processing, adaptive functioning, planning, and reasoning capacities (Yoder et al., 2019).
Individuals who have experienced child abuse or neglect are therefore less likely than their
counterparts to initiate activities, retain the information that is required to successfully complete
tasks, anticipate future occurrences, and engage in self evaluation (Yoder et al., 2019). These
parties are also more likely to exhibit antisocial traits and aggression. These traits have been
linked to juvenile and adult criminality (Yoder et al., 2019).
Child sexual abuse, which is one of the main forms of child maltreatment, also increases
the risk for suicide. This is particularly important because of the high prevalence of self-inflicted
harm across the general population. As highlighted by Devries et al. (2014), self-inflicted injuries
cause at least 4.8% and 5.7% of all deaths in women and men who are between 15 and 49 years
old, respectively. It is also prudent to note that child sexual abuse causes mental disorders that
increase the risk for suicide. This includes post traumatic stress disorder and major depressive
disorder (Devries et al., 2014). Equally important is that child sexual abuse has been positively
correlated with risky sexual behaviors and substance abuse. These factors increase the risk for
mental disorders and suicide (Devries et al., 2014).
Furthermore, child abuse has been linked to certain interpersonal or social challenges.
Poole et al. (2018) noted that positive connections with others are important because they
increase an individual’s happiness, self esteem, and sense of fulfillment. These connections also
reduce stress, anxiety, and depression (Poole et al., 2018). Children who have experienced child
abuse however experience challenges forming healthy and meaningful interpersonal
relationships (Poole et al., 2018). These parties do not therefore fully benefit from these
relationships. Shedding light, Poole et al. (2018) observed that children who have experienced
child abuse are more likely than their counterparts to develop mental health problems such as
depression and anxiety disorder, and physical health problems such as chronic diseases. It is also
worth noting that scholars have noted that individuals with a history of child sexual or physical
abuse experience more interpersonal challenges than individuals who do not have a history of
child abuse. This includes being more sensitive to criticism, being unable to hear the opinions of
others, being unable to stand up for themselves, being unable to share their feelings and thoughts
with others, being fearful of intimacy, being unable to trust others, being unwilling to engage in
close interpersonal relationships, and experiencing anxiety in interpersonal relationships (Poole
et al., 2018). Scholars have attributed these social challenges to the fact that child abuse and
neglect interferes with the individual’s ability to optimally identify, interpret, adapt, and regulate
their emotions (Poole et al., 2018). These challenges negatively impact the quality and quantity
of interpersonal relationships.
Hailes et al. (2019) also attributed the correlation between child sexual abuse and the
aforementioned physical and psychological disorders to the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal
(HPA) axis or inflammation. The complex impact of child sexual abuse and risky sexual
behaviors therefore highlights the need for comprehensive interventions that focus on preventing
and reducing childhood sexual abuse. Equally important however is the need for interventions
that target victims of childhood sexual abuse. The focus should be on providing evidence-based
psychological support that is geared towards addressing the sexual abuse and problems such as
risky sexual behaviors, obesity, and depression.
Preventing and Overlooking Childhood Abuse
There are numerous interventions that can be used to prevent child abuse. The best interventions
are comprehensive and multifaceted. This implies that stakeholders should target all potential
offenders and protectors of children, including parents, educators, health practitioners, religious
or faith leaders, and community members (Rudolph et al., 2018). The role of parents or guardians
in preventing childhood abuse is especially critical in these efforts. Parents can directly curb
child abuse by providing a safe environment for their children. The focus here should therefore
be on ensuring that the family setting provides security and love for the child. As highlighted by
Rudolph et al. (2018), parents and caregivers serve as an external barrier that prevents the access
of perpetrators to children. This is especially the case with childhood sexual abuse, with scholars
highlighting that pedophiles exploit the lack of caregiver supervision and monitoring (Rudolph et
al., 2018). It is important to note that these perpetrators require time and a level of privacy with
the child. This time is needed to access, groom, and abuse the child. Rudolph et al. (2018) also
noted that a stable family environment and supportive familial relationships moderate and
mediate the link between child abuse and an extensive array of associated adverse ramifications
including psychological disorders.
Equally important is that parents play a critical role in developing and shaping their
children’s trust in adults (Rudolph et al., 2018). Trust is important in fostering human social
interactions as well as moral and mental development (Rudolph et al., 2018). As however
highlighted by Rudolph et al. (2018), there has been a reduction in generalized trust in countries
such as the US. This reduction in trust, which has been evidenced over the last 40 years, suggests
that children are less trusting than their parents (Rudolph et al., 2018). Rudolph et al. (2018)
attributed this trend to the fact that parents actively try to restrict the trust of their children.
Closely related is the fact that parents determine how their children regard the home
environment, including whether they believe that they can share emotional issues (Rudolph et
al.,2018). It is also important to note that children are more likely to pay attention to their parents
than to other parties (Rudolph et al., 2018). This highlights the need for parents to be engaged as
protectors of their children and as preventers of child abuse.
Furthermore, parents can prevent and reduce child abuse by engaging healthy parenting
practices and protecting children from being abused by individuals in the home environment. In
the case of engaging healthy parenting practices, it is important to note that parents should ensure
a warm parent-child relationship (Moraes et al., 2018). Such a relationship often reduces the
negative effects of child abuse and neglect (Moraes et al., 2018). It is also important to note that
parents are often the perpetrators of abuse. As highlighted by Rudolph et al. (2017), 0.8% of all
cases of childhood sexual abuse are perpetrated by mothers and mother figures. This can be
compared with between 2% and 13% of all cases of childhood sexual abuse that are perpetrated
by biological fathers; and between 20% and 30% of childhood sexual abuse cases that are
perpetrated by stepfathers and other partners of the children’s mothers (Rudolph et al., 2017).
Moreover, parents can address child abuse indirectly by ensuring that their children are
competent in issues pertaining to recognizing abuse, saying no to potential abusers, and reporting
potential abuse (Rudolph et al., 2018). It is also worth noting that parents can reduce the
susceptibility of their children to abuse by ensuring that they are not too vulnerable or too easy to
manipulate (Rudolph et al., 2018). Rudolph et al. (2018) observed that this emotional
vulnerability, which makes children more likely to be abused, can be reduced by ensuring that
children have sufficient psychological support, are not emotionally deprived, and they have an
optimal relationship with their caregivers. These scholars further noted that parents can reduce
this vulnerability by increasing the child’s self-efficacy, self-esteem, and overall well-being
(Rudolph et al., 2018). The underlying premise here is that children who have high levels of self-
esteem, competence, and self-efficacy are more likely than their counterparts to respond
appropriately to potential abuse and to disclose these incidents when they occur. It is prudent to
note that the disclosure of child abuse by the child is important as legal evidence, in ending the
abuse, and in preventing the abuse of other children (Lahtinen et al., 2017).
The critical role of parents in preventing and addressing child abuse and neglect
highlights the need to involve these parties in child abuse prevention programs. Rudolph et al.
(2017) specifically discussed the importance of involving these parties in child sexual abuse
prevention programs. As highlighted by these scholars, these programs ensure that parents equip
their children with the competencies that they need to recognize, avoid, and disclose child sexual
abuse (Rudolph et al., 2017). The focus here is therefore on teaching parents how they can
effectively educate their children concerning the risks of child sexual abuse and how they can
protect themselves from child sexual abuse (Rudolph et al., 2017). Equally important is the
recognition that child abuse prevention programs should equally involve parents in four stages
that are instrumental in ensuring comprehensive child abuse protection: educating children about
the dangers of child abuse to prevent abuse; serving as strong external barriers to prevent
perpetrators from gaining access to children; teaching children how to resist abuse, including
how to say no to potential abusers; and reducing susceptibility to abuse by ensuring that children
do not feel unloved or unsupported (Rudolph et al., 2017).
Conclusion
In conclusion, child abuse, including sexual abuse, physical abuse, and emotional abuse, leads to
numerous developmental problems that are faced by many children and adults. This includes
disruptions in high executive functioning and emotion regulation. It is also important to highlight
the cycle of abuse, which features victims of abuse replicating patterns of abusive relationships.
These ramifications highlight the need for evidence-based treatment programs and interventions
that prevent child abuse and help victims to live fully functional lives. Equally important is the
need for strategies and actions that address the issue of child abuse at its root and create
conditions that prevent the exploitation and abuse of vulnerable children by adults. As
highlighted above, these programs should involve parents and caregivers, mental health
practitioners, physicians, victims, victim advocates, and community leaders.
References
Devries, K., Mak, J., Child, J., Falder, G., Bacchus, L., Astbury, J., & Watts, C. (2014).
Childhood sexual abuse and suicidal behavior: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 133(5), e1331-e1344.
https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-2166
Hailes, H., Yu, R., Danese, A., & Fazel, S. (2019). Long-term outcomes of childhood sexual
abuse: An umbrella review. The Lancet: Psychiatry, 6(10), 830-839.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30286-X
Hebert, M., Langevin, R., & Oussaid, E. (2018). Cumulative childhood trauma, emotion
regulation, dissociation, and behavior problems in school-aged sexual abuse victims. Journal of
Affective Disorders, 225, 306-312. https://doi.org/.10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.044
Hoft, M., & Haddad, L. (2017). Screening children for abuse and neglect: A review of the
literature. Journal of Forensic Nurses, 13(1), 26-34.
https://doi.org/10.1097/JFN.0000000000000136
Lahtinen, H-M., Laitila, A., Korkman, J., & Ellonen, N. (2018). Children’s disclosures of sexual
abuse in a population-based sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(2), 84-94.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.10.011.
Moraes, C., Sampaio, F., Reichenheim, M., & Da Veiga, G. (2018). The intertwined effect of
lackof emotional warmth and child abuse and neglect on common mental disorders in
adolescence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 83, 74-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.07.008
Poole, J., Dobson, K., & Pusch, D. (2018). Do adverse childhood experiences predict adult
interpersonal difficulties? The role of emotion dysregulation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 80, 123-
133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.006
Rudolph, J., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. (2018). Parents as protectors: A qualitative study of
parents’ views on child sexual abuse prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect, 85, 28-38.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.08.016
Rudolph, J., Zimmer-Gembeck, M., Shanley, D., & Hawkins, R. (2018). Child sexual abuse
prevention opportunities: Parenting, programs, and the reduction of risk. Child Maltreatment,
23(1), 96-106. https://doi.org/10. 10.1177/1077559517729479
Sanjeevi, J., Houlihan, D., Bergstron, K., Langley, M., & Judkins, J. (2018). A review of child
sexual abuse: Impact, risk, and resilience in the context of culture. Journal of Child Sexual
Abuse, 27(6), 622-641. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2018.1486934
Yoder, J., Grady, M., & Precht, M. (2019). Relationships between early life victimization,
antisocial traits, and sexual violence: Executive functioning as a mediator. Journal of Child
Sexual Abuse, 628(3), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2019.1588819
S.L. Stewart et al.
Interpersonal polyvictimization: Addressing the care planning needs of traumatized children and
youth
Child Abuse & Neglect
(2021)
S. Negriff
ACEs are not equal: Examining the relative impact of household dysfunction versus childhood
maltreatment on mental health in adolescence
Social Science & Medicine
(2020)
T.O. Afifi et al.
Child abuse and mental disorders in Canada
CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienn
J. Armiento et al.
Direct and indirect forms of childhood maltreatment and nonsuicidal self-injury among
clinically-referred children and youth
Journal of Affective Disorders
(2016)
P. Baiden et al.
Childhood abuse and cannabis use among adolescents with mental health needs in
OntarioCanada
Journal of Substance Use
(2014)
CHILD ABUSE AND ITS
IMPLICATIONS FOR
GROWTH
5
2014). This link can be
attributed to the fact that
child sexual abuse
exposes children to
traumatic
stress. Devries et al.
(2014) specifically noted
that the trauma of child
sexual abuse changes
stress response systems
and cognitions. This
changes the way in which
individuals cope with
other stressful and
traumatic events. It is
also prudent to note that
child sexual abuse
causes
mental disorders that
increase the risk for
suicide. This includes
post traumatic stress
disorder
and major depressive
disorder (Devries et al.,
2014). Equally important
is that child sexual abuse
has been positively
correlated with risky
sexual behaviors and
substance abuse. These
factors
increase the risk for
mental disorders and
suicide (Devries et al.,
2014).
Furthermore, child abuse
has been linked to
certain interpersonal or
social challenges.
Poole et al. (2018) noted
that positive connections
with others are important
because they
increase an individual’s
happiness, self esteem,
and sense of fulfillment.
These connections also
reduce stress, anxiety,
and depression (Poole et
al., 2018). Children who
have experienced child
abuse however
experience challenges
forming healthy and
meaningful interpersonal
relationships (Poole et al.,
2018). These parties do
not therefore fully benefit
from these
relationships. Shedding
light, Poole et al. (2018)
observed that children
who have experienced
child abuse are more
likely than their
counterparts to develop
mental health problems
such as
depression and anxiety
disorder, and physical
health problems such as
chronic diseases. It is
also
worth noting that
scholars have noted that
individuals with a history
of child sexual or physical
abuse experience more
interpersonal challenges
than individuals who do
not have a history of
child abuse. This includes
being more sensitive to
criticism, being unable to
hear the opinions of
others, being unable to
stand up for themselves,
being unable to share
their feelings and
thoughts
with others , being fearful
of intimacy, being unable
to trust others, being
unwilling to engage in
close interpersonal
relationships, and
experiencing anxiety in
interpersonal relatHILD
ABUSE AND ITS
IMPLICATIONS FOR
GROWTH
6
et al., 2018). Scholars
have attributed these
social challenges to the
fact that child abuse and
neglect interferes with
the individual’s ability to
optimally identify,
interpret, adapt, and
regulate
their emotions (Poole et
al., 2018). These
challenges negatively
impact the quality and
quantity
of interpersonal
relationships.
Child Sexual Abuse and
Sexual Victimization in
Adulthood
Child sexual abuse also
fuels a cycle of abuse
that features victims of
child sexual abuse
victimizing other parties.
Yoder et al. (2019)
attributed this cycle of
abuse to the disruption of
executive and high order
thinking in victims of
child sexual abuse. More
specifically, victims of
child sexual abuse
experience executive
function deficits that lead
to antisocial behaviors
and
sexual violence. This is
highlighted in Knight and
Sims-Knight’s
Developmental
Etiological
Theory (DET), which
postulates that sexual
violence emanates from
the impact of early life
victimization on
antisocial characteristics
such as aggression,
callousness, sexual
fantasies, and
apathy (Yoder et al.,
2019). All of these factors
lead to sexual coercion.
Early victimization has
therefore been
highlighted as a risk
factor for sexual and non-
sexual violence. This
inference has
been supported by
studies, which have
indicated that youth who
engage in sexual crimes
are
generally more likely to
have a history of child
abuse than youth who
engage in other crimes
(Yoder et al., 2019). It is
also important to note
that scholars have
established that among
youth
who engage in sexual
offenses, youth who have
experienced early sexual
victimization have
more serious
antecedents of trauma
than youth who have not
experienced early sexual
victimization (Yoder et
al., 2019). When
compared to youth who
do not have early sexual
victimization
experiences, youth with
early sexual victimization
experiences are also
more likely
to display sexual
aggression, hyper
arousal, and criminal
behavior (Yoder et al.,
2019). This
