AN EXAMINATION OF TERRORISM 1
An Examination of Terrorism
Helms School of Government, Liberty University
HLSC 610: Understanding Terrorism and Homeland Security
Dr. Melvin Richards
July 17, 2022
AN EXAMINATION OF TERRORISM 2
An Examination of Terrorism
Introduction
Terrorism, as we know it today, is no longer just a foreign problem but a threat that has
expanded globally. The attack on the World Trade Center that took the lives of many citizens left
those charged with the security of our homeland to re-evaluate the counter-terrorism measures in
place to mitigate the risk of future catastrophic disasters. Nations have struggled with defining
terrorism because of its nature and complexity. Despite not having a universally accepted
definition of terrorism, people are aware of what it is about and what it is not. This paper aims to
provide an overview of (1) the history of terrorism, (2) the definitional issues of terrorism, (3) the
ideologies and typologies of terrorism, (4) the behaviors, tactics, and methodical activities of
terrorists, and (5) a biblical perspective on terrorism.
History of Terrorism
Although the word terrorism first appeared during the Enlightenment period, acts of
terrorism can be traced back further. For example, a famous Greek, Aristotle, asserted that killing
leaders who failed to serve the interest of the people is justifiable and, therefore, should be
eliminated (McEntire, 2018). The assassination of political leaders was a prevalent form of
terrorism throughout history and continues to be a terrorist practice today. Terrorism has evolved
since the Enlightenment period and has become more complex and violent. Historical religious
and political grievances have been rooted as being the significant cause leading to terrorism.
There is no doubt that the results of the world wars have also influenced and paved the way for
modern terrorist extremist to continue their reign of terror.
The Definitional Issues of Terrorism
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Over time, heads of state, politicians, and scholars have developed hundreds of
definitions for terrorism. However, Meisels (2009) points out that a globally accepted definition
may not be possible because various actors have varying objectives when defining terrorism;
therefore, these actors adopt definitions that serve their national, political, or ideological agendas.
For example, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) describes terrorism as
any activity that (i) involves an act that (a) is dangerous to human life or
potentially destructive of critical infrastructure or key resources; and (b) is a
violation of the criminal laws of the United States or any State or other
subdivision of the United States; and (ii) appears to be intended (a) to intimidate
or coerce a civilian population; (b) to influence the policy of a government by
intimidation or coercion; or (c) to affect the conduct of a government by mass
destruction, assassination, or kidnapping. (McEntire, 2018, p. 32)
The United States Department of Defense (DoD) defines terrorism as “the calculated use of
violence or the threat of violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate
governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or
ideological” (McEntire, 2018, p. 32). The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) describes
terrorism as “the unlawful use of force against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a
government, the civilian populations, or any segment thereof, in the furtherance of political or
social objectives” (McEntire, 2018, p. 32). From a scholarly perspective, Primoratz (2004)
asserts that “terrorism is [a coercive] intimidation with a purpose: the terror is meant to cause
others to do things they would not otherwise do” (p. 16).
In light of the varying definitions mentioned above, one can see the common
denominator in all the definitions of terrorism—coercive intimidation and violence in pursuit of
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terroristic goals and objectives. In essence, terrorism need not be acted upon; the ultimate
terroristic goal is to induce fear as a means to control society, promote their ideologies, and gain
recognition worldwide. In addition, the differing definitions prescribed above depict each actor’s
objective or mission. For example, DHS’s mission is to “safeguard the American people, our
homeland, and our values” (DHS, 2019, para. 1). DoD (2018) asserts that its mission is “to
provide the military forces needed to deter and win wars and to protect the security of our
country and our allies” (DoD, 2018, p.1). The FBI aims “to neutralize terrorist cells and
operatives in the United States, help dismantle extremist networks worldwide, and cut off any
forms of financial support provided to terrorist organizations” (FBI, 2016, para. 1). Moreover,
scholars have also pondered on the definitional issues of terrorism in their research, as well as
the phenomenon of terrorism and its psychological impacts on society.
Terrorism: Causes, Ideologies, and Typologies
Causes of Terrorism
There are many types and causes of terrorism, as there are definitions. McEntire (2018)
suggests that historical grievances, foreign policy decisions, poverty, political systems and
structures, culture, religion, and, most importantly, ideologies are influential factors that motivate
terrorists to carry out their terroristic acts. For example, historical grievances may cause one to
justify the need for revenge. Foreign policy decisions may not be acceptable to many middle
eastern countries who feel their best interest is not being represented. Extreme poverty may
motivate one to commit terroristic acts because of socioeconomic inequalities. Political
disagreements, conflicting views on values, and blatant disregard for addressing the concerns or
preferences of citizens could potentially lead to acts of terrorism. Culture and religion are
significant factors contributing to the causes of terrorism, wherein some cultures are resistant to
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change to preserve their identities and religious beliefs. In addition, while many terrorist
organizations and a wide range of causes drive terrorists to commit violence, one commonality
amongst these organizations is their solid ideological beliefs.
Ideologies of Terrorism
The Council on Foreign Relations (n.d.) asserts that terrorist groups fall into four broad
ideological categories: ethno-nationalist groups, left-wing groups, right-wing groups, and
religious-oriented groups. Ethno-nationalist terrorists, often associated with a minority cultural
group, tend to commit violence against their rivals in connection with the government’s or the
majority population’s oppressive action or inaction. Left-wing terrorist groups want to
strategically overthrow capitalist governments that they view as corrupt, elitist, or oppressive.
Right-wing terrorist groups “define themselves in opposition to specific ideas and people they
seek to destroy” (Council on Foreign Relations, n.d., para. 7). Religious-oriented terrorist groups
believe that violence by faith is justifiable and will eventually lead them to salvation. Hence,
while these broad ideological categories are neither exhaustive nor exclusive, other terrorist
groups exist outside these four ideological groupings. Moreover, it is also important to note that
terrorist organizations may often have multiple ideologies that drive their terroristic behaviors.
Typology of Terrorism
Terrorism has often been classified based on the form of terrorist acts, their aims, and
their audiences. The characters of terrorism and the forms of its manifestation have undergone
significant changes over the years. Hence, while many typologies exist, Combs (2002), as cited
by Vasilenko (2014), describes at least five typologies of contemporary terrorism—mass terror,
sanctioned terror, dynastic murder, random terror, focused random terror, and revolutionary
tactical terror. Mass terror is terrorism by the government in power against its citizen to suppress
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them and maintain control (McEntire, 2018). Dynastic assignation or murder is a kind of
terrorism that “involves attacks on the head of state or the ruling elites” (Vasilenko, 2014, p. 51).
Random terror is terrorism against individuals who happen to be at the wrong place and at the
wrong time. Focused random terror is terrorism on representatives in places they are likely to
gather (Vasilenko, 2014). Tactical terror is “terrorism aimed at the ruling government as part of a
broad revolutionary strategic plan” (Vasilenko, 2014, p. 51).
Terrorist Behaviors, Tactics, and Methodologies
Terrorist Behaviors and Tactics
Terrorists resort to various tactics to promote their ideologies and accomplish their
objectives. Emery et al. (2004) assert that “the psychological influence in the information realm
is what gives terrorists the leverage they need to sway public attention and pressure decision-
makers to act in ways favorable to the terrorist’s objectives” (p. 14). Hence, terrorists use the
media to their advantage to sensationalize their terroristic acts, promote their ideologies, and
recruit new members to their organizations. Terrorists have also used the privileges of liberty to
their advantage. For example, terrorists have used our laws, our freedom, and our democratic
government to hide their illegal activities, find loopholes in our laws to launder money to support
their activities, purchase weapons legally with ill intentions, hold an assembly to promote their
ideologies, and travel freely around the world without drawing attention to their intended
purposes.
Asymmetrical Warfare
Terrorists have strategically used asymmetrical warfare to threaten and weaken their
opponent’s will to fight and intimidate civilians. Asymmetrical warfare can be described as a war
between small non-state groups that are not well-armed and states with a well-armed military
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force. These two differing forces at war differ in size and strength. This type of unconventional
warfare increases counter-terrorism costs and quickly depletes state resources because terrorists
usually prolong their terrorist acts. It makes it even more challenging for states to counter
terrorist acts when terrorist groups strategically immerse themselves amongst civilians.
Force Multiplier
Terrorists, for publicity purposes, must always appear capable of waging wars against
their opposition, despite knowing that they may never win through conventional war tactics. As
such, terrorists use force multipliers to increase the impact of their attacks without the need to
increase their size. White (2002), as cited by Emery et al. (2004), highlights four force
multipliers that augment the damages caused by terrorist attacks—technology, transnational
support, media coverage, and religious fanaticism. When used simultaneously, these force
multipliers can potentially increase the striking power of terrorists. For example, technology has
enhanced the opportunities for terrorists to maximize their impact using social media and other
web-based platforms to terrorize the masses, conduct cyber-attacks, gain recognition, and
promote their ideologies. They can hinder the economy by attacking suppliers of goods. They
can manipulate the media into becoming a propaganda arm for terrorists. They can also influence
individuals to join their religious cause and wage holy wars.
Financing Terrorism
Although historical evidence shows that terrorism has been around for ages, the fight
against terrorism was brought to the forefront until Al-Qaida’s terrorist attack on the World Trade
Center. Wall (2019) asserts that the fight against terrorism dominated the global security agenda
due to this incident. As such, Wall (2019) highlighted in their evaluation of anti-money
laundering measures and financing of terrorism that sources of terrorist funding vary. Terrorists
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may resort to illegal activities like trafficking drugs, weapons, and humans to fund their
organization’s activities. Terrorist may also obtain their funds through legitimate means. For
example, a terrorist can solicit funds from recruits to support their cause or use their inheritance.
They can also funnel funds from non-profit organizations. These approaches work well in
conventional terrorist structures where “a centralized commander in charge to organize, train,
and instruct their members to commit acts of terrorism” (Wall, 2019, p. 182). Thus, whether
terrorists belong to an organization or operate as lone wolves, they require financial support to
carry out their mission.
Biblical Perspective
We live in a sin-filled world full of violence. Terrorism and every wrongful act done unto
others have long been associated with acts motivated by Satan’s influence. John 16:2-4 asserts
that “they will put you out of the synagogues. Indeed, the hour is coming when whoever kills
you will think he is offering service to God. And they will do these things because they have not
known the Father, nor me. But I have said these things to you that when their hour comes you
may remember that I told them to you.” (English Standard Version Bible, 2001/2016). The
scripture reminds us that terrorists may often confuse God’s messages in the scriptures; therefore,
they believe that the holy wars they wage will bring them salvation. Leaders of terrorist
organizations can easily manipulate the messages in the scriptures to entice recruits of blessings
from God in this life and the next.
Conclusion
The word terrorism conjures multiple meanings. It is a broad and complex topic to begin
with. Classifying terrorism based on terroristic behaviors, ideologies, and tactics will continue to
be challenging. As technology advances, the evolution of terrorism will inevitably advance as
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well. Hence, one can expect that terrorism will soon appear to be the norm. Counter-terrorism
measures will become even more difficult to establish as terrorists become more creative in
advancing their ideologies and goals.
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References
Council on Foreign Relations. (n.d.). What the world’s terrorist groups have in common.
World101 from the Council on Foreign Relations. https://world101.cfr.org/global-era-
issues/terrorism/what-worlds-terrorist-groups-have-common
Department of Homeland Security [DHS]. (2019). Mission. https://www.dhs.gov/mission
Emery, N. E., Earl, R. S., & Buettner, R. (2004). Terrorist Use of Information Operations.
Journal of Information Warfare, 3(2), 14–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26502782
English Standard Version Bible. (2016). EVC Online. https://esv.literalword.com/ (Original work
published 2001)
Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI]. (2016). Terrorism.
https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism
McEntire, D. A. (2018). Introduction to homeland security, 2nd Edition. [VitalSource Bookshelf
version]. Retrieved from vbk://9781119430636
Meisels, T. (2009). Defining terrorism – a typology. Critical Review of International Social and
Political Philosophy, 12(3), 331-351. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230903127853
Primoratz, I. (2004). What is Terrorism?. In: Primoratz, I. (eds) terrorism. Palgrave Macmillan,
London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230204546_2
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56, DOI: 10.1080/10610014.2004.11059722
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Wall, R. (2019). Are financial institutions’ counter-terrorist financing controls fit for today’s
challenges? Journal of Financial Compliance, 3(2), 181-191. https://docserver-
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