Research: Chronological History of Terrorism in the U.S
Richard Appiah
Liberty University
HLSC 510
Professor Shannon McAteer
August 07, 2022
Abstract
At no time in the history of the United States have Americans spent time discussing the subject
of terrorism as they did after 9/11 despite the nation dealing with issues of terrorism from the
time of its independence. Though the issue of terrorism in the US is not new, the US became
more vulnerable after the 9/11 terrorism incident due to the number of lives lost, and damages
the incident caused. Issues of terrorism have caused the US to make changes to many public
policies and devise national security strategies that can help counter this abominable act.
Looking back at history, one can deduce that actors of terrorism are guided by ideological
perceptions of personal grievances, religion, race, politics etc. and terrorist incidents can take
many forms and can take place anywhere making it difficult to set a standard definition for
terrorism. The essay will look at terrorism chronologically from founding to WW1, post WW1 to
1989, then from 1990 to 9/11 and post 9/11.
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Introduction
This great nation of America has experienced many terrorist incidences from the time of
independence till now and these attacks stem from both domestic and internationally. The severe
nature of these attacks has caused many national security policies on domestic and international
laws on terrorism; for instance, the creation of the US Department of Homeland Security in 2002
is one of the national strategies that was put in place to combat terrorism. To this date, terrorism
take many forms and its nature has continuously evolved as society grows. The actors can be
either lone wolves; acting alone or working as part of a group who are motivated by certain
ideologies that center on personal grievances, and reactions to current events including politics,
religion, and race.
Terrorism is very difficult to define because terrorist groups have restructured, unlike in
the olden days when they have a readily identifiable structure and chain of command. Currently,
the organizational structure of terrorist entities has transformed and is made up of close-knit
independent groups communicating by digital technologies or lone wolves acting independently
without any direct external command (Masters et al., 2020, p. 564). A close definition of
terrorism according to the US. Code is “a premeditated, politically motivated violence
perpetuated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually
intended to influence an audience” (Masters et al., 2020, p. 564). The act of terrorism can be
categorized into international (where terrorism against the US is foreign based) and domestic
(involves groups that live and operate in the US) (Master et., 2020).
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Founding to WW1
Historians have noted that the term terrorism was popularized during the French
Revolution which at first had a positive connotation because it was a means of establishing order
during the uprisings of 1789; thus the “reign of terror” was adopted by the Jacobins (a
democratic club established in Paris in 1789) to merge their power which made terrorism being
associated with the ideals of virtue and democracy (Kumamoto, 2009). As time progressed, the
meaning of terrorism progressed and became closely associated with destruction and violence. A
more religious form of terrorism that came about after America’s independence was recorded in
1857 during the American civil war, which is termed the Mountain Meadows Massacre in Utah.
The main culprit was John D Lee a member of the Latter-day Saint, was responsible for killing
of 120 men, women, and children. It is at this point that the United States almost went to war
with the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints due to Lee’s association with the church
(King, 2012).
Following the Mountain Meadows massacre was a political inspired assassination of
President Abraham Lincoln in April 1865 during a performance at the Ford’s theatre in
Washington DC by John Wilkes Booth, a 26-year old actor, a confederate sympathizer and a
white Supremacist (Konkel, 2018). Booth’s murder of Lincoln centers on the President’s
endorsement of the African Americans who served in the Union Army the right to vote and was
also a plot to decapitate the federal government. His death led to the reconstruction era (1865-
1877)- to reintegrate newly freed black slaves into the United States (Konkel, 2018)
Later after the civil war ended emerged a domestic terrorist group; the Ku Klux Klan, a
traditional terrorist group that was against the northern military occupation in the south and free
black slaves and continued to commit many atrocities in history (Wexler 2015). The group, used
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terror tactics intimidation, murder, and violence to maintain white supremacy in Southern
government and social life. When the 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution and federal
laws during the years of reconstruction between the period 1866-1877 were passed to protect the
civil rights of freed slaves, this encountered intimidation and violence organized by the Klan.
Congress in its effort to respond to these issues of terrorism passed the Enforcement Acts or
Force Acts in 1870 and 1871 to end this violence and empower the president to use military force
to protect African Americans (U.S. Senate, 2020)
The next major terrorist event that proceeded in the US during WW1 is the Black Tom
Explosion which was a form of espionage form of terrorism against the US, and this pushed
America to declare war on the German empire in 1917. Americans despite major German attacks
on the innocent remained neutral during the events of WW1. The Black Tom Island served as a
munitions depot for Americans to supply ammunitions to the allied forces which were located
next to Liberty Island in New York (More, 2017). Before the Black Tom incidents, the Germans
in 1915 Torpedoed the British passenger liner “Lusitania” which killed 1962 passengers
including 128 Americans which angered Americans against the Germans but not to the point of
declaring war on the Germans. Germans in July 1916 used their spies in the US to attack Black
Tom Island by infiltrating one of the largest ammunitions stockpiles (National Dock and Storage
Facility) igniting the munitions causing huge vibrations through Maryland and causing over
twenty million dollars in property damage and severe damages to the statue of liberty (More,
2017). At the time of this attack, the US had no federal statutes that addressed peacetime spying
sabotage by foreign nations and no agencies had the structure and the resources to protect the
country from foreign terrorist intrusions however things changed after Black Tom. The
Espionage Act of 1917 was introduced and later intelligence agencies like the Bureau of
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Investigation (later Federal Bureau of Investigations) and the Secret Service were reorganized to
fight enemies within the country deviating from the initial task of only fighting counterfeiting
and protecting the US President respectively (Weesjes and Nerges, 2017)
Post WW1 TO 1989
The Soviet Union emerged as a world superpower during the wake of WW2 and
President Harry Truman at that time reformed both domestic and international policies aimed at
the Soviets by restructuring the military and intelligence agencies. After WW2, the United States
and the Soviet Union entered the Cold war in 1947 and continued for many years but one of the
deadliest attacks on the homeland prior to the cold war period is the Pearl Harbor. The Pearl
Harbor attack marks one of the deadliest terror attacks in US history and is remembered as a day
that will leave in infamy. Though the attack on Pearl Harbor is not entirely like an ordinary
terrorist attack whereby the actors are unknown or not directly affiliated to a particular terrorist
group, the Pearl Harbor attack was directly carried out by Japan on the United States in
December 1941. Before the attack the events that led to the attack was the Japanese occupation
of French Indochina in 1941 which forced the US to freeze Japanese assets in the states,
preventing Japan from purchasing oil (IWM, 2022). Japan decided to retaliate by attacking the
US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor hoping that the US would negotiate peace. The success of the
attack was a result of the careful planning of the Japanese and the failure of American
intelligence (Farley, 2021). The US military services i.e., the Army and the Navy had the
responsibility of intelligence collection before the attack but failed to cooperate and the US
Department of State through its diplomatic means received intelligence about the attack but
failed to share intelligence among the military services (Farley, 2021). In the long run, the US
government was not able to strategize to defend America from Japan. Following the attack, the
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US saw the need for a centralized intelligence service and established the Office of Strategic
Services in June 1942. The National Security Act of 1947 also restructured the US military and
separated the Airforce from the Army, creating the Department of Defense and establishing the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 1947 (Farley, 2021)
The period after the Pearl attack was filled with other terrorist incidents however during
this period the United States entered the Cold War with the Soviet Union in 1947 and many of
the major domestic terrorist incidents that took place at home were due to Americans' fear of the
spread of communist and leftist ideologies (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022). What
Americans termed terrorists were largely reserved for civil leaders and communist sympathizers
at home and abroad and American presidents during this cold war era saw terrorism as a tactical
threat, a low-impact security challenge that demanded little to no attention (Council on Foreign
Relations, 2022). The FBI headed by J. E Hoover in 1953 introduced the Counterintelligence
Program (COINTELPRO), a modern-day domestic surveillance tactic similar to the post-9/11
Patriot Act to distort communist groups that were regarded as a terrorist (Council on Foreign
Relations, 2022). When the cold war intensified, President Kennedy’s 1961 priorities were not
fighting terrorism but confronting the Soviet influence at home and abroad, but he was later
assassination by Lee Oswald Harvey whom the FBI later found out acted alone in the killing of
the president (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022).
As the years went by between the period of 1964 and 1974, the United State experience
more domestic terrorism. This period saw massive bombings and hijackings. The US
government was adamant in the case of hijackings and during the era of President Richard
Nixon, over 130 airplanes were hijacked, and these hijackings were occurring at a rate of two per
month (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022). Later when the Air Line Pilots Association
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demanded high security concerning their aircraft being hijacked by gun-wielding passengers, the
government dismissed the idea as absurd. Again, the CIA conducted a surveillance operation
against Americans which was later exposed to going contrary to what the CIA's mission is as
outlined in the National Security Act of 1947(Council on Foreign Relations, 2022).
During the period between 1979 and 1988, the country experienced many threats,
especially international terrorism and it was this period that American policymakers first took
notice of international terrorism as a threat to national interest amid waves of attacks on US
embassy locations and US nationals around the world. One of the well-known attacks during
this period in 1979 was the Tehran hostage situation where a group of radical college students
scaled the walls of the US Embassy in Tehran and took diplomats, embassy staff, marine guards,
and three CIA agents’ hostage (Digital History, 2021). Though some of the prisoners were
released, about 52 prisoners were held hostage for more than 444 days subject to beatings,
solitary confinement, mock executions, etc. The seizure of the embassy was a result of a CIA-
backed coup that had placed the Shah in power and the fear of the US overturning the Iranian
revolution. Later when all diplomatic efforts to deal with the hostage situation failed, the rescue
mission of the newly created Delta Force ordered by President Jimmy Carter also proved futile
(Digital History, 2021).
Later there was also the Beirut Bombing terrorist attack in 1983 which took the lives of
241 Marines, Sailors, and Soldiers through a truck bombing. The incident leading to this attack
was the Arab Israeli conflict where the US government aimed to provide a neutral stabilizing
force in Lebanon by sending the marines to maintain a visible presence in the capital, Beirut with
the hopes that it would deter further bloodshed among various warring factions and militias
fighting for control of the country (Marine Corp University, 2013). Again, other incidents of
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Airline hijackings were prevalent in this era. The Kuwait Airways Flight 221 in 1984 which was
hijacked saw to the killing of two American officials from the US Agency for International
Development whose bodies were dumped on the tarmac with other Americans threatened and
tortured and later the 1988 Bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 which killed all 259 people on board
with 190 being Americans were some of the major terrorist attacks in this era. The bombing was
one of the most lethal acts of terrorism and one of the most complex international terrorisms ever
investigated by the FBI (Marquise, 2008). The FBI had to partner with other law enforcement
agencies from Scotland to investigate. The joint investigation led to charges against two Libyan
intelligent officers (FB1, 2022).
From 1990 to 9/11
From this period more issues of political terrorism against the US and the world were on
the rise and continuous attacks on US embassies and civilians were still rampant. In 1990, there
was a US Embassy bombing in Peru. Explosives were tossed at the US. Embassy Marine
Security Guard resident, leading to severe damages to property and minor injuries of two local
guards (Department of State, 1991). Following this attack was another hijacking in El Salvador
where a Toyota minibus belonging to a Christian school and transporting three US Embassy-
dependent Children, their driver, and an unarmed Embassy guard was taken by three armed men
with 9 mm pistols. The hostages were later released eight blocks from the crime scene, but the
bus was taken away. later it was determined that the Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front
(FMLN) was responsible for the attack. The FMLN was an insurgent against the Salvadoran
Government and armed forces and employed the tactics of using bombs and indirect fire attacks
on civilians and property damages including that of the US just to cripple the Salvadoran
economy (Department of State, 1991).
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Things took a different turn from 1993 when terrorist focused their attacks domestically
in the US. In February 1993, a bomb exploded in a parking garage of the World Trade Center
(WTC) in New York City, and this marked the first indication that terrorism was evolving from a
regional event outside the US to a transnational event. The Diplomatic Security Services, New
York Police Department, and the FBI helped to identify that a Middle Eastern terrorist called
Yousef connected to Al-Qaeda was responsible for the attack (Bureau of Diplomatic Security,
2021). The attempted assassination of senior President Bush by Iraqi Agents in Kuwait also
happened in the same year. In April 1993, when President Bush was going to be honored for his
victory in the Persian Gulf war, Kuwait authorities designed a car bomb to assassinate him. With
compelling evidence of the direct involvement of Iraqi intelligence in the plot, President Clinton
in response to the assassination attempt ordered U.S. warships to fire Tomahawk cruise missiles
at Iraqi intelligence headquarters in downtown Bagdad (History Editors, 2019).
Again in 1995, Timothy McVeigh an ex-Army soldier and security guard caused a severe
domestic terrorist attack with a moving truck full of homemade explosives to bomb a federal
building (Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building) in Oklahoma City resulting in the death of 168
people as a result of his hatred for the federal government. This attack was the worst of
homegrown terrorism in the nation’s history and by the time the culprit was apprehended, the
FBI had conducted more than 28,000 interviews, followed 43000 investigation leads, and
amassed three and a half tons of evidence making it one of the most exhaustive investigations in
the FBI history. After this attack, the FBI and the government began to shift their priorities. The
number of Joint Terrorism Task Forces nationwide increased. The training programs at the FBI
Hazardous Devices School also expanded to include training for other federal, state, and local
law enforcement agencies (FBI, 2022). Again, President Clinton also issued Executive order
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12977 establishing the Interagency Security Committee (ISC) to address continuing government-
wide security for federal facilities (CISA, 2022).
Following the Oklahoma bombing was the USS Cole bombing on October 12, 2000,
when two suicide pilots of a small bomb-laden boat pulled next to the USS Cole at midship,
offering friendly gestures to the ship’s crew members and detonating the explosives. The attack
occurred in Yemen when the USS Cole was about to make a prearranged fuel stop at the port of
Aden. The Blast killed 17 US sailors and injured 40 crew members. The government responded
by sending over 100 FBI agents from the Counterterrorism Division and other agencies like the
Joint Terrorism Task Force to investigate which later linked the attack to the Al-Qaeda terrorist
network (FBI, 2022).
After the USS Cole attack comes the most catastrophic terrorist attack in history against
the US that occurred on the nation’s soil, the September 11th, 2001, attack. Events leading to the
attack include nineteen al-Qaeda members hijacking four commercial airlines and crashing two
into the World Trade Center towers in New York City and one in the Pentagon outside of
Washington DC. The fourth plane crashed in rural Pennsylvania after its passengers tried to gain
control of the aircraft (McBride, 2021). The attacks in total killed over 2977 people as a result of
over decades planning by the leader of al-Qaeda, Osama Bin Laden’s motivated radical Islamic
ideology to kill American soldiers and civilians. It was later revealed that US intelligence
agencies and domestic law enforcement failed drastically on crucial information sharing despite
all intelligence that was raised about this attack. President Bush issued two emergency
declarations both giving the executive branch sweeping powers to target terrorist financing
around the world and these declarations are renewed by subsequent presidents and remain in
force today (McBride,2021). The president also granted the CIA an open authority to capture and
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detain whom they determine to pose a threat to the homeland going contrary to the agency's
limited jurisdiction at the time it was formed. It is during the same time 2001 after the 9/11 attack
that anthrax letters also spark a national alarm, but the latter investigation pointed out that
America’s very own scientist Bruce Irvin was responsible for the letters (McBride, 2021).
President Bush's continuous response to the 9/11 attack is also witnessed in his war on terror
when he signs the joint resolution of Congress authorizing the president to use all necessary
force against those who planned and aided the 9/11 attack. Using the military to go after al-
Qaeda and its Taliban sponsors in Afghanistan and other areas around the world. The Office of
Homeland Security was also formed to protect the US from future attacks on the homeland and
the Patriot Act was also signed to strengthen the federal government’s counterterrorism response
however the latter was revealed to infringe on the privacy of Americans prompting congress to
put a limitation on domestic surveillance (McBride, 2021). 9/11 also saw the creation of the
Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in 2002 and under the DHS include the immigration
and border agencies. The Transportation Security Agency (TSA); the Coast Guard, the Secret
Service, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), and many nuclear and cybersecurity
agencies to boost coordination between agencies and fill the intelligence gap that caused the 9/11
attack (McBride, 2021).
Post 9/11 to present
Since the 9/11 terrorist incident, the US has still continuously experienced terrorist
attacks. This time around the attacks is more centered on lone wolf tactics against the
government or white supremacist targeting groups of races. During this period there have been
several terrorist attacks ranging from December 2001-shoe bomber by Richard Reid; an al-Qaeda
operative who attempted to detonate a bomb concealed in his shoes from Paris to Miami but
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failed and the November 2009 Fort Hood shooting by a US Army Major Nidal Malik Hassan; a
psychiatrist for the army opening fire on fellow service members resulting in 13 deaths and 29
wounded (Heilman, 2021).
The Boston Marathon bombing in 2013 marks another terrorist attack that was severe in
nature and though the number of casualties was three, it wounded about 260 individuals. The
attack was planned and carried out by 19-year-old Dzhokhar Tsarnaev and his 26-year-old
brother Tamerlan Tsarnaev using pressure cooker bombs in retaliation for US wars in Muslim
countries. The bombing caught the city of Boston off guard and Tarmelan died later during a
shootout with law enforcement and Dzhokhar was apprehended. Later investigations conducted
by more than 1000 federal, state, and local law enforcement proved that these attackers were not
connected to any terrorist groups (History Editors, 2019). In March 2014, the committee on
Homeland security completed its investigation and recommended that to help strengthen the
government’s counterterrorism efforts centers on continuous sharing of intelligence among
agents at the local, state, and federal levels (House Homeland Security Committee Report, 2015).
Again, the city of Boston also made changes to its emergency management with regards to
incident commands and new response plans for the city in coordinating with other agencies
(Schorow, 2017).
After the Boston marathon incident was the 2015 San Bernadino attack which was
committed by two ISIS inspired terrorist killing 14 people and wounding 2022 others attending a
Christmas party at the Inland Regional Center in San Bernadino California. The attack was
committed by Syed Ridwan Farook and his wife Tashfeen Malik. FBI in their investigation found
out that Malik posted her allegiance to the leader of ISIS however FBI believes they two were
not guided by the terrorist group (ISIS) (Berman, 2016). The initial response of the attack was
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handled by local police but the later collaboration of all agents; local, county, state and federal
law enforcement, fire and emergency medical services helped to calm the situation and saved
more lives which also contributed to eliminating the perpetrators (Braziel et al. 2016).
After the San Bernadino attack was the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting where an
American-born citizen of Afghan descent entered a gay nightclub and shot 49 people dead and
53 injured. This was considered an anti-LGBT hate crime though new evidence suggests
otherwise (Coaston, 2018).
Another home-grown domestic incident fueled by hate for the black race was witnessed
in 2022 where Payton Gendron, an 18-year-old fatally shot ten black people and injured three.
He was charged with domestic terrorism due to the perceived race of his target and the selective
killing of people of color. He later disclosed his motive as preventing the elimination of the white
race (NPR, 2022).
Biblical Worldview and Conclusion
Issues of terrorism are not new to the United States even though the nation was initially
not paying close attention to it. The 9/11 event became a wake-up call for the country due to its
high loss of lives and property. The continuous attack of terrorists both domestically and
internationally against the homeland and its civilians has caused the nation to strategize by
putting counterterrorism measures in place. One can deduce that despite all the efforts by the
government, terrorism is still rampant and continues to change its tactics and dynamics making it
difficult to employ a specific definition and countermeasure for terrorism due to its complex
nature. The Bible says in Proverbs 6: 16-19 that “there are six things the lord hates, seven that
are an abomination to him: haughty eyes, a lying tongue, and hands that shed innocent blood, a
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heart that devises wicked plans, feet that make haste to run to evil, falsehood who breathes out
lies and one who sows discord among brothers”. From this biblical perspective, it can be
understood that devising wicked plans that leads sharing of innocent blood through terrorist acts
are not to be condoned and countries must take a hard stance against these acts. The measures
that the US is already putting to counter such actions must be emulated by other countries to help
fight this evil act.
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