HIEU 390 - Modern Europe
Europe in the modern age encompasses history from the end of the 15th century to the
present. Several of these changes have major political, social, economic and cultural impacts
that define present-day Europe. These are the period of the Renaissance, reformation,
enlightenment, industrial revolution, two World Wars, and the Cold War which ended up with
the forming of the European Union.
#Origins and Spread:
#The period known as the Renaissance which started in Italy in the fourteenth century, is a
transition from the medieval age to the modern world. The term used, “Renaissance” meaning
rebirth, summarizes the period’s emphasis on renewed learning from the antique and a
rediscovery of the possibilities in human beings. This change started in the Italian city-states
such as Florentine, Venice and Rome where the affluent patrons and competitive republics
provided the conditions for art and learning.
#Idols like Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo were some of the people who represented
the Renaissance movement. Drawing from what he prepared as the theory, Leonardo became
one of the most significant artists, scientists, and inventors in history with art masterpieces
such as ‘’Mona Lisa’’ and ‘’The Last Supper’’ that depict perspective and the human figure.
The works of art created by Michelangelo, such as “David”, “And Pietà”, the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel are some of the beneficial art productions of this period and the period was
marked by humanism as art:focuses on the experience as well as the beauty of the
humankind.
#The Renaissance then slowly moved on to other parts of Europe through trade, diplomacy,
and the spreading of ideas. This process was popularized by the German blacksmith Johannes
Gutenberg in the middle part of the fifteenth century and enabled ideas of the Renaissance to
be disseminated throughout Europe. This technological breakthrough helped produce
numerous books, newspapers and pamphlets to make acquirement of classical works, new
scientific findings, as well as applied art forms easily within the reach of the masses.
#Humanism:
#The most characteristic feature of the Renaissance was what is known as the Renaissance
humanism. Humanists, following the ideas of the Greek and Roman cultures, focused on
education and reading books, which can help people understand the problems of the world
and solve them with the help of knowledge. Thus, the inspirers of change were core
educational humanists like Petrarch and Erasmus. Most of all, Petrarch rejuvenated the
collection of lost works of classical Latin literature, and his humanitarian, although at times
exaggerated, themes provided the foundation for new literature and enlightenment. Erasmus
with his new Latin testaments and his satires for instance, the Praise of Folly was stressing
the need for scholarship in matters of religion and ethics.
#Education too was affected by humanism, hence the curriculum that embraced rhetoric,
grammar, history, and moral philosophy among others. This educational reform also aimed at
developing the versatility of the person able to think and express him/herself; this reformation
predetermined the future character of European intellectual development for centuries.
Art and Science:
#Many great arts characterized the Renaissance period. One of the artist's practices was linear
perspective which made the works have depth and look more real. This change is well
illustrated in works of art such as those by Sandro Botticelli and Raphael where the
compositional elements display a new regard for human proportions as well as spatial
orientation.
Reformation (16th Century)
#Martin Luther:
The Reformation which was a religious and political movement of the 16th century was
begun by Martin Luther, the German monk and a theologian. Protestant Reformation began in
Germany in 1517 with the protest that Martin Luther hammered ninety-five theses on the
door of the Wittenberg Castle Church. Its theses criticized the acts of the Catholic Church
especially the selling of indulgences as what he saw as a distortion of what it means to be a
Christian.
#Luther’s ideas were motivated by this assumed notion of the impossibility of obtaining
salvation by purchasing it or working for it but it would be well earned through grace
achieved in faith. This idea undermined the Catholic Church’s doctrines and the Pope’s
decisions, which in turn contributed to the movement that called the Church’s intervention
into spiritual and secular issues into question.
#Major Figures:
#Therefore, there is not a single strain of Reformation that involved only one guy or one
church, it was dispersed and complex. Later in the same period, another man named John
Calvin, from France, through his “Institutes of the Christian Religion” gave a major input to
Protestant theology, particularly on the subject of Predestination and sovereignty of God,
which formed the basis of Reformed Churches, now Presbyterian.
#The Reformation in England was not quite as clear-cut as in other countries, mainly because
of King Henry VIII. English Reformation began as a political process more than a theological
reforming although Henry VIII wanted to have his marriage with Catherine of Aragon
annulled. The outcome was the separation from the Roman Catholic Church and the
establishment of the Church of England which was supremely headed by the monarch.
#Impact:
#Says Charlotte Merton, ‘The Reformation had sweeping and extensive impacts throughout
Europe. ’ It resulted in the schism of the Roman Catholic Church and the formation of
different protestant branches such as Lutherans, Calvinists and Anglicans. The result of this
religious disintegration was a change of a series of religious crises and wars, for instance, the
thirty-year war (1618-1648) that highly affected much of Europe and brought about religious
as well as political strife.
#The social and political impacts of the Reformation were also worthy of attention. It
threatened the supremacy of the Pope as well as the Catholic clergy, this saw the emergence
of state churches or monarchial authority. Such a shift in religious authority also helped in the
emergence of modern nation-states and the forging down of feudal states.
#But, the Reformation led to the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation which was an attempt
by the Roman Catholic Church to respond to the criticisms of the reformers and showcase the
theological stances of the Catholic church side. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) was the
key to this process and led to through renewals within the Church as well as the foundation of
new religious orders, the main of them being the Jesuits who took active part in the Catholic
revival process.
Age of Enlightenment or the 17th and 18th centuries.
#Intellectual Movement
#Philosophers:
#The period referred to as the Age of Enlightenment was from the 17th century up to the 18th
century and was important regarding changes in the people’s outlook, the thought of which
was much based on reason and individualism along with the emerging subjects with regards
to authorities that were conventional. Preceding it was the Enlightenment which was driven
by philosophers some of whom were; Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Locke
rudimentarily and Montesquieu as they eyed to effect change on the current _ vogue thinking.
#Voltaire was a romantic author of the Enlightenment, satirist and anti-clericalist who targeted
the catholic church and French monarchy; he advocated for liberty, equality and fraternity.
Voltaire was an excellent satirist, ‘Candide’ was a satire on the fundamentals and evils of the
religious order but The Enlightenment gave the foundations of rationality and fairness. In
total Voltaire’s view on tolerance and against tyranny influenced the principles of the
Enlightenment as well as later revolutions.
#While in Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasis is put on the emotions and the conception of the
construction of the human beings. Speaking of sovereignty Rousseau in his ‘The Social
Contract’ thought that sovereignty emanated from the consent of the people for the common
good of the society. He had ideas on popular sovereignty and direct democracy that shaped
the progressive form of today’s politics and French Revolution leaders.
#Romantic political philosophers including John Locke who is decorated as the father of
liberalism have immensely written in political philosophy through his two books namely
“Two Treatises of Government” and “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. ” To
Locke’s thinking, governments arose out of the society with the sole aim of protecting such
rights and the society likewise has the right to remove such a government which has failed in
the rightful duties required of it. Some of His ideas, which form the basis of what can be
described as a modern democracy, are so evident in the hegemonic fashioning of the political
systems of America and France.
#He was a French lawyer, Philosopher and Political thinker of the 18th century who held the
name of ‘’ Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu ‘’ How
Montesquieu categorized the forms of government and addressed the matter of distribution of
the powers of government in his work “The Spirit of the Laws” to prevent domination and
attain liberty. This form of democracy was commonly considered and implemented by the
people who were framing the constitution of the United States of America and it remains one
of the paramount divides between a democracy and other similar systems of governance.
Scientific Revolution:
#It was also in a certain connection with the Scientific Revolution which might be
characterized by such outstanding milestones that sum up the experience and approaches used
in the field of science. personalities such as Isaac Newton and Galileo Galilei played
significant roles in altering the way of perceiving the conventional globe and in establishing
the formation of social science.
#It aided, or more specifically, Galileo in utilizing the telescope and this enabled him to
observe the celestial objects which helped him support the heliocentric view which did not
entertain the geocentric view which outlined that the earth was in the center of the universe.
Held the heliocentric opinion where the Sun was at the center he had issues with the Catholic
Church but he changed the face of astronomy and natural philosophy.
#Their most significant work in the area of physics and mathematics, The Laws of Motion and
the Law of universal gravitation formulated by Isaac Newton, is based on the theories of his
predecessors. Mr. Newton’s “Principia Mathematica” was a book that proved that physical
forces that may affect bodies on the Earth could also be applied to celestial objects. Being
new to Calculus and Optics, he was able to share new possibilities for scientific exploration
of the given facts and rational demonstration of the truth based on experience and rationale,
respectively.
#The approach of the Scientific Revolution followed observation, experiment and a rational
account of the advances that occurred at the same time with the mentality of the
Enlightenment that encouraged skepticism against the statements and systems in place.
#Social and Political Change
#Political Philosophy:
#This type of philosophy revolutionized through naturalism and rationalism of Enlightenment
in terms of democracy, human rights and form of government. Most evident in these
sociopolitical arrangements was the Enlightenment ideal of rationality instantiated into
systems regarding society and government to effect justice, liberty, and equality.
#One of the important Enlightenment philosophers was John Locke, who stated that, there
were certain rights about individuals that could not be breached. Locke’s Second Treatise of
Government published in 1689 blossomed for remaining that the government intends to
protect these rights, and any government that fails to protect these rights does not have the
right to govern. While the mere fact that everyone must govern by consent and the people
must violently overthrow tyrannical rulers was revolutionary since they deprived the
monarchy of the divine right to rule, this was an early fight for freedom that was not very
well organized.
#These thoughts were passed on by Rousseau who presented what is known as the social
contract in his political piece of work; he said politics are valid because the people covenant
and establish a government to exercise it on their behalf through what is referred to as the
general will. Another area is Rousseau’s analyses of the sovereignty of the people that
progress to self-government his ideas on participation also placed him under reformative
democratic movements as well as frameworks of Republicanism.
#Other philosophical principle provided by Montesquieu for the governance of the state were;
the separation of powers which presented how all these can be done practically. According to
the part played by Montesquieu, by dividing the powers in the government it was impossible
to have one power that would exercise control over all the powers and hence people’s
freedom would not be violated. It was a crucial component in developing the constitutions of
the modern democracies with America’s constitution not left out.
#Economic Thought:
#Another aspect was also a revolution of economic thinking in the Enlightenment since
capitalist ideas and anti-mercantilism thoughts were also advanced. Commercialism was the
major characteristic economic idea of that age, which was tied to state regulation of
commerce and the getting of wealth through the balance of trade. The Enlightenment
economic thoughts categorized some of the concepts by replacing them with a free market
economy and economic liberalism.
#Another great Scottish writer also recognized as the pioneer of economic thought is Adam
Smith. Accordingly, when writing his “The Wealth of Nations,” Smith noted that those who
seek nothing but personal gain will help the public and increase the nation’s riches through
market freedom. In his publication, he introduced the theory of ‘The invisible hand’ whereby
he made a stand that the market is auto-regulatory and any interference from the government
is counter-productive.
#His theory can be associated with the four basic axioms of Classical Economics that led to
the formation of capitalist societies. He condemned mercantilist policies observing that they
were always constricting on the potential of the economy and the motion of inventions.
Hence, he initially fought for competition, division of labor and specialization and thus
advocated higher efficiency and as a consequence a subsequent rise in the standard of living
on behalf of Adam Smith.
#Other Enlightenment economists who contributed to the growth of these theories include
David Hume and Quesnay François. Unlike all other mercantilist writers, Hume did not
approve of the accumulation of gold and silver as the true measure of a nation’s wealth but
instead put forward the standards where men’s production and the well-being of the
population were considered. Quesnay being one of the legendary Physiocrats ensured that he
backed the propositions of agriculture being the beginning and end of all wealth, as well as
the fact that the actions in the economy should orbit around developing agriculture.
#The promised subject of this work is the historical semantics of these economic theories that
originate from the Enlightenment concepts of rationality, self-identity, and evidence of the
new approaches that underpinned the formation of modern economic traditions and served as
the catalyst for the Renaissance of Capitalism.
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars span through the late 18th century and the
19th century.
#Causes:
#The French Revolution is one of the most important events in European history. It has many
causes of a social, economic and intellectual nature. The caste society that prevailed in France
by the end of the eighteenth century may be largely described as one with a highly polarized
structure. The Ancien Régime was a pre-revolutionary French social and political system that
divided people into three classes called the Estates, The Clergy (First Estate) and the nobility
(Second Estate) were exempted from many taxes while the majority, the Third Estate was
heavily taxed.
#Besides, economic hardship magnified these social conflicts. From the costly luxurious wars
such as those involving the American Revolution, France was spiraling into a major financial
crisis. Presidential initiatives for heaps of borrowings, followed by debts, poorer harvests and
expensive bread cranked up lots of discontent in society.
#Reason and other ideas of the Enlightenment period also helped fan revolution feelings. The
French philosophers of the Enlightenment like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu were the
critics of the existing society and the absolute monarchy stressing on reason, equality, and the
rights of people. Many who belonged to the Third Estate were spurred by their ideas and
started to doubt the establishment of the ruling nobles asking for political and social change.
#Key Events:
#French Revolution began in the year 1789 when the Estates-General convened; it was a
general assembly of the three estates of France. However, the Third Estate complained of no
political voice as well as no political representation; therefore, it seceded from the Estates
General and became the National Assembly heralding the beginning of the revolution.
#Probably the most memorable event of the revolution was the taking of the Bastille on the
14th of July in 1789. The Bastille was a medieval prison and a fortress that represented
monarchic oppression; capturing this symbolizing site illustrated the people’s right to
rebellion.
#Thus, the National Assembly continued the major legislative activities using which the
feudal privileges were abolished, and the Rights of Man and the Citizen were solemnly
declared, according to which all men are equal and the sovereignty belongs to the people.
However, the Revolution did not last long and later began to radicalize, which created
factions and turned to armed confrontation.
#Period of the Reign of Terror was controlled by radical Jacobins with Maximilien
Robespierre in 1793 and 1794 and in this period, hundreds of political rivals were executed.
Terror courts were created to hunt alleged foes of the Revolution leading to the genocide of
thousands of people for which King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed.
#In the French Revolution, a young military officer Napoleon Bonaparte emerged out of the
struggle. He forged his reputation on successful campaigns in Italy and Egypt based on
military strategies. Napoleon then staged a coup d’état in 1799 which led the overthrow of the
Directory and the establishment of the Consulate of which Napoleon was the First Consul and
therefore signifying the end of the French Revolution.
Napoleonic period is the period from 1799 to 1815 with Napoleon Bonaparte reigning
from 1804 to 1814.
%Napoleon’s Reforms:
#During his reign, as the First Consul and later the Emperor of France, Napoleon managed to
introduce many reforms that changed the face of French society and its governmental
structures. Many of his contributions are still felt to this very day; They include the
Napoleonic code, civil laws that set down the code of laws for France. The code got rid of
feudal rights, made everyone equal before the law and protected property rights. This social
institution’s principles impacted legal structures in Europe and other regions.
#He also launched profound administrative and educational revolutionary changes in France.
He made the structure of the state authority more centralized; controlled the territory with
prefects and made the procedure of taxation and public administration more uniform. As for
education, Napoleon set up a centralized system of education to form public schools-lycées-
to produce the future bureaucrats and military officers, competency was given emphasis.
#Napoleonic Wars:
#The need for tribute and territorial expansion ignited a series of wars between Napoleon’s
France and Europe from 1803 to 1815 known as the Napoleonic Wars. These wars were
fought by almost all great powers of Europe and dramatically shifted the balance of the
continent’s politics. Napoleon’s main force known as the Grande Armée was also able to
capture many battles, increase the French territory and place allied and puppet governments
in the European region.
#Some of the main field marshall battles included the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, where
Napoleon overwhelmed the Russians and Austrians. But at the same time, his foreign policy
activity caused numerous uprisings and the formation of coalitions against France.
#Fall of Napoleon:
#Napoleon triumphed at the beginning of his rule, but his loss-making venture was in Russia
in 1812. The outcome of the campaign was a complete disaster: the French army perished due
to cold, starvation, lack of supplies and equipment, and a grim Russian army.
#This defeat made new allies for his enemies and the formation of the sixth coalition that
consisted of Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden. Thus in 1814 the coalition forces
crossed the border into France and took Paris and Napoleon gave up and was exiled to the
island of Elba.
#However, Napoleon’s return to power during the so-called Hundred Days in 1815 ended in
his final surrender at the Battle of Waterloo. The army commanded by the British Duke of
Wellington, and Prussian general Blücher’s forces beat Napoleon decisively to bring his reign
to an end. Bonaparte was sent to the island of Saint Helena in the southern Atlantic Ocean as
a place of permanent exile.
#Congress of Vienna:
Because of Napoleon’s defeat in the battle the powers sat a Congress of Vienna in Vienna in
the year 1814-1815 with an aim of balancing political powers in Europe. Congress was led by
Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich motivated by regaining the balance in Europe and
prevent the arising of the new power that can act like Napoleon’s France.
#The fact is that among the basics of history, the Congress of Vienna is considered one of the
key events that established the new map of Europe by restoring the monarchies and territories
that were taken over by Napoleon. First, it was the principle of legitimacy that was used as
the guideline in the restoration of traditional dynasties while second; there were new political
orders that sought to ensure that there was a balance of power in the region and therefore
there was no room for conflict.
#These decisions in the Congress of Vienna radically changed the European political map for
many consequent years and created the conservative system that operated against revolutions.
This conservative reaction would in the long run be threatened by nationalism and liberalism
that kicked off in the 19th century.
The nineteenth century is characterized by industrialization and nationalism.
#Industrial Revolution (Late 18th century to 19th century)
#Technological Advances:
#The most famous revolution in history, which started from the later period of the eighteenth
century till the nineteen century is defined as the Industrial Revolution. One of the
revolutionary inventions was the steam engine which was by James Watt. The steam engine
introduced the prospect of a power that was more stable as compared to the water wheels or
manual labor. It was dominant in changing various fields, especially transport and production.
#The next major modification of the industrial structure was the appearance of railways.
Transportation through rail ensured the timely transportation of products and people from one
market to another raw materials to manufacturing centers and the products to markets. From
this beginning, largely credited to George Stephenson and his construction of the locomotive
and opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 the railway age had started and
began to grow quickly across Europe and North America.
Economic and Social Changes:
#In conclusion, one may observe that the Industrial Revolution led to active transformations
in the spheres of economy and social life. This was perhaps the most pervasive, that is having
gone through dramatic changes in the context of the analyzed period. This spearheaded the
human resource in the form of employment of many people, especially the illiterate from the
rural areas hence the birth of the cities. Many of the cities in the United Kingdom; like
Manchester, Birmingham and Liverpool experienced high population growth and transformed
from small towns to growing and industrial cities.
#Correct, independent of this it is vital to point out key transformations due to industrial
capitalism's emergence concerning the economic formation of modernity. The wholesalers
and capitalists who staked money on factories and machines came out with more power in the
economic market. The factory system altered the Structure of dependence simplifying it such
that people were either specialized in certain activities during the production process. This
specialization increased the production rates but as well turn the workers’ tasks monotonous.
#For the severity and depth of the changes which occurred at the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution, it is possible to discuss the social effects of this process. This exposed the
workers through harassment in the fight for appropriate wages, working hours and better
wages that apart from producing exhausted working hours also directed the workers to be
exposed to hazardous working conditions of the factories. The society that was portrayed in
the novel was cruel especially through the employment of children which compelled the
young to work in risky and unsafe environments and earn little amount of wages. The lack of
labor laws was an indication that the workers had no way of combating the employers’ unfair
treatment.
#Social Impacts:
#Adverse working experiences and unfair treatment in society bring about labor unions’
agitation for change. Employment benefited from the formation of trade unions as they
demanded for fare wages, reduced working hours and favorable terms of work. Some of the
demonstrated activities that led to the emergence of the labor movement include the
formation of trade unions and the carrying out of strikes. Laissez-faire capitalists like the
assembly-line pioneers, including Robert Owen, who is also a social reformer, introduced
humane treatment of the workers and wanted to create socialistic experiments in the worker
communities that were based on acts of cooperation.
#And it also regressed the legislation for civil change. Capitalism from its infancy in the
nineteenth century was a system of vigorous Factory Acts in the United Kingdom in matters
relating to working conditions for children further working hours and basic standards of
safety and hygiene. Observed changes were due to the rising awareness of the social
consequences of the Industrial Revolution and people’s moral imperative to the vulnerable
segments in society.
#Therefore, this upheaval touched different aspects of people’s lives, including cultural and
intellectual aspects. Thus, it helped in generating awareness in various fields of innovations,
science and technology thus improving them. In turn there were implications for
consumerism as well as the creation of the middle-class income earners from the production
and access to such goods in large quantities. A new learning or perception of industrial
capitalist society emerged in the period: new social/political philosophies such as
socialism/communism were formulated.
Nationalism and Unification
#Unification Movements:
#Thus, as the special feature of the 19th century, nationalism was recognized – a multifaceted
process that called for the unification of one state of people with a similar language, cultural
background, and past. This is in particular focusing on the fascist movement which had such
a powerful effect on political structures, in particular in Italy and Germany.
#Some people demanded the unification of Italy and he was helped by Giuseppe Garibaldi
and there was this man called Count Camillo Di Cavour. A well-known general Garibaldi led
the Redshirts in many campaigns designed to expel foreign rulers from the souther Italia. His
works before the unification of Italy include the capture of the kingdom of the two sici
originally part of two different states ranging from the conquest of the kingdom of the two
Sicilies.
#Thus, the dynamics of unification continued and were deepened; it was Cavour, the Prime
Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, who worked both diplomatically and war-wise. He
aligned himself with other big powers of Europe such as France and launched wars that
lessened the grip of Austria on states in Italy. Through the development of these efforts, it led
to the process of forming the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 with Victor Emmanuel II as its initial
king. The process of unification was finalized in 1870 by the capture of Rome to be declared
as the new capital of Italy.
#In Germany, the objectives of unification were achieved by Otto Von Bismarck, who was a
Prussian Chancellor. As a result, the diplomacy of Bismarck was Realpolitik bureau, and he
was not involved with matters of ideology. He also began a series of wars as the instrument in
the process of unification. Danish War of 1864 in which Germany won particularly Prussia
liberated itself from Denmark and the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 in which again Prussia
defeated Austria and pushed Austria out of German affairs. Cultural nationalism received a
fillip with the commencement of the Franco - Prussian war in 1870/71, After the formation of
the German empire in 1871 with William I of Prussia as German emperor. The continuation
of his initiatives served him well and established a huge German nation out of a club of petty
states.
#Nationalism:
#Of course nationalism was not only reserved to Italy and Germany, in fact nationalism was
on the rise all over Europe. Therefore, nationalism was in one way or another a consequence
of several cultural, political and economic undertakings. It built the nationality identity on
linguistics, history and culture and against the existing multiple ethnic empires and the
nationality that was supported for autonomy.
#The peoples that strived for decentralization and the recognition of individuals within the
Austro-Hungarian Empire were the Hungarians, the Czechs and the Poles among others.
Hungarian nationalist movement was led by some of the key personalities of the Hungarian
nation including Lajos Kossuth, hence coming up with the Hungarian Revolution of 1848
which was aimed at liberating Hungary from the dominance of the Austrians. Thus, we can
identify that even though revolution is claimed to have been suppressed; the overall tendency
towards nationalism is shown.
#Similar to Balkan nationalism, Serbs, Greeks, and Bulgarians showed nationalist movements
to liberate their territories and unite with the Ottoman Empire. The War of Greek Revolution
against the Ottoman Empire in 1821-1829 was relatively more victorious and led to the
formation of an Independent Greek State that also provoked other nationalist formations in
the region.
#Nationalism was also intensified due to the development of the process of writing culture
and the distribution of literature, newspapers, and pamphlets for the reinforcement of
nationalism. Furthermore, concepts of Romanticism – an anti-Enlightenment philosophical
movement that was focused on the value of national history, and ethnic and historical identity
also created the nationalists.
#Hence, nationalism provoked major political effects including new demarcation of territory
and creation of new states. This factor was very crucial in that it prompted a change of the
political map of Europe by removing multi-ethnic empires and the creation of new nations.
Nevertheless, nationalism also had a negative side as it promoted enmity to other nations,
antisocial and ethnic and national prejudice.
The first half of the century ensured the global entanglement in two world wars in between
year 1919 and 1939.
#The Great War which can be also referred to as the First World War (1914-1918)
#Causes:
The First World War usually referred to as the World War or the Great War For a number of
reasons including Militarism the system of alliances imperialism and nationalism.
Militarism in the form of the arms race and the celebration of military strength made the
major European powers rather stand on their guard. Germany, Britain, and France had
particularly invested in their military because they expected that war would be an effective
tool for regulating conflicts and expressing dominance.
#The web of the relationship also serves an important role in the unsuccessful structure of
relations as well. France was among the Triple Entente partners while on the other side, there
was a Triple Alliance made of Germany, Austria- Hungary and Italy. It premised on these
affiliations to offer security but fostered a scenario in which a conflict that involved one
power could easily pull the others into war.
#Another significant reason for the intensification of conflict was Imperialism which saw
European countries fighting for colonies and raw materials all over the globe. This
competition resulted in the fighting for markets especially in territories far away, Much as
this was the case, it worsened the relations back in Europe. Nationalism where people held
the opinion that their nation was superior to those of other nations and wanted their nation to
be independent prompted various imperialism and expansionism policies and territorial
annexation which was identified in Balkans regions where Slav nationalism was regarded as
a thorn in the side of the Austro-Hungarian empire.
#The origin of the war can be attributed to; the event that led directly to the war when
Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was fatally shot by a Serbian nationalist from
the territory of the south Slav provinces in Bosnia and Herzegovina on June 28, 1914. These
acts of aggression triggered one reaction after another, ultimatums, calls to mobilize,
declarations of war, and everything resulted in a full-scale war.
Major Events:
Being a peculiar kind of warfare in the period of World War I, trench warfare meant that the
two sides were entrenched and engaged in intense, though slow fighting. Some of the
gruelling and protracted battles of the entire war were fought on the western front from the
North Sea to the Swiss frontier.
#Other major battles include the one at Tannenberg in the east in which German forces
inflicted a crushing defeat on the Russians, known as the Battle, The Allies attempted to open
the Dardanelles to shipping for help to Russia, during the campaign of Gallipoli Peninsula.
#The war also began the use of what could be termed as modern warfare implements
including; tanks, machine guns, poison gases, and aircraft.
#Consequences:
#The war was concluded with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 which spelt out severe penalties
and reparations on Germany. signed to avoid future wars further precipitated hatred and
economic doom in Germany thus the rise of extremism.
The economic as well as political instabilities were evident everywhere in the Europe. In
many countries the situation was observed with a very large debt figure, increased inflation
and social unrest. By the Bolshevik Revolution the old Russian Empire collapsed and the
Soviet Union took over. The politicians of the Austro Hungarian and Ottoman Empires
disbanded and the states and territorial divisions of Europe as well as the Middle East were
redrawn.
Societal implication following the war which is the loss of a youthful demographic,
disability and mental issues that befell the remaining male population. Interwar Period
#Economic Depression:
The interwar period was with several forms of economic difficulties among which the biggest
was the great depression of the 1930s. The great depression initiated in the United States in
1929 leading to stock market crash followed it and the other parts of the world were also
affected by this calamity; the unemployment level was very high and the majority of the
banks were shut and considerably there was decline in industrial production. These economic
difficulties led to the aggravation of social and tightening of political crisis in many states.
#In Europe the economic depression was severe bearing its worst impacts especially in
Germany where hyperinflation in the early improvement 1920s had already affected the
economy. The crisis resulted in the further aggravation of economic problems, which also
affected many countries and brought severe poverty and discontent. This aspect of the global
economic system had birthed extremism in political parties as well as dictatorial regimes.
#Rise of Totalitarian Regimes:
#In several countries of the interwar period, instability of the economic and political
environment paved the way for the establishment of totalitarianism. Mussolini and the Fascist
Party in Italy seized power in 1922 with the prospect of building up national pride and
economic stability. appealed for suppressing political opponents and encouraging nationalism
and thus Mussolini took power of a dictatorship.
#In Germany Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party seized the opportunity in the field of economic
problems and nationalism. Adolf Hitler, with his speech and propaganda skills, rallied many
people to get to his side, and hence was made the Chancellor in 1933. The Nazis established a
totalitarian and fascist rule of Germany within a short time, thereby bringing almost full
control of the state and civil life, territorial annexation, and anti-Semitic campaigns against
Jews and other minorities.
#Japan also witnessed the nature and level of militarism increasing during this period.
Extremely high inflation rates, stagnant economy, and political instabilities contributed to
heightened military interjections in the governments of these countries. Policies demanding
the acquisition of(resources and territories) by Japan that they put into operation led them to
invade Manchuria 1931and further involve the Asia continent thus laid the ground work for
the world war against the colonial powers.
Second World War (1939 – 1945).
%Causes:
World War II was the consequence of numerous interacting factors such as expansionist
policies, the shortcomings of the Treaty of Versailles as well as the problem of economic
instability. The expansionist policies of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan were
the primary causes to worsen the situation for the outbreak of the war.
#Germany had been left completely humiliated and economically naked after the Treaty of
Versailles had been signed, a situation that ensured that many people in the country harbored
resentment as well as a desire for vengeance. In the later periods of the treaty, Hitler’s foreign
policies envisaged the reversal of the terms of the treaty itself and forming a “greater
Germany. ” This was through the remilitarization of the Rhineland, Anschluss with Austria
and the invasion of Czechoslovakia.
#Appeasement policies that Britain and France followed in which they intended to give in to
some of the demands of Hitler merely served to encourage the Nazi regime. In the same way,
Italy and Japan acted invasive, and strived to establish colonies in Africa and Asia
correspondingly.
#Major Events:
#World War II was started on the 1st of September, 1939, with the invasion of Germany to
Poland and thus Britain and France declared war against Germany. This conflict soon became
a trans-European and subsequently a world war, before ending years later.
#Other atrocious battles and occurrences of the war were the Stalingrad campaign (August
1942-February 1943) known to be the Eastern Front, the Germans were penned at Stalingrad,
and the Soviet Union victorious using a circle movement that rendered the German 6th Army
futile. D-Day is considered as the first step to liberate Western Europe from the fascists where
the allied forces on June 6, 1944 launched a large-scale amphibious assault on Northern
France’s Normandy Coast.
#The holocaust the worst part of the war saw the killing of six million Jews and millions of
others such as Roma, people with disabilities, political opponents and others who were
deemed to be of no value by the signatories of that dreadful genocide.
#Consequences:
World second war ended with Germany’s surrender in May 1945 and Japan in September
1945 following the detonation of the atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. After the war
was concluded the Allied powers moved into Germany and Japan, with the aim of
demilitarization and democratisation.
It is thus agreeable to remark that after the second world war in the year 1945 the formation
of United nations was one of the greatest attempt to ensure world peace. The United Nations
aimed at discussion of the problems and cooperation in establishment of world peace;
however, the United States and the Soviet Union become the most important opponents in
world politics.
#Due to the war losses, there was great reconstruction especially through the Marshall Plan
where all damaged communities got economic help to rebuild their war-affected economies
and the fight against communism.
The timeframe of the Cold War can be considered as starting from the year 1945, which was
when World War II ended and until 1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed.
#Division of Europe
#Iron Curtain:
#Hence, the Second World War that was concluded in 1945 marked the onset of the Cold War
which took place from 1945 to 1991. This was part of what was known as the ‘Iron Curtain’
During the Fulton, Missouri speech in 1946, Churchill used the term ‘Iron Curtain’ to mean
the line that separated Europe into two with half being owned by the Soviets and the other
half by the Americans and NATO.
#The Soviet Union after the Second World War strived to spread communist totalitarian
regimes in the nations of Europe’s eastern part including Poland and East Germany;
Czechoslovakia and Hungary; Romania and Bulgaria. These nations were strongly connected
with the Soviet Union forces with political oppression and economic, and violent pressure.
Joining of these Eastern European countries to the Warsaw Pact in 1955 for the collective
defense through mutual assistance added to the division.
#On the other hand American influence formally Western Europe was more real through
programs such as the Marshall Plan that saw the United States being the major economic
partner extending much-needed support for the reconstruction of affected economies and
more importantly, extending aid to ensure Europe was not captivated by the attraction that
communism had towards it. NATO was incepted formally in 1949 initially as a military
alliance between the United States of America Canada and some of the Western European
countries to ensure the security of the group against the perceived threat of the Soviet Union.
Key Conflicts:
#Cold War was defined by certain main wars that reflected the existing confrontational
ideological and military confrontation between the two worlds: as is well known, social
culture is divided into two parts – eastern and western. These conflicts assumed the fashion of
an ideology war wherein the superpowers were backing two contrary factions but no shooting
war.
#Thus, it can be stated that the Korean War that began in June 1950 until the summer of 1953
should be regarded as one of the initial large-scale conventional wars of the Cold War era.
Korea was partitioned at the 38 parallel at the end of the Second World War and the Northern
part was backed up by the Soviet Union and on the other hand South Korea was backed up by
the American force occupation. In the year 1950 invasion by the North Korean forces with
help from the Soviets happened in the south of the country. The United States along with
other nations under the umbrella of the United Nations invaded to support South Korea. The
war stopped under an armistice In 1953 and Korea has remained divided and armed up to this
date.
#Of course, the situation in Cuba in October 1962 should not be regarded as a war in the
sphere of the Cold War, but still, it was a conflict that was something near to the Nuclear War.
The crisis started when American surveillance found out that the Soviets had placed the
missiles in Cuba, just ninety miles away from America. After certain days of various
negotiations and after the United States had enclosed Cuba with the naval fleet, the Soviet
Union agreed to dismantle the missiles after this certain preconditions were followed by a
decree that the United States of America would not invade Cuba again and on the other hand
a secret deal to remove similar missiles in Turkey.
#The other war was the Vietnam War, which stretched from 1955-1975; like the earlier war,
this war also had advocacies of communism and capitalism during the cold war
demonstrations. Vietnam War was initiated when the American side – the southern part of
Vietnam – fought against the communistic northern part of Vietnam backed by the Soviet
Union and China. After a long time of conflict and losing important forces and money, the US
could not avoid an appropriation of communists to power South Vietnam; It also reconsidered
the value and determination in the foreign policies of America as well as its role in the Cold
War.
#European Integration
#European Communities:
#This notion was meant to economically and politically assimilate his fellows in Western
Europe in mid of the Cold War to create security. This effort began with the establishment of
the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, aimed at integrating the coal and
steel industries of six founding countries: Out of the four countries three of them are
members of the European Union that are Belgium, France, Germany Italy, Luxemburg and
Netherlands. Hence, the ECSC was created and the memories of the terrible effect of the war
in the past and the need to avoid any possibilities of war in the future among the members of
the economically less profitable became the basic idea of such a community.
#Following the success of the ECSC , further two Communities were formed through The
Treaty of Rome in 1957 which includes the European Economic Community (EEC), and the
European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). The EEC was set with the task of adopting
the policies that contributed to the realization of a common market, customs union, and
freeware movement of products, capital and people within the contextual states. The first six
members of the ECSC also enlarged, more countries joined the EEC and as the matter of
economic cooperation evolved.
#The general system of the EC or the European Communities as they were known after the
end of the seventies paved the way for a Western Europe that was much more integrated and
richer. These integration processes were concerned with the formation of a positive type of
peace, the strengthening the Europe’s economic status and the increase in European buying
power internationally.
#Treaties:
#The process of integration in Europe moved to the next level with the formation of the
European Union in 1993 when the Maastricht treaty that was signed in 1992 was adopted.
Preceding the signing of this treaty, formed the basis of possibly the European Union (EU),
which further developed the EEC into a political and economic union that was more
improved. The ones that can be linked to the new ‘pillars,’ which were unlike the previous
'three pillars of the European Union that stemmed out of the signing of the Maastricht Treaty’
are foreign, security, justice; also offering ground for the advancement of the Economic and
Monetary Union and take-up of the European currency – the euro.
#The Maastricht Treaty outlined three pillars of the EU: The three policies are; the ecological
economic and social policy of the European Communities, the Common Foreign and Security
Police (CFSP) and the third Pillar of Legal and Home Affairs (JHA). These pillars called for
deeper and denser integration than previous ones which applied only to the official
correlating to the economic cooperation and, the political and security counterparts were
included.
#During and after the process of monetary union that started in 1999 where the majority of the
countries adopted the euro as their single currency there is the physical euro that started
circulation in 2002. This was made possible by the application of the euro which always
helped to enable a degree of economic relation and coordination by eradicating barriers such
as Exchange Rate Fluctuations and also helped in decreasing the cost of transactions in the
regions that had operation of the euro.
#The Treaty of Amendment also includes several other treaties that equally broadened the type
and authority of the EU; these incorporate the Treaty of Amsterdam of the year 1997; the
Treaty of Nice of the year 2001; and of course the most recent Treaty of Lisbon of the year
2007. These threats were to build the EU as an organization, improve the exercise of
democracy within the union as well as rectify phenomena characteristic of today’s dynamic
world.
Post Cold War Europe or New Europe or simply Europe of the contemporary historical
period in 1991 onwards.
#Post-Cold War Developments
#End of the Soviet Union:Cohesive Entity:
#The dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 was one of the historic events not
only in Europe but Globally. The year 1991 was the end of the Cold War that stretched to
almost five decades or till the end of the Second World War. Previously there were 15 new
independent states among them Russia, Ukraine, and the three Baltic states of Estonia,
Latvia, and Lithuania that emerged from the former Soviet Union in the year 1991, thereby
altering European geography.
#The break up of the Soviet Union adds the change of the political and economic system in
Europe. Hence, the Central and Eastern European nations that were dominated by the USSR
were in the course of transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy and
switching from the rule of communism's one-party system to democracy. Indeed, this period
of change was marked by riots of different categories including; Economic riots, Political
riots, and social riots. But at the same time, it also offered or pointed to new possibilities for
the receipt of integration into the European and global society.
EU Expansion:
#Features of the post-war global development were the formation of the
organizations/evolution of the European Union; After World War II, the Union was restored
to organize cooperation in the economic sphere and avoid conflicts, However, the process of
the enlargement occurred after the Cold War. The process of enlargement of the EU was
mainly intended to involve many of the countries of the erstwhile Eastern Bloc into the union
to stabilize people’s economic relations, and political cooperation; in other words, to bring
stability to Europe all over.
#As a result of the EU residency, ten countries including Poland, Hungary, the Czech
Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, and Cyprus joined the Union
in the year 2004 as the only expansion to the EU. It to has pointed an attempt at a certain
unity in Europe in the post-Cold War polarity of the East and the West. These countries
brought more dynamism in the way of culture as well as in the political aspect in the structure
of the EU however it also strengthened the united bargaining of the union through political
and economic carrot and stick club with the world.
#Further enlargements happened when Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007 and Croatia
joined only in 2013. Enlargement practice has made it possible for the EU not only to expand
the measurement of space but also to expand effectivity for the application of democracy, and
human rights together with economic growth into new states of the union. Political and
economic reforms occurred in the candidate countries to ensure EU memberships therefore
creating stability and improvement of the economic scenes in the area.
#Recent Challenges
#Economic Crises:
#Nevertheless, the process of EU expansion is skillfully performed and contemporary Europe
met several crucial economic challenges. Thus, the analysis of the economic indicators of
European countries and the economy shrank, the Eurozone for the year 2008 became a
critical turning point in the development of Europe’s economic system and it revealed
structural flaws due to the global financial crisis which brought the collapse of many
European companies. This in turn has ensured that several EU countries have high levels of
public debts, banking sector risk and slow growth rates.
#It is suggested that the Eurozone crisis emerged and unfolded in 2009 especially targeting
countries including; Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and Cyprus. These nations had a big
discrepancy in their budget defectors and required funds from other countries like the IMF
and ECB. Less than a decade after several bailout conditions, new social upheavals, political
crises and even discussions on the Eurozone’s advancement emerged.
#Firstly, the crucial unbalancing factor in the context of the EU was Brexit or Britain leaving
the European Union. Individuals in Britain voted in a referendum to leave the EU in 2016
largely regarding sovereignty, immigration, and control of the economy through what most
considered a closely split vote. The subsequent proceeding of turning negotiations into a
further process swarmed with controversies and eventually culminated in Brexit on January
31, 2020. It affected the UK and the EU in such a politically socially, and economically
because the election affected traveling, and business between the UK and other EU countries,
Trade, and Politics.
#Political and Social Issues:
#Nevertheless, along with the problems of an economic type, different political and social
issues have occurred in modern Europe. Thus, there was a visible increase in the activities of
populist movements and parties in the recent political circumstances in the continent. Thus,
the self-proclaimed aliens have received the votes based on citizens’ concerns about
globalization, immigration, and threats to a nation’s sovereignty. Any such movements are
political especially being rebellious activities that push for more nationalism and
protectionism to be adopted.
#Thus, there is nothing more interesting and sometimes more debatable topic than migration
in Europe. The arrival of refugees and immigrants especially when the number reached
Europe in 2015-2016 triggered competition for resources for the sustenance of the refugees,
and the debate on immigration politics and security, and integration. Although some countries
of the EU had friendly policies towards immigrants, others set several barriers concerning
immigration and other circumstances of immigrants’ lives, which resulted in conflicts within
the structure of the EU.
#Future predictions on the EU have also emerged; matters relating to the solidity of the union.
Deviation in the question of authority within the union, the political issue as to whether it is
democratic, and the conflict between the state and international organizations have revealed
two opposite visions of the European continent’s future. This is because some of the
problems include the bypassing of the set legal system in some of the member countries,
thinking on different things in matters of bailing out and spending and coordination when the
community is disposed to several members coming from different backgrounds and few
joining the group.
Indeed, modern European history has been the chronicle of the transformation of European
society over the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. From the memories of the
revival of the principles of classical civilization to the modern and rather intricate realities of
the contemporary European political map, such a history beginning helps to establish a
correct perspective on the forces that shaped modern European developments and the forces
that are likely to continue to be influential in the formative process.
