IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 1
The Impact of Standardized Testing on Minority Students in Urban Underfunded Settings
Malcolm Taylor
School of Education, Liberty University
February 16, 2025
Abstract
Standardized testing, widely implemented in U.S. public schools since the No Child Left Behind
Act of 2002, has become a central tool for assessing student achievement and school
performance. However, its rigid, one-size-fits-all approach has disproportionately harmed
lowincome and minority students, worsening educational inequities. Research highlights how
socioeconomic disparities, such as inadequate school funding, lack of after-school programs,
and lower teacher quality, contribute to lower test scores in underprivileged communities.
Furthermore, the high-stakes nature of standardized testing has intensified the school-to-prison
pipeline, often pushing marginalized students out of the education system. Standardized tests
fail to account for cultural, economic, and social factors, leading to an unfair assessment of
student abilities. To address these issues, this paper advocates for equitable school funding,
diverse teacher representation, and the integration of socio-emotional learning into
assessments. Alternative models, such as New Hampshire’s PACE program, offer promising
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 2
solutions for creating fairer, more inclusive evaluation methods that reflect real-world student
experiences.
Keywords: standardized testing, minority student, educational equity, accountability,
socioeconomic status (ses), high stakes testing, achievement gap
The Impact of Standardized Testing on Minority Students in Urban Underfunded Settings
Although many assume standardized testing is an age-old practice, its widespread use in
public schools began with the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2002. NCLB mandated annual
testing in reading and math for students in grades 3 through 8 and once in high school, making
standardized tests a central component of educational assessment (Korte, 2015). These tests
influence school report cards, predict student achievement, assess college and career readiness,
determine school funding, and affect school populations (Korte, 2015). However, the heavy
reliance on standardized testing has had detrimental effects, particularly on low-income and
minority students.
Research indicates that high-stakes testing contributes to the school-to-prison pipeline,
as schools facing pressure to improve test scores may implement zero-tolerance policies that
disproportionately impact these students (FairTest, 2013). Standardized testing does not
account for disparities in educational quality caused by inadequate funding and socio-economic
challenges, leading to an inequitable assessment of student abilities. Therefore, there is a call to
restructure standardized testing to consider diverse economic and social backgrounds, ensuring
a fairer evaluation of educational achievement.
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Definitions of Key Terms
A. Standardized Testing - A method of testing that involves administering the same test in a
consistent manner across all test-takers (National Council on teacher quality (NCTQ)).
B. Minority Student - belong to racial, ethnic, or socio-economic groups that are
historically marginalized or underrepresented in educational systems (U.S. Department
of
Education).
C. Educational Equity - The principle of fairness in education, which involves ensuring all
students, regardless of background, have access to the resources, opportunities, and
support needed to succeed (U.S. Department of Education).
D. Accountability - The process of holding schools, teachers, and students responsible for
academic performance, often through the use of standardized tests (U.S. Department of
Education).
E. Socioeconomic Status (SES) - A social standing or class based on income, education, and
occupation. It is often used to describe the relative economic and social position of
individuals or families (American Psychological Association).
F. High Stakes Testing - Testing that has significant consequences for students, teachers, or
schools, such as determining graduation eligibility, grade promotion, or funding
allocations (U.S. Department of Education).
G. Achievement Gap - The disparity in academic performance between groups of students,
particularly those based on race, ethnicity, and socio-economic status (U.S. Department
of Education).
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Related Literature
Despite the widespread belief, standardized assessments often fail to account for
disparities in educational resources, particularly in underfunded urban school districts, where
students face systemic barriers that hinder academic success. Socioeconomic disparities impact
access to after-school tutoring, teacher quality, and school funding. Furthermore, the reliance
on standardized testing exacerbates the school-to-prison pipeline. Studies indicate that rigid
testbased policies negatively affect students. This literature review explores the intersection of
standardized testing, socioeconomic disparities, and the school-to-prison pipeline.
Socioeconomic Disparities and Educational Outcomes
The belief that standardized testing, as it is, is an effective measurement tool of student
achievement is concerning on many levels. Primarily, it is concerning considering the application
of quality education isn't the same across all school districts. Moreover, students from
underprivileged and urban backgrounds often overpopulate school districts that are low in
federal funding, which directly impacts their education quality. Research over the years has
proven that students in "urban settings mainly come from low-income homes" (Gadsden &
Dixon-Román, 2017). Specifically, these low socio-economic school districts do not have the
necessary funding for after-school programs for tutoring, nor do they have teachers being paid
livable wages to care about their quality of education. Granted, there is a dedicated group of
teachers with an unwavering passion for education who truly understand its significance. They
go above and beyond to ensure their students have access to the same resources as those in
predominantly white school districts. Unfortunately, many of those teachers are few and far
between.
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There is a blatant disparity in the quality of education received when comparing
predominantly white school districts against low socioeconomic school districts. Yet, a vast
majority of data within the education field says otherwise. Specifically, there is research that
highlights a misrepresentation of data in low-income and minority communities (Renzulli, 2021).
In the same vein, there is other research that directly conflicts with the former's findings,
showcasing how steep the disparity goes when comparing low-income and minority
communities (Knoester, 2017). This disparity matters concerning standardized testing because it
shows how standardized testing doesn't take into account other factors that play a role in low
test scores.
Aside from the low-to-nonexistent school funding and after-school care programs, other
factors like non-two-parent households, community violence, and lack of safe and productive
recreational facilities affect the quality of a student's education. Failing to consider these factors
when assessing the materials being taught to students in preparation for their assessment
continues to widen the disparity to accurately measure the effectiveness of standardized
testing. Moreover, standardized testing shouldn't be a blank one-size-fits-all product. Instead,
standardized testing should be relevant to different cultures and backgrounds.
Specifically, standardized testing materials should be relatable to the economic and
social background of the students being serviced. It is not to imply that students of low
socioeconomic backgrounds should have "easier" questions. It's to imply that the materials
need to match the quality of education that the student can understand. Moreover, there is
more than one way one could ask the same question. Adjusting standardized testing formats to
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 6
align with the needs of students from low-socioeconomic backgrounds can promote equity
across urban, rural, and suburban schools.
School-to-Prison Pipeline
Standardized testing is concerning due to the school-to-prison pipeline epidemic. The
school-to-prison pipeline forms when students become aware of the high-pressure demands to
produce high scores. One article found that the "pressures of high-stakes, standardized testing
are greatest in states and districts with large populations of non-white students" (Knoester &
Au, 2017). The high stakes pressure stems from teachers, school faculty, and local educational
board staff demanding high scores. The high demand is due to the fact that federal funding is
typically granted to schools with high test scores. This fact alone is a problem. Rewarding
schools with funding based on their test scores creates a never-ending paradoxical game.
Obviously, students with low test scores should indicate they need more attention. Since
teachers, school faculty, and local educational board staff know the reward system, they focus
heavily on standardized test performance. Consequently, the pressure leads to increased stress
and disengagement among students. Not all schools that have low test scores are
lowsocioeconomic schools. However, those that are, and are underfunded, their students are
highly likely to disengage. Some students disengage due to blatant lack of interest and disregard
for education. Moreover, they simply do not care for school. However, other students disengage
because they don't understand the material being taught. Given the lack of resources required
for tutoring, some students who struggle become discouraged and are more likely to drop out.
A subpopulation of those students who drop out become interested in criminal activity.
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 7
Another component of the school-to-prison pipeline is the disproportionate disciplinary
actions. Research shows that schools associated with low standardized test scores often
implement strict disciplinary policies to "maintain order" (Losen et al., 2015). Some examples
include zero-tolerance policies and exclusionary discipline (Donelson, 2020). These policies
result in increased suspensions, expulsions, and referrals to law enforcement. In turn, they push
students—particularly Black students—directly into the juvenile justice system. These policies
also align with an adjacent agenda to push out students who fail to meet test performance
expectations. The rationale is, if they aren't present, they are not a part of the statistical data
used to measure the school's performance overall. Therefore, the school has a higher likelihood
of receiving better scores if its data is intentionally skewed to closely match those needed to
produce good results.
Research indicates that special education plays a role in the school-to-prison pipeline
(Redfield & Nance, 2016). Students of color, mainly Black and Latino boys, are remarkably
disproportionately placed in special education. Special education provided to those who do not
need it directly lowers their quality of education. While their comprehension level may be lower
than the average student, it is not lower on the scale of special education either. This is an
example of the achievement gap. Everyone learns differently. Yet, many schools—a vast
majority of them having low socioeconomic backgrounds—do not reflect this notion.
In many schools, students are typically categorized into three groups: honor students,
regular students, and those in special education. The disparity in skills between honor and
regular students is evident, and it's clear why some students excel while others do not. Natural
critical thinking abilities are readily apparent. However, the achievement gap among regular
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 8
students often goes unaddressed. Some students may not process information as quickly as
honor students, making honors classes unsuitable for them. Conversely, there are students who
process information more slowly than their peers in regular classes.
This slower processing doesn't necessarily indicate a need for special education; it simply
means they require more time to grasp concepts. These students, who fall into the achievement
gap, are at risk of increased marginalization and disengagement. They need additional support,
such as after-school tutoring and assistance in understanding lesson objectives. Labeling them
as special education students can be detrimental. When their critical thinking skills are not
challenged, they may become disengaged, leading to a lack of motivation and, in some cases,
involvement in criminal activities.
Lastly, another shocking factor in the school-to-prison pipeline is that test scores are
used to predict future prison bed needs. According to research, some states utilize third-grade
standardized test scores to assess the likelihood of future inmates (Walz, 2020). This is
incredibly alarming, premeditated, and predatory. Students of low-socioeconomic backgrounds
are being targeted based on a school system that has uniquely been designed to adversely
impact them. There wouldn't be a need to suspect criminal activity if all students had access to
an equal level of quality in their education. This type of predatory behavior is downright
despicable. Students are not given a fair chance to make something of themselves.
Instead, they must first overcome harsh socioeconomic conditions and are then
expected to succeed despite the inadequate educational resources available to them. In
contrast, wellfunded schools can focus primarily on education without the added burden of
socioeconomic challenges. This disparity is evident and unbalanced. Despite the call to action,
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 9
the mandated implementation of standardized testing under the No Child Left Behind Act
(NCLB) and Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) continues to weigh in greater significance in
determining student achievement (Rury, Below, & Hurst, 2022).
Steps Taken to Address the Problem
As indicated by research, the biased application of standardized assessments not only
leads to "inequitable educational opportunities for youth but also results in the unnecessary
exclusion of these students from their schools" (Rezai-Rashti & Lingard, 2020). Resolving the
disparity of poor standardized testing scores will require a comprehensive approach. As with
any other significant political issue, there will be positive and negative components to address.
A first step in the right direction would be providing the same funding to all schools regardless
of their test scores. Frankly, more should be provided to lower test performance schools to
address the long-standing biased funding and blatant neglect.
School performance should not hinder funding. Education is a necessity for future
success. Therefore, regardless of testing, students need a qualitative education. As it relates to
funding, increased hiring for Black and minority teachers for low-socioeconomic schools is
critical. According to research data, when given opportunities to work with Black male teachers,
Black male students' test scores increase, and their disciplinary infraction percentages decrease
(Underwood et al., 2020). Moreover, students learn better when they have access to teachers
that look like them. This is particularly important for male students in low-socioeconomic
backgrounds because they are the highest demographic at risk for criminal activity.
Secondly, standardized testing must shift from the one-size-fits-all standards-based
assessments to including socio-emotional learning and assessments. Again, research has
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 10
confirmed students learn differently. Also, the lower socioeconomic environmental messages
are completely different than those in higher socioeconomic environments. For example,
students in higher socioeconomic backgrounds do not have to live in fear of becoming a statistic
related to community violence or hostile interactions with law enforcement. Students who do
face those harsh conditions process information differently. Adjusting the standardized testing
to reflect the socioeconomic backgrounds emphasizes student well-being and stress
management to assist them when taking standardized assessments. As of now, some states are
taking the initiative to improve the quality of assessments and preparation for these
standardized assessments to meet the needs of different socioeconomic backgrounds in urban
communities.
A leading example of these improved revisions is New Hampshire's alternative approach.
According to research, New Hampshire has implemented the Performance Assessment of
Competency Education (PACE) program, which offers an alternative to traditional standardized
tests (Becker et al., 2017). It highlights locally developed assessments that emphasize real-world
applications. Indiana implemented a new phonics curriculum to support educators in applying
the science of reading (Davis, 2022). A school in Lamar, Texas, has experienced significant
improvement by adopting individualized student goal-setting and small group instructions
(Westerfield, 2023). By improving these factors, the data assessed to measure the effectiveness
of standardized testing will reflect real-life scenarios.
Learned Theory Association
Assessing the compilation of information mentioned in the socioeconomic disparities in
standardized testing and educational outcomes section, the critical race theory is most
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 11
applicable. The Critical Race Theory (CRT) was developed in the late 1970s by Derrick Bell,
Kimberlé Crenshaw, Richard Delgado, Mari Matsuda, and more as a response to the civil rights
contest of racism. CRT highlights the necessary framework to address how standardized testing
and associated educational policies contribute to systemic inequities (Alvaré, 2018). It argues
that race is a social construct that was solely created to promote division within social classes.
Moreover, it argues racism is not an individual prejudice concept but a calculated evil
vice "deeply rooted in legal systems and policies" (Bradley, 2019). Concurring in her article, Janel
acknowledges that the "legacy of slavery, segregation, and the imposition of second-class
citizenship on Black Americans" is deep-rooted across all societal structures, including education
(George, 2021). It confirms the disparity of unequal access to quality education, extracurricular
programs, and experienced educators, thereby influencing standardized test outcomes.
Considering the origin of standardized testing within the United States, it is directly connected
to racist ideologies.
Gaps in Research
Considering the widespread misbelief that standardized testing is an accurate
measurement tool of student achievement affirms that there is a gap in research. This belief can
only be concluded by research data. The data is wrong. There is a disconnect between test
creators and students who take the test. Currently, test creators rely on a combination of
curriculum standards, cognitive research, field testing, and psychometric principles. These
aspects are developed by generic U.S. Education guidelines that stem from the Common Core
State Standards (CCSS) and Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) (Tampio, 2018;
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 12
Neidorf, 2016). Some states (i.e., Texas) have specific educational guidelines (Texas Education
Agency, 2021). None of these reflect real-world scenarios in their entirety. Instead, test creators
should work closely with state officials, especially those in underprivileged communities, to
better understand and produce equitable preparation of materials. By revising the components
used as inspiration for test creators, better test assessments are made. Consequently, those
tests will lead to better data retrieved in research to assess the effectiveness of standardized
testing.
Biblical Worldview
The Bible repeatedly relays the same message of showing compassion. Jesus always
showed compassion to the poor and oppressed. Biblically, the underfunded and the lesser
privileged students would be a prime example of the "poor and oppressed" people Jesus
helped. Again, it is not to imply that all students in urban area schools come from poor or
unfortunate living circumstances. However, a vast majority do stem from those backgrounds.
Therefore, they are the ones who need the most resources, assistance, practice, and rigor.
Micah 6:8 says, "the only thing that He requires of us is to be just, and to love, and diligently
practice kindness" (The Amplified Bible, 1983, Micah 6:8). Moreover, being just is ensuring that
all students have the proper means and accessibility to succeed. Each scholar in their unique
background and setting plays a role in the way they process information.
Conclusion
In conclusion, standardized testing has had a profound and largely detrimental impact on
the American education system since its widespread implementation under the No Child Left
Behind Act of 2002. While intended as a tool to measure student achievement and school
IMPACT OF STANDARDIZED TESTING 13
effectiveness, its rigid and one-size-fits-all approach has disproportionately harmed students in
low-income and minority communities. The correlation between standardized testing and
school funding has created a cycle where underprivileged schools, already struggling with
inadequate resources, are further penalized for low test scores. This systemic issue worsens the
educational disparities that exist along socio-economic lines, leaving students in disadvantaged
communities at a severe loss. Furthermore, standardized testing plays a significant role in
perpetuating the school-to-prison pipeline, as pressure to meet performance benchmarks often
results in punitive disciplinary policies. Additionally, the misrepresentation of data and failure to
account for socioeconomic and cultural factors further invalidate the credibility of standardized
assessments.
To address these deep-rooted inequities, a more comprehensive approach to student
assessment is needed. This includes providing equal funding to all schools, hiring diverse
educators who reflect student demographics, and integrating socio-emotional learning into
standardized testing frameworks. Additionally, adopting alternative assessment models, such as
New Hampshire's PACE program, could offer more accurate and fair measures of student
learning. Again, students learn differently, and the social conditions of their environment affect
how they process information. Ultimately, educational policies must be restructured to prioritize
equity. It is long overdue for the United States to revamp the Department of Education tactics
that have a trickle-down adverse effect on students subjected to biased standardized testing.
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