NARRATIVE REVIEW 1
Recommendations to Solve the Problem of Low Graduation Rates for Students at
Unaka High School in Tennessee
Tonya Grindstaff Range
School of Education, Liberty University
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Abstract
The purpose of this narrative review is to provide recommendations to solve the problem of low
graduation rates at Unaka High in Tennessee. The problem is that Unaka High school had a
graduation rate of 82%, below the state median graduation rate of 90.6%. A lack of education
has been deemed problematic, not only for the individual but for multiple aspects of society.
Multiple factors contribute to the student dropout rate such as poverty, dysfunctional homelife,
and the lack of parental or caregiver involvement with the educational process. Employment
opportunities are extremely limited for those who do not have a high school diploma.
Economically, individuals without a high school diploma earn substantially less than their
counterparts who earned a high school diploma. The risks of becoming involved in the criminal
justice system has been shown to be significantly higher for dropouts. The lack of a high school
diploma has been shown to negatively affect aspects of health. Individuals without a high school
diploma reportedly have fewer employment opportunities reducing the availability of insurance
and healthcare options. Student engagement is an essential element of the retention of students
and keeping them in the classroom.
Keywords: Graduation rates, diploma, employment benefits, socioeconomic status,
parental involvement, home environment, student engagement
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Narrative Review
Overview
The purpose of this applied research study is to solve the problem of low graduation rates
for students at Unaka High School in Tennessee. The problem is that Unaka High School has a
graduation rate of 82% which is below the state median at 90.6%. The Literature Review
presents Related Literature, Historical Aspects, and Summary for this research.
Related Literature
The purpose of the literature is to present an analysis and synthesis of research previously
conducted related to the topic of raising graduation rates. This literature review was conducted to
gain an understanding of current research related to low graduation rates for high school students
at a rural high school.
Historical Aspects of Education-Graduation Rates
Ressa and Andrews (2022) examined the aspects high school graduation rates and the
consequences of not obtaining a high school diploma. Students who choose not to graduate does
not appear to be a local issue of concern, rather it is a global predicament creating multi-faceted
consequences. Ressa and Andrews (2022) stated that previous research have attempted to
identify causal factors. Geographical, socioeconomic, level of parental education and
involvement have been specified as causal factors to this dilemma. Race, ethnicity, and
disability have also been cited as reasons that students do not graduate (Ressa & Andrews,
2022). In the United States, almost half of heads of households on welfare were high school
dropouts. According to Irwin et al. (2021), nearly half of United States citizens have a high
school diploma but rapidly evolving global market require more than a high school diploma.
While half of the citizens of the United States have a high school diploma, the United States has
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one the highest drop out rates of the industrialized nations. A good education not only benefits
the individual, it benefits society.
Harris et al. (2023) questioned the rise in graduation rates since 2002 and 2015 the NCLB
act and ESSA the successor of NCLB that primarily focused on test grades. Questions raised
by Harris et al. (2023) regarded how school administrators and educators were attempting to
reach projected graduation rates. One of the main purposes of NCLB and ESSA was to
improve the educational practices in schools, thus improving student engagement. However,
Harris et al. (2023) questioned if school administrators were simply teaching to the test to
achieve the accountability outcomes to prevent sanctions. Educators and administrators should
focus on student engagement and retention. Understanding graduation rates on an in-depth
basis would provide educators with targeted tools to increase student comprehenion. In order to
address the problem in an impactful manner, legislators, policy makers, and educators should
first understand the true representation of the statistical data. The state of Louisana uses
student-level exit codes that appears to allow researchers access to more detailed information
regarding the the type of completion by the student (Harris et al., 2023). Educational policy
makers nationwide should consider implementing a model similar to that of the state of
Lousiana for more accurate information.
Factors that Impact Graduation Rates
Teachers
Acton (2021) observed the role of educators related to the improvement of school
graduation rates and student achievement. With every increasing demands for accountability,
school administrators must implement the changes necessary to improve student achievement.
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Acton (2021) advocated that both school principals and educators must have the knowledge and
skills to properly facilitate the change process. Principals, who normally lead the change process,
have a responsibility to determine if alternations to curriculum and teaching styles are considered
best practices for educational outcomes. As indicated by Acton (2021) transformational
leadership is a necessary component essential to the implementation of improved leadership
techniques. Educational reforms must consider the needs of socioeconomics and evolve
accordingly. The current employment climate dictates computer skills as a minimal requirement.
This was not the case thirty years ago. Acquiring the skills to become a change agent in a school
were considered crucial by Acton (2021).
The effects of teachers have implications the reach outside of the classroom walls and far
into the future. Rose et al. (2022) posited that little is known about the effects of teacher quality
and how it relates to the criminal justice system. Increased schooling and school quality
potentially decreased the the likelihood of incarceration, but teacher quality had not been studied
as extensively. The effects of teachers were directly correlated with reading outside the
classroom, homework, and attendance. Impacts between test scores and behavior in the
classroom were not found to be as tightly associated (Rose et al., 2022). Teacher quality related
to the research contained within this article surveyed not only the educational skillset. Teachers
who were considered experienced had a more positive impact on students that those who lacked
experience. Experienced educators also appeared to possess increased levels of empathy and
flexibility that seemed to increased student engagement and test scores. Teachers who attempted
to increase levels of non-cognitive skills such as social, critical thinking, and problem solving
skills appeared to have a positive impact for students for long-term academic outcomes. In other
words, the development of non-cognitive life skills appeared to have a greater positive effect
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rather than test score results on the potential of students becoming involved with the criminal
justice system, thus decreasing criminal justice contact.
Best Practice, Classroom Size, and Student Engagement
Antoniou et al. (2024) stated the size of a school and subject courses have a profound
effect on academic achievement. Smaller class size allows an educator to offer a more tailored
approach to meet the students’ needs. A smaller class size also contributes to a calm organized
feel and better classroom management. According to Antoniou et al. (2024) a small class size
permits the instructor to develop several instructional strategies to facilitate comprehension of
subject matter. Smaller class size facilitates group projects and community participation projects
that may engage problem-solving and critical thinking skills as they related to real-world issues.
Antoniou et al. (2024) advised that large schools and large classroom size decreased the amount
of individualized instruction time for each student. A decreased amount of individualized
instruction and attention has the potential to reduce student engagement.
Huyer et al. (2020) addressed the difficulties of student engagement to STEM related
subjects. Researchers for this study sought to understand if social cognitive and constructive
initiatives could change the level of engagement for high school students. Huyer et al. (2020)
studied the use of a scaffolded learning, immersivie learning approach could increase levels of
engagement and comprehension. According to the results from the study, students attained high
levels of engagement and self-efficacy through the change in curriculum. Problem-solving and
critical thinking skills were central to the STEM based immersion curriculum. Student
engagement should be considered a central tenant of academic achievement. The application of
this style of teaching could be a method to engage students in other course subjects. Through the
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change of the curriculum, students involved in the study stated they felt more comfortable with
the idea of future STEM related courses and employment opportunities.
Lo and Hew (2021) reinforce the idea that student engagement is central to education and
has various desirable outcomes, such as a reduction in dropout rates. Behavioral engagement,
emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement were three aspects of the multi-dimensional
framework for the research of this study. Prosocial behavior and student attendance were
encouraged by assigning pre-class learning responsibilities. Lo and Hew (2021) advised that
some educators experienced difficulties during the implementation of the flipped classroom
approach during the initial phases. Successful student engagement was supported by three
psychological requirements described to be autonomy, relatedness, and competence. When these
requirements are fulfilled, students tended to engage on a meaningful level. Providing students
with choices regarding projects or group learning has the potential to serve students with a sense
of autonomy. Peer-to-peer tutoring has the potential to satisfy a sense of relatedness for students
as they seek to have a sense of belonging and connectedness to others.
Societal Stressors
Miller et al. (2020) researched the impact of poverty in both the rural and urban settings
on the academic achievement of students. Multiple factors of these two different geographic
areas were identified as contributing to the educational process of students. While community
resources appeared to be more readily available to students in urban areas, other factors such as
neighborhood violence and decreased levels of social bonding negatively impacted educational
outcomes. Miller et al. (2020) purported that students in rural areas, though the level of poverty
was increased and the level of community resources were decreased, appeared to have more
positive educational outcomes than their urban counterparts. According to the Appalachian
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Regional Commission, 14.7% of Appalachian residents lived below the national poverty level.
To better illustrate this statement, the household income was below $26,246 for a family of four,
two adults and two children. The poverty rate for Carter County, Tennessee which is located in
northeast Tennessee is between 20.9% and 28.3% (ARC, 2023). The graduation rate for Carter
County, TN was 82% well below the state median graduation rate of 90.6% (Tennessee
Department of Education, 2023).
According to Hansen et al. (2022) the number of households headed by grandparents has
significantly increased during the twenty years. The number of grandparent headed households
has increased a little of 64% since 2002, and Hansen et al. (2022) stated that grandparents in the
geographic region known as Central Appalachia were twice as likely to serve as the primary
caregivers when compared to national statistics. Not surprisingly, both grandchildren and
grandparents experience stress and psychosocial issues due to the absence of parents. Parents
involved in active addiction have increased possibilities of incarceration. Hansen et al. (2022)
also noted that grandparents in Central Appalachia have modest means of financial support,
limited access to healthcare, and scarse social services. Grandparents often have more difficulties
engaging with educators and school administrators which has the potential to decrease the
academic achievement of their children.
Family health, physical, mental, and emptional, is important to well-being of the
individuals in the family unit and the family as a whole (Reese et al., 2022). The manner in
which individuals respond to traumatic events is varied and the manner in which an individual
processes and carries that perceived event with them is just as varied. Reese et al. (2022)
research how traumatic events in childhood may influence individuals into adulthood and
possibly even their own parenting styles. Individuals that do not effectively process an event
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have the potential to pass their trauma to their children. These adverse family experiences (AFE)
and adverse childhood experiences (ACE) vary in types of experiences from poverty, abuse, and
historical events. Recently, Hurricane Helen devasted northeast Tennessee and western North
Carolina leaving in her wake homeless families, redefined landscape, and the loss of a once
thought tangible permancy within the community. A study of how these families and individuals
involved with this historical event could prove valuable to understanding methods to assist
families as they navigate the effects of this generational event.
Parental Involvement in Students’ Academic Achievement
Effects of Parental Involvement
Differing parental styles and strategies regarding involvement with students’ education
and extra-curricular activities have the potential to produce a multitude of effects. Goshin et al.
(2021) researched divergent parenting styles to understand which styles and strategies appear to
produce positive effects. Goshin et al. (2021) also studied how these strategies change over time
as the students age. Parenting strategies were divided into three separate categories which were
intrusive, supervisory, and detached. Parents who expressed acceptance, offered encouragement,
and provided both material and moral support reduced stress for their children and appeared to
increase positive outcomes. Parental involvement that appeared to be excessive and compulsive
appeared to discourage students which produced negative outcomes. Parental demands also had
the potential to decrease interest and motivation. Goshin et al. (2021) stated the importance of
parents and educators to understand the impact of their actions on the socioemotional health of
students. Interestingly, although Goshine et al. (2021) stated parents should be selective
regarding their involvement in students’ education, they also stated that overstatement of the
importance of involvement was impossible.
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Younas et al. (2021) explored the effects of the home environment on the academic
achievement of students. The home environment has been shown to have profound effects on
how students perceive education and their level of achievement. According to Younas et al.
(2021) significant evidence exists to demonstrate the importance of parental involvement and
participation in students’ academic achievement. Attitudes toward education and behavior in the
classroom appear to have positive correlations with healthy home milieus in which parents are
engaged with the children and the educational environment. The environment of students
included the home, neighborhood, peers, and everyday social experiences of students. Regarding
secondary students, Younas et al. (2021) stated an encouraging home environment functioned as
motivation and positive reinforcement for young learners.
According to Ogg and Anthony (2020) parental warmth and involvement has been linked
to several positive learning outcomes. Understanding the influences of parental involvement and
participation has been considered a fundamental goal of developmental psychology. Ogg and
Anthony (2020) described parental involvement as behaviors that support and engage students’
academic endeavors. The home environment has been studied for many years. Positive attitudes
regarding education and parental involvement have been repeatedly shown to have positive
correlations to student academic achievement. Ogg and Anthony (2020) further stated that
parents’ positive attitudes regarding education allow children comfort and openness to engage
with new ideas which is vital for children to learn. Parental warmth and acceptance have also
been connected to positive academic and cognitive outcomes.
Approaches to Solve the Problem
Teachers
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Reddy et al. (2020) sought to understand the relationship between teacher practices and
student achievement in high-poverty schools. While years of research have proven a correlation
between teacher practices and student achievement, Reddy et al. (2020) asserted that little
research had been conducted in impoverish areas. One could postulate the argument that teacher
quality and practices are even more important in high-poverty areas with the intent to overcome
multiple obstacles. Obstacles such as lack of parental involvement or negative family settings,
behavioral difficulties, and negative attitudes regarding education are difficult to overcome.
Reddy et al. (2020) stated that the ratio of teacher burnout, turnover, and mental health issues is
much greater than in schools where the obstacles are fewer. Teachers may resort to less
productive practices because it is just easier than it is to attempt to challenge and engage the
students which may increase academic underachievement. The support system for teachers in
settings such as high-poverty area should be substantial to retain experienced teachers to both
teach, and mentor teachers with less experience.
Popova et al. (2022) conducted research to ascertain if teachers in middle- and low-
income neighborhoods have the skills and training to teach effectively. Popova et al. (2022)
acknowledged research previously conducted that asserted that skilled, quality teachers
impacted students not only during the school year but well into adulthood. The principal
components to improve teaching skills were training and professional development. The authors
of this study specifically referred to mentoring and on-the-job training. Interestingly, Popova et
al. (2022) stated that adult teaching styles or andragogy should be utilized during professional
development sessions. Special attention should be given to the organization of the session, the
subjects that will be specifically addressed, and the audience who will be receiving the
information. Popova et al. (2022) also advocated for teachers to be observed in their classroom
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setting so that accurate feedback and instruction could be given. Content, delivery, and
perceptions were mentioned as important aspects of training, and that quality development
should focus on one key subject at a time. Popova et al. (2022) indicated that higher quality of
professional development sessions, the higher quality outcomes.
Morgan et al. (2021) asserted that student engagement is the center of student learning.
The authors of this study sought to understand teacher experiences and perceived effects of a
development approach called Social Emotional Engagement-Knowledge and Skills (SEE-KS).
Classrooms, locally, have been implementing Social Emotional Learning (SEL) to engage
learners from diverse backgrounds. This shift toward a comprehensive consideration of
classroom dynamics appeared to have positive effects for the psychosocial skills for students of
various ages. Teachers are instrumental in safeguarding positive classroom inclusion for all
students. Morgan et al. (2021) indicated the importance of professional development sessions
for teachers as more demands are placed on them as they teach to more diverse ethnicities with
varying intellectual levels. Active engagement in literature may involve group activities, peer-
to-peer tutoring, and foster communication skills. As the need for positive student engagement
increases, consideration must also be given to teacher well-being. Teachers involved with the
research regarding SEE-KS reported both challenges and opportunities.
Learning Spaces
de Borva et al. (2020) researched the relationship between learning spaces and student
engagement. Four elements of classroom layout were discussed as interaction, design,
collaboration, and cooperation. de Borva et al. (2020) stated flexibility and openness were
attributes which promoted engaged learners. Environmental aesthetics were a vital focus of
student engagement and communication. Adaptability, comfort, easy to use, were essential
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features that promoted student-teacher interaction. de Borva et al. (2021) posited that student
experiences were a significant characteristic of understanding how to improve engagement and
communication. Positive teacher-student relationships and an appreciation of community
promoted improved grade, increased participation, and positive attitudes regarding the
educational process. Interaction between students and student-teacher appeared to be crucial
characteristics of an active engaged classroom. Although the physical space of the classroom has
not been highly researched, de Borva et al. indicated that it is a significant factor to the
improvement of student engagement.
Buckman et al. (2021) researched the significance of decisions made by school
administrators to improve learning outcomes and graduation rates. The principal’s position has
been described as a critical function in the development of a positive school climate and culture.
Buckman et al. (2021) name four aspects of school climate under the direction of the principal
which were: classroom instruction, relationships, order and safety, and the physical facilities.
The rate of high school dropout has been estimated to be one fifth of students drop out of school
each year. Students who drop out of school experience increased levels of poverty, anxiety, and
criminalization and victimization. According to Buckman et al. (2021) school climate is a
component of the culture of the school. Climate is reported to be the behavior of the students
while culture was reported to be the normal functioning of the students. Buckman et al. (2021)
reported that a positive school climate improved overall learning outcomes and contributed to the
academic success of students. School administrators must pay special attention to the climate of
the school, both students and teachers.
Student Support Services
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Academic advising, tutoring, career guidance, and self-care are characteristics of student
support services. Students, both higher education and high school students, being with various
and multi-faceted emotions. Excitement, optimism, and anxiety are examples of the innumerable
feelings for students. Picton and Kahu (2022) examined the reasons that some students take
advantage of student support services and others do not. Reasons also varied from the
background of the student, psychosocial factors, and self-discipline were named as some of the
motivating influences. A perceived lack of time, unawareness of the services, reluctance to admit
needing help, and viewing the services as only for major problems were stated as additional
reasons students for lack of participation with student support services. Picton and Kahu (2022)
named the four pathways of student engagement with student support services to be: self-
efficacy, sense of belonging, well-being, and emotions.
Uniting for Positive Learning Outcomes and Improved Graduation Rates
Howard et al. (2020) explored self-determination theory regarding motivation and the
complexities of the drive for internal motivation. The title of the article, Putting the pieces
together, is apt for the understanding of the multi-faceted tactics to improve learning outcomes
for high school students. Indeed, there are numerous pieces of the puzzle to improve graduation
rates. Self-determination theory examines behavioral principles as to why some activities are
deemed important, and thus pursued and others are not. Howard et al. (2020) regarded external
motivation as the least internalized form of intrinsic motivation. Internal motivation was
described as the highest level of locus of causality. Promoting and retaining intrinsic motivation
is the task of parents, teachers, and administrators. Values that define one’s sense of self was also
regarded as a high level of motivation. Behaviors that become part of one’s identity were stated
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to be deep internalization of the individual’s sense of self-worth. Self-efficacy and self-
determination theory appear to deeply be entwined.
Summary
The purpose of this applied rese
Each of the research articles included in this literature review contribute to the historical
factors of the reasons students drop out of school. The influential factors such as poverty,
parental involvement, lack of interest, and how teachers can have an impactful influence on a
student's life. Training and professional development for teachers were explored to prevent
burnout and retain experienced teachers. Several other factors were also examined which were
classroom size, physical facilities, and school climate. In sum, there does not appear to be a one-
size-fits-all solution. Hard work, persistence, and positive daily interactions with students have
the potential to improve learning outcomes and increase graduation rates.
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