EDCO 725 Liberty University Applying High Order Thinking Skills Discussion assign.pdf

this is -Higher order thinking skills assignment. To teach adults students on grief and loss counseling

what i chose. I will attached all the information, please read first if you will be able to complete. this

teaching adults on grief and loss using active learning. What the adult students will get assignment on i

.out of it, any information you need please ask me, this assignment have different parts

BLOOM’S

TAXONOMY AND

THE DIFFERENT

LEVELS OF

QUESTIONS

THE TAXONOMY OF BLOOM

As teachers and as people part of the world, we ask questions to

our learners and people everyday. Not all questions are on the

same level. Some questions are easy to answer where other

questions may require a great deal of thinking.

Bloom (1956) has provided us with his taxonomy to assist us to

compose questions on different levels of thinking. This taxonomy

ranges from lower to higher levels of cognitive thinking. These

levels are (I will shortly provide more detail of each level):

(1) Knowledge

(2) Comprehension

(3) Application

(4) Analysis

(5) Synthesis

(6) Evaluation

EXAMPLES OF QUESTIONS IN THE TAXONOMY

Dalton and Smith[1] (1986) provide us with the following examples:

KNOWLEDGE

USEFUL

VERBS

SAMPLE

QUESTIONS

POTENTIAL ACTIVITIES

AND PRODUCTS

 Tell

 List

 Describe

 Relate

 Locate

 Write

 Find

 State

 Name

 What

happened

after...?

 How many...?

 Who was it

that...?

 Can you name

the...?

 Describe what

happened at...?

 Who spoke

to...?

 Can you tell

why...?

 Find the

meaning of...?

 What is...?

 Which is true

or false...?

 Make a list of the main

events..

 Make a timeline of

events.

 Make a facts chart.

 Write a list of any pieces

of information you can

remember.

 List all the .... in the

story/article/reading

piece.

 Make a chart showing...

COMPREHENSION

USEFUL

VERBS

SAMPLE

QUESTIONS

POTENTIAL

ACTIVITIES AND

PRODUCTS

 Explain

 Interpret

 Outline

 Discuss

 Distinguish

 Predict

 Restate

 Translate

 Compare

 Describe

 Can you write in

your own words...?

 Can you write a

brief outline...?

 What do you think

could of happened

next...?

 Who do you

think...?

 Cut out or draw

pictures to show a

particular event.

 Illustrate what you

think the main idea

was.

 Make a cartoon

strip showing the

sequence of

events.

 What was the

main idea...?

 Who was the key

character...?

 Can you

distinguish

between...?

 What differences

exist between...?

 Can you provide

an example of

what you mean...?

 Can you provide a

definition for...?

 Write and perform

a play based on the

story.

 Retell the story in

your words.

Paint a picture of

some aspect you

like.

 Write a summary

report of an event.

 Prepare a flow

chart to illustrate

the sequence of

events.

 Make a colouring

book.

APPLICATION

USEFUL

VERBS

SAMPLE

QUESTIONS

POTENTIAL

ACTIVITIES AND

PRODUCTS

 Solve

 Show

 Use

 Illustrate

 Construct

 Complete

 Examine

 Classify

 Do you know

another instance

where...?

 Could this have

happened in...?

 Can you group by

characteristics

such as...?

What factors would

you change if...?

 Can you apply the

method used to

 Construct a model

to demonstrate how

it will work.

 Make a scrapbook

about the areas of

study.

 Take a collection of

photographs to

demonstrate a

particular point.

 Make up a puzzle

game suing the

some experience of

your own...?

 What questions

would you ask

of...?

 From the

information given,

can you develop a

set of instructions

about...?

 Would this

information be

useful if you had a

...?

ideas from the study

area.

 Make a clay model

of an item in the

material.

 Design a market

strategy for your

product using a

known strategy as a

model.

 Paint a mural using

the same materials.

 Write a textbook

about... for others.

ANALYSIS

USEFUL

VERBS

SAMPLE

QUESTIONS

POTENTIAL

ACTIVITIES AND

PRODUCTS

 Analyse

 Distinguish

 Examine

 Compare

 Contrast

 Investigate

 Categorise

 Identify

 Explain

 Separate

 Advertise

 Which events

could have

happened...?

 I ... happened,

what might the

ending have

been?

 How was this

similar to...?

 What was the

underlying theme

of...?

 Design a

questionnaire to

gather information.

 Write a commercial

to sell a new

product.

 Conduct an

investigation to

produce information

to support a view.

 Make a flow chart to

show the critical

stages.

 What do you see

as other possible

outcomes?

 Why did ...

changes occur?

 Can you compare

your ... with that

presented in...?

 Can you explain

what must have

happened

when...?

 How is ... similar

to ...?

 What are some of

the problems

of...?

 Can you

distinguish

between...?

 What were some

of the motives

behind...?

 What was the

turning point in

the game?

 What was the

problem with...?

 Construct a graph to

illustrate selected

information.

 Make a family tree

showing

relationships.

 Put on a play about

the study area.

 Write a biography of

the study person.

 Prepare a report

about the area of

study.

 Arrange a party.

Make all the

arrangements and

record the steps

needed.

 Review a work of art

in terms of form,

colour and texture.

 Review a film

SYNTHESIS

USEFUL

VERBS

SAMPLE

QUESTIONS

POTENTIAL

ACTIVITIES AND

PRODUCTS

 Create

 Invent

 Compose

 Predict

 Plan

 Construct

 Design

 Imagine

 Propose

 Devise

 Formulate

 Can you design a

... to ...?

 Why not

compose a song

about...?

 Can you see a

possible solution

to...?

 If you had access

to all resources

how would you

deal with...?

 Why don't you

devise your own

way

 to deal with...?

 What would

happen if...?

 How many ways

can you...?

 Can you create

new and unusual

uses for...?

 Can you write a

new recipe for a

tasty dish?

 Can you develop

a proposal which

would...

 Invent a machine to

do a specific task.

 Design a building to

house your study.

 Create a new

product. Give it a

name and plan a

marketing campaign.

 Write about your

feelings in relation

to...

 Write a TV show,

play, puppet show,

role play, song or

pantomime about...?

 Design a record,

book, or magazine

cover for...?

 Make up a new

language code and

write material suing

it.

 Sell an idea.

 Devise a way to...

 Compose a rhythm

or put new words to

a known melody.

EVALUATION

USEFUL

VERBS

SAMPLE

QUESTIONS

POTENTIAL

ACTIVITIES AND

PRODUCTS

 Judge

 Select

 Choose

 Decide

 Justify

 Debate

 Verify

 Argue

 Recommend

 Assess

 Discuss

 Rate

 Prioritise

 Determine

 Is there a better

solution to...

 Judge the value

of...

 Can you defend

your position

about...?

 Do you think ... is

a good or a bad

thing?

 How would you

have handled...?

 What changes to

... would you

recommend?

 Do you believe?

 Are you a ...

person?

 How would you

feel if...?

 How effective

are...?

 What do you think

about...?

 Prepare a list of

criteria to judge a

... show. Indicate

priority and

ratings.

 Conduct a debate

about an issue of

special interest.

 Make a booklet

about 5 rules you

see as important.

Convince others.

 Form a panel to

discuss views, e.g.

"Learning at

School.".

 Write a letter to ...

advising on

changes needed

at...

 Write a report.

 Prepare a case to

present your view

about...

[1] Dalton, J. & Smith, D., (1986). Extending Children’s Special

Abilities: Strategies for primary classrooms (pp. 36-37).

Or available at:

http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/researchskills/Dalton.htm

Anderson and Krathwohl

EDCO 725

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS

OVERVIEW

Incorporating higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) is an essential component in “teaching to

think” and critical for adult learning and especially graduate level learning. This exercise will

give you practice in incorporating HOTS in your own proposed teaching demonstration.

INSTRUCTIONS

Review the highest levels of thought per Bloom and Anderson and Krathwohl’s revision of

Bloom’s Taxonomy—application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, creation.

Choose two of critical thought levels and design a teaching activity for each that would fit your

own teaching topic and teaching demonstration. Use the class handout which lists sample

questions and then suggested learning activities for each level of higher thought. You can also

review the explanations of active learning strategies to which you have been introduced in all

three of our class texts.

So, for example, if your topic is exploring the counseling approaches used for combat veterans

with PTSD, you might set up a debate to argue the strengths and weaknesses of two therapeutic

approaches. Or you might introduce a case to use for a new therapeutic application and have

students argue the value or disadvantages of the new therapy approach.

In this assignment, provide extensive detail about how you would develop the learning activity.

Provide the actual cases, for instance, if those are used, and suggest the penetrating questions that

would guide the discussion. Justify your choice of activity. Why was your active learning

strategy a great way to evaluate, analyze, apply, etc. with regard to your teaching topic? Draw

broadly from the class sources to support your conclusions, and cite per APA.

Present the assignment in a formal APA paper.

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS

Higher Order Thinking Skills

Ms. Student

Liberty University

Teaching and Learning: EDCO 725

Dr. Craft

Learning Activity

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS

The learning activity chosen for the lesson will involve active learning by requiring students

to work together in groups to evaluate two case studies. It will also involve critical thinking skills as

students will be actively engaged in the thought process through evaluation, analyzation, and

interpretation of information as well as evaluation and interpretation of their own assumptions

about the information presented. (Walker, 2003). Students will be provided two cases of youth

who are victims of abuse and neglect with evident environmental hazards. Students will compare

then choose (evaluate) which case is more severe. They will then propose which protective

factors can be used in treatment and develop (create) treatment goals for the youth.

Rationale for Activity

Case study methods develop student’s problem-solving skills using the knowledge, concepts,

and skills relevant to the course at hand. This method allows for a conceptualized approach to a

concept rather than disjointed introduction of terms (Svinicki & McKeachie, 2014). The

audience for my teaching lesson is graduate students who may not have actual experience in the

counseling field so the cases chosen for the demonstration will simulate actual cases they may be

exposed to in their future careers. Case studies are able to target the Higher Order Thinking

Skills (HOTS) as students evaluate through analysis and criticism value of different solutions to

a problem (Svinicki & McKeachie, 2014).

Actual Case Studies

CASE 1:

Dave is a fifteen-year-old who reports he hates his parents. In fact, he doesn’t have any love for

the world in general. This is due to his bio father verbally and physically abusing he and his

younger brother. Dave was six and his brother was four. The brothers were separated when in

foster care. Both have been reunited but their foster care experiences were different. While in

foster care Dave moved from placement to placement and was in a total of 12 different homes;

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS

while his younger brother was only in 2 different foster homes. Dave disrupted placement

because of his verbal and physical aggression to others in his foster placements and school.

Dave and his brother were both reunited with their biological parents last year. Dave’s Dad is an

alcoholic. Dave’s mom works outside the home and is often works long hours. Dave’s a smart

kid and knows it. Often times when Dave’s Dad gets drunk, Dave will argue and pick an

intellectual topic to fight about, knowing his Dad will become very frustrated with the

conversation. Often times, these conversations end with verbal fights between Dave and his

Dad. Dave has had suicidal ideations and been hospitalized several times for being suicidal. He

has made two attempts to harm himself by taking pills. Dave’s mom reports that he is not a bad

kid but just has a temper like his dad. Dave’s teachers report he keeps to himself at school and

doesn’t make friends easily. Dave reports that he enjoys playing with video games, drawing and

one day wants to be a lawyer. Both Dave’s mom and dad’s families live in the same town and

Dave says only his maternal aunt has always been in his life even when he was in foster care.

Dave has been reluctant to engage in therapy and instead wants to play football. His mom is

unable to transport him to practices and games because of her work schedule and his dad doesn’t

have a driver’s license. Dave reports the best part about being back with his parents and being

able to be a “big brother” again to someone who didn’t have “foster” in front of their title.

CASE 2:

Jane is a twelve-year old who was removed from her mother’s home for inappropriate

supervision. Jane has a 14-year-old sister and three brothers ages 9, 7, and 5. Jane’s mother’s

paramour is the biological father of only the five-year-old. Jane was on the run for nine days and

alleges she ran away from home because her mother’s paramour’s uncle sexually molested her,

and her mother did not believe her. Jane was placed in a foster home while the investigation was

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS

being completed. She ran away from the foster home and was gone for 14 days. She reports she

was in an abandoned house with a female peer and older man. The mother reports she previously

filed a report against a 28-year-old man last year for having sex with the youth. Lisa reports she

believes Jane is involved in human sex trafficking. The youth denies being a part of sex

trafficking but admits she is often away with older men and her friends and they will not bring

her home. In the past month Jane has left home without permission nine times and her mother

has filed a police report. Jane usually leaves late at night and is gone for 12-13 hours. She reports

that she is with friends and she admits she is smoking marijuana. Jane is a 7th grader and makes

A’s and B’s in school She does not exhibit physical or verbal aggression, but she is in foster care

due to her mother’s inability to supervise her. The police are investigating her and believe she is

a part of a sex trafficking ring, but they do not have enough evidence to act upon their

suspicions. Jane has been placed in a group home, with her maternal grandmother and a

maternal aunt but continues to exhibit runaway behavior. She is presently placed in a foster home

2 hours away from her hometown. There is only one other child in the home a 16-year-old

female. Jane reports she likes to draw, listen to music, journal, and she interacts well with her

therapist and completes the therapeutic assignments provided in sessions. Jane’s mother admits

she wants her daughter to be safe and she doesn’t think she can keep her safe; therefore, foster

care is the best for her. This makes Jane angry and she is very outspoken about how she feels

being in foster care.

Penetrating Questions

Higher order thinking skills, according to Walker (p. 265, 2003) should start or end with

words or phrases such as, ‘‘explain,’’ ‘‘compare,’’ ‘‘why,’’ ‘‘which is a solution to the

problem,’’ ‘‘what is the best and why,’’ and ‘‘do you agree or disagree with this statement?’’

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS

The lesson will encompass both higher order thinking and Socratic questions. Socratic questions

purpose to probe or explore the strength of a student’s justification or assumption. Here are

some examples of penetrating questions that could possibly be used in the lesson:

• Choose which case study is more severe and support your assumptions only with

the information that is provided in the case study.

• What are the dangers of using assumptions that are not based upon evidence

provided in the case study?

• Provide rationale for the protective factors you chose to implement in the

treatment plan.

• What are possible detriments if protective factors are overlooked and not used in

enhancing resiliency in youth who are victims of maltreatment, abuse, or neglect?

• Explain to a foster parent of a youth who has suffered maltreatment, abuse, or

neglect why it is important to utilize youth’s protective factors to enhance their

resiliency.

Bloom’s/Anderson & Krathwohl’s Taxonomy

The revised Anderson and Krathwohl cognitive taxonomy places evaluate and create as the

last two levels of higher order thinking skills. The lesson will require students to utilize both

levels of learning. Evaluation requires learners to judge the worth of the material granted against

stated criteria (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Students participating in this lesson will be

provided with an overview of protective factors and environmental hazards in regard to youth

who are the victims of abuse and neglect or maltreatment. The next step will be presented with

two case studies in which they have to compare and choose which youth’s case is the most

severe. Create requires learners to separate ideas to establish new relationships (Anderson &

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS

Krathwohl, 2001). After deciding which case is the most severe, students will propose which

protective factors that were previously identified can be implemented to develop treatment goals

for the youth. This activity requires students to establish a new relationship between using

protective factors in the treatment goals to enhance a youth’s resiliency.

References

HIGHER ORDER THINKING SKILLS

Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and

Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York:

Longman.

Bloom, B.S. and Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The

Classification of Educational Goals, by a committee of college and university examiners.

Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. NY, NY: Longmans, Green.

Svinicki, M. & McKeachie, W. (2014). McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies, research, and

theory for college and university teachers. (14th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

ISBN: 9781133936794.

Walker, S. E. (2003). Active learning strategies to promote critical thinking. Journal of Athletic

Training, 38(3), 263-7. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?

Active Learning

What is the Value of Active Learning to the Students?

The most important value is that active learning increases students' retention and

comprehension of the course material. Tasks to be accomplished become explicit. Active

learning utilizes the students' data and knowledge base. Students have an opportunity to

provide personal insights and interpretation (develop their own answers). The process allows

students to experiment with ideas, to develop concepts, and to integrate concepts into systems.

Research shows that active learning seeks to engage a greater range of students in effective

learning. Furthermore, it positively affects the attitude of students toward self and peers in the

learning process. Active learning develops social experiences between students and between

teacher and students. It can build community within the classroom.

What is the Value of Active Learning to the Teacher?

Active learning concentrates on the teaching function. It helps the teacher select objectives at

the correct level of difficulty to meet the students' needs. The teacher encourages the students

to be responsible for their own learning. Active learning brings the students into the

organization, thinking, and problem solving process of the discipline. Active learning also gives

the teacher time to perform the helping teacher functions of coach, listener, and advocate.

What are the Risks of Trying Active Learning Strategies in the Classroom?

Teachers give up their centralized role as "expert," "group leader," "source of authority and

control. " For many teachers, giving up authority and control of the teaching situation

challenges a model they have lived with throughout their academic careers.

College students have expectations of the role of teacher and their role as students. Active

learning challenges these expectations. Actively participating in the class and having

responsibility for learning may be viewed as a failure of the teacher to carry out his/her

responsibilities. There may be resistance to change and a sense that the expertise of the teacher

is lost to the students.

Some Guidelines for Active Learning in the College Classroom

Professor is Student Oriented

• Course begins where the students are, not where the professor is

• Though students are expected to bring needed skills and background knowledge and to

be self-motivated, the professor also accepts responsibilities for motivation, clarity, and

diagnostic/supportive teaching

• Students are treated with the same dignity and respect expected by the professor

• Individual differences are expected, welcomed, and supported

Students Participate in Goal Setting

• Some goals are provided by professor

• Students create or select additional goals

• Goals are individualized (different students may have different goals)

Classroom Climate is Collegial, Supportive, and Spontaneous

• Everyone knows and uses everyone else's name

• Everyone knows (and respects) everyone else's background, current position, interests,

goals, etc.

• Professor does no more than 50% of the talking and no more than 75% of the decision

making

• Discussion, group work, and active participation is encouraged and expected

Activities are Problem-Centered and Student-Driven

• Students are expected to be active learners

• Course is built upon real problems that relate to student goals and interests

• Some easier problems are dealt with early in the course and are used to provide

paradigms and activity models

• Students have some flexibility in problem selection

• Busy work and unnecessary repetition are minimized

• Whenever possible, students work at own pace and on own schedule

• Students are encouraged/required to work together in groups and to provide suggestions,

feedback, and support to one another

Assessment is Continuous and Supportive

• Formative developmental feedback is emphasized over summative grades

• Professor's comments focus upon success and suggestions for improvement rather than

upon mistakes and corrections

• Students are allowed/expected to revise and resubmit work that does not meet expected

standards, and summative grades are based upon revised work

• Professor's role is primarily to help students toward success, not merely to point out their

shortcomings; students should build pride in accomplishments and existing abilities

• All assessment should be criterion-referenced rather than normative

• Assessment involves facts/concepts/applications

• Assessment is often authentic

Teaching is Developmental rather than Directive or Presentational

• Students are active creators of knowledge, not passive receivers of information

• Multiple answers (rather than one right answer) are often accepted

• Emphasis is upon understanding and application rather than upon memorization and

repetition

• Professor teaches disciplinary (subject area) methods and provides access to information;

students gather, organize, and use information

• Professor helps students to understand learning styles and methods and help students to

identify and remediate any personal learning problems

• The methods of the discipline are as (or more) important than the content

• Professor guides but does not entirely dictate task identification, activities sequencing, and

working strategies

• Newer technologies, media, content, and methods are emphasized

• Students are allowed broad flexibility and encouraged toward self-direction

• Professor emphasizes and teaches metacognition

Multi-level Outcomes are Expected; Learning includes:

• Facts and information

• Concepts and understanding

• Processes and applications

• Metacognition and reflections

Sample Active Learning Techniques

Think-Pair-Share

Students reflect on a question or issue for one or two minutes, noting factors, ideas, strategies,

etc., that pertain to the topic. At the end of the designated time period, students turn to a peer

and work together to formulate a correct response or provide an overview of the information.

Pairs then share their answer or overview with a large group or with the entire class.

Meeting of the minds panel

Students role-play different figures who bring alternative points of view to the discussion topic.

Set up the roles in advance and provide students with hints regarding critical pieces of

information that will be critical to the character’s success in the discussion.

Fishbowls

A small number of students must respond to questions distributed in a previous class session.

These students become experts in a given field and supplement the teacher as a source of

information and feedback.

Cold-calling

A single student must share with the class his/her conclusion supported by reasons and

evidence. This technique can be used as an individual homework assignment for which

students receive a question/issue in advance and have the opportunity to prepare answers. It

can also be used as a group activity during which students compare evidence and prepare

reasons without knowing who will be called upon to provide the final justification.

Case Study /Discussion Method

An open ended story or case study provides a vehicle for analysis, criticism, and reaching

conclusions.

Reciprocal Peer Questioning

Students prepare questions on a lecture, reading, experiment, etc. that they share with a group

and discuss to answer with supporting evidence. Each group chooses one question to share

with the large group as a discussion starter.

Conference Style Learning

Students read materials that build on previous class activities and prepare key ideas as well as

questions for debate. The teacher functions as a facilitator, time keeper, and discussion guide,

adding strategic questions to keep the discussion going. Students perform as experts on a given

issue.

Dialogue Analysis

Students receive written dialogues to analyze. In small groups, students must identify the

different viewpoints of each participant in the dialogue, analyzing the discussion for biases,

presence or exclusion of important evidence, alternative interpretations, misstatement of facts,

and errors in reasoning. Each group must decide which view is the most reasonable. After

coming to a conclusion, each group can act out their dialogue while offering a critical analysis of

the key points and successes.

Spontaneous Group Dialogue

One group of students are assigned roles to play in a discussion (such as leader, information

giver, opinion seeker, and disagreer). Four observer groups are formed with the functions of

determining what roles are being played by whom, identifying biases and errors in thinking,

evaluating reasoning skills, and examining ethical implications of the content.

Ambiguity

Provide students with conflicting information that they must think their way through in order

to create a response that can be justified.

Active Learning: Creating Excitement

in the Classroom

Charles C. Bonwell, Ph.D.

Active Learning Workshops

PO Box 407

Green Mountain Falls, CO 80819

(719) 684-9261

email: [email protected].com

www.active-learning-site.com

PREFACE

Thirty years ago, McKeachie wrote in the Handbook of Research on Teaching (Gage, 1963, P. 1125),

"College teaching and lecturing have been so long associated that when one pictures a college professor

in a classroom, he almost inevitably pictures him as lecturing." Few would argue with the statement that

the vast majority of today's professoriate were primarily lectured to as both undergraduates and as

graduate school students. It is not surprising, therefore, that lecturing continues to be our most prevalent

mode of instruction.

A host of national reports in the 1980’s, however, challenged college and university faculty to develop

instructional approaches that transform students from passive listeners to active learners. On first glance,

like many of the recommendations provided by "blue ribbon panels," this would seem "easier said than

done."

The incorporation of active learning strategies into the daily routine of classroom instruction can, and

should, be done. To help in this pursuit, this workshop will engage participants in specific, practical

teaching strategies designed to model the use of active learning in the classroom. The handout

summarizes the workshop's content and identifies resources for further study.

CONTENTS

WORKSHOP NOTES

What are the major characteristics associated with active learning? 2

Why is active learning important? 3

What obstacles or barriers prevent faculty from using active learning strategies? 4

How can these barriers be overcome? 4

Figure 1: The Active Learning Continuum 2

Figure 2: A Comparison of Low and High Risk Active Learning Strategies 6

Figure 3: A Classification of Instructional Strategies In Terms of Student

Activity Level and Instructor Risk 7

Figure 4: A Survey of Classroom Teaching Methods 8

References 12

Appendix One: Active Learning Strategies for Enhancing the Lecture 13

Appendix Two: Select Bibliography 17

Active Learning

I. In the context of the college classroom, what are the major characteristics

associated with active learning?

A. Some of the major characteristics associated with active learning strategies

include:

1. Students are involved in more than passive listening

2. Students are engaged in activities (e.g., reading, discussing, writing)

3. There is less emphasis placed on information transmission and greater

emphasis placed on developing student skills

4. There is greater emphasis placed on the exploration of attitudes and values

5. Student motivation is increased (especially for adult learners)

6. Students can receive immediate feedback from their instructor

7. Students are involved in higher order thinking (analysis, synthesis,

evaluation)

B. In summary, in the context of the college classroom, active learning involves

students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing.

C. A conceptual framework encompassing active learning might be a continuum

that moves from simple tasks on one end to complex tasks on the other. This is,

of course, an artificial, oversimplified construct, but it does provide both a

visual and conceptual model that is useful for designing courses that maximize

students’ intellectual engagement. Neither end of the continuum is considered

to be “better” or more “desirable” than the other. Simple tasks are defined as

short and relatively unstructured, while complex tasks are of longer duration--

perhaps the whole class period or longer-- and are carefully planned and

structured.

Figure 1

Simple tasks ------------------------------------------------------------ Complex tasks

The Active Learning Continuum

II. Why is active learning important?

A. The amount of information retained by students declines substantially after ten

minutes (Thomas, 1972).

B. Research comparing lecture versus discussion techniques was summarized in

the report Teaching and Learning in the Classroom: A Review of the Research

Literature prepared by the National Center for Research to Improve

Postsecondary Teaching and Learning (McKeachie, et. al., 1987). The review

concluded that

In those experiments involving measures of retention of information after the end

of a course, measures of problem solving, thinking, attitude change, or motivation

for further learning, the results tend to show differences favoring discussion

methods over lecture. (p. 70)

C. Numerous researchers and national reports also discussed the use of active

learning strategies in the classroom. Consider the following statements:

All genuine learning is active, not passive. It is a process of discovery in

which the student is the main agent, not the teacher.

(Adler, 1982)

Students learn what they care about and remember what they understand.

(Ericksen, 1984, p. 51)

Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in class

listening to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out

answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past

experiences, apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of

themselves.

(Chickering and Gamson, 1987, p. 3)

The sort of teaching we propose requires that we encourage active learning and

that we become knowledgeable about the ways in which our students hear,

understand, interpret, and integrate ideas.

(AAC Task Group on General Education, 1988, p. 25)

One must learn by doing the thing, for though you think you know it-- you have no

certainty until you try.

(Sophocles, 5th c. B.C.)

III. What obstacles or barriers prevent faculty from using active learning

strategies?

Six commonly mentioned obstacles to using active learning strategies include:

A. You cannot cover as much course content in the time available;

B. Devising active learning strategies takes too much pre-class preparation;

C. Large class sizes prevents implementation of active learning strategies;

D. Most instructors think of themselves as being good lecturers;

E. There is a lack of materials or equipment needed to support active learning

approaches;

F. Students resist non-lecture approaches.

IV. How can these barriers be overcome?

A. We believe that there are two primary sets of obstacles that prevent faculty from

using active learning strategies in the classroom: (1) the six potential obstacles

noted above, and (2) the fact that using active learning strategies involves risk

B. With respect to the six commonly reported obstacles, the following should be

noted:

1. Admittedly, the use of active learning strategies reduces the amount of

available lecture time that can be devoted to content coverage. Faculty who

regularly use active learning strategies typically find other ways to ensure

that students learn assigned course content (e.g., using reading and writing

assignments, through their classroom examinations, etc.)

2 The amount of pre-class preparation time needed to implement active

learning strategies will be greater than that needed to "recycle old lectures;"

it will not necessarily take any more time than that needed to create

thorough and thoughtful new lectures.

3. Large class size may restrict the use of certain active learning strategies

(e.g., it is difficult to involve all students in discussion in groups larger than

40) but certainly not all. For example, large classes can be divided into

small groups for discussion activities, writing assignments can be read and

critiqued by students instead of the instructor, etc.. See Weimer (1987) for

several excellent articles on how this can be done.

4. Most instructors see themselves as good lecturers and therefore see no

reason to change. Though lecturing is potentially a useful means of

transmitting information, teaching does not equal learning; this can be seen

clearly in the painful disparity between what we think we have effectively

taught, and what students indicate they have learned on the examination

papers that we grade.

5. The lack of materials or equipment needed to support active learning can be

a barrier to the use of some active learning strategies but certainly not all.

For example, asking students to summarize in writing the material they have

read or to form pairs to evaluate statements or assertions does not require

any equipment.

6. Students resist non-lecturing approaches because active learning

alternatives provide a sharp contrast to the very familiar passive listening

role to which they have become accustomed. With explicit instruction in

how to actively participate and learn in less-traditional modes, students

soon come to favor the new approaches.

C. A second set of potentially more difficult obstacles to overcome involves

increasing one's willingness to face two types of risks.

1. There are risks that students will not:

a. participate actively

b. learn sufficient course content

c. use higher order thinking skills

d. enjoy the experience

2. There are risks that you as a faculty member will not:

a. feel in control of the class

b. feel self-confident

c. possess the needed skills

d. be viewed by others as teaching in an established fashion

D. Though the classroom use of active learning strategies will always involve some

level of risk, by carefully selecting only those active learning strategies that are

at a personally comfortable risk level, you can maximize your likelihood of

success. Examine Figure 2 below which contrasts dimensions of active learning

strategies with regard to their level of risk.

Figure 2

A Comparison of Low and High Risk Active Learning Strategies

Dimension Low Risk Strategies High Risk Strategies

Class Time Required relatively short relatively long

Degree of Planning carefully planned spontaneous

Degree of structure more structured less structured

Subject Matter relatively concrete relatively abstract

Potential for Controversy less controversial more controversial

Students' Prior Knowledge

of the Subject Matter better informed less informed

Students' Prior Knowledge

of the Teaching Technique familiar unfamiliar

Instructor's Prior Experience

with the Teaching Technique considerable limited

Pattern of Interaction between faculty & students among students

E. Instructional approaches can be usefully classified in terms of instructor risk they

entail. Figure 3 classifies some teaching techniques in terms of these two

criteria:

Figure 3

A Classification of Instructional Strategies By Levels of Instructor Risk

Lower Risk Activities

Pause Procedure

Short Writes

Summarize last lecture, readings, etc.

What didn’t you understand?

Analytical lists

Journal entries

Thumbs up/thumbs down response to statement

Surveys or questionnaires

Formative (ungraded) quizzes

Think-Pair-Share

Brainstorming

Pairs/groups develop an outline of the lecture

Structured group discussions (specific questions provided)

Higher Risk Activities

Group Discussion (no structure)

Guided lecture

Individual/group presentations

Pairs/groups develop applications related to lecture content

Pairs/groups write test questions related to lecture material

Students analyze a problem, poem, photography, etc.

Students work a problem then evaluate each others’ work

Role plays illustrating a concept from lecture

Responsive lecture

F. Because lecture classes have been the prevailing instructional approach seen most often

by faculty when they were undergraduate and graduate students, many faculty have had

limited personal experience with, and few role models for, active learning alternatives.

To help identify your personal levels of risk and the active learning strategies you might

be willing to try in future classes, complete the self-assessment that follows as Figure 4:

Figure 4

A SURVEY OF CLASSROOM TEACHING METHODS

DIRECTIONS: There are many different ways faculty make use of class time. We would

like you to describe the teaching strategies you have used in the class you teach most often.

Step 1:Carefully read the list of teaching strategies (i.e., the left-hand column) and

indicate with a check mark ( 3 ) if you used this teaching method the last time you

taught this class.

Step 2:Then indicate with a check mark ( % ) whether you would be willing to try this

teaching method the next time you teach this class.

Teaching Strategy Last Time Next Time

I lectured during the entire class period. ( ) ( )

I showed a film or video for the entire class period. ( ) ( )

During lecture, I gave a short, ungraded quiz ( ) ( )

to check student comprehension of material

I assigned a short writing activity without having ( ) ( )

class discussion afterward (e.g., writing end-of-class

summaries, providing questions over material)

I had students complete a survey instrument ( ) ( )

I had students complete a self-assessment activity ( ) ( )

(e.g., complete a questionnaire about their beliefs,

values, behaviors)

I took the class on a field trip ( ) ( )

I assigned a laboratory exercise that was done by ( ) ( )

students

I lectured with at least 15 minutes of time devoted to ( ) ( )

recitation or asking questions designed to check student

understanding of material (interaction between

teacher-student/student-teacher)

I led a class discussion focused on a visual/audio ( ) ( )

stimulus (e.g., a picture, cartoon, graph, song)

I had students engage in a brainstorming activity ( ) ( )

(i.e., a group activity designed to generate as many

ideas as possible)

I lectured with at least 15 minutes of time devoted to ( ) ( )

class discussion (interaction between student-student,

with occasional questions/remarks by teacher)

I assigned a short writing activity that was followed by ( ) ( )

at least 15 minutes of class discussion

I assigned an in-class reading activity that was followed ( ) ( )

by a significant class discussion lasting 15 minutes or

I assigned a small group discussion or project (e.g., case ( ) ( )

study work)

I had students complete a problem solving game or ( ) ( )

simulation in groups

I assigned individual student presentations (e.g., speeches, ( ) ( )

reports)

I assigned small group presentations (e.g., debates, panel ( ) ( )

discussions, plays)

I assigned a student-centered class discussion (e.g., ( ) ( )

students developed the questions and lead the discussion

that followed)

I led a role playing activity ( ) ( )

G. An enhanced lecture is defined as a series of short, mini-lectures punctuated by

specific active learning events designed to meet class objectives. Using this

model, the enhanced lecture could fall anywhere on the active learning

continuum, depending on the complexity and frequency of the strategies used.

A simple enhanced lecture could involve two to three pauses during the lecture

to allow students to compare notes or ask questions. Those instructors who are

familiar and comfortable with more complex strategies might choose to

incorporate into the class period lengthy group activities focused on skill

development, punctuated with brief mini-lectures that summarize a previous

activity or create a transition for the next activity. Again, the extent to which

these active learning strategies are incorporated into the lecture depends on the

course objectives and the instructor’s teaching style. For example, one construct

for developing course objectives and associated active learning strategies ( for

more examples, see Appendix One) would be to ask the questions, as a result of

this course:

What should students know (knowledge)?

What should students be able to do (skills)

What should students feel (attitudes)?

H. Risk Activity

From the activities you would be willing to try next time you teach a class, which do you

consider to have the greatest personal risk for you? Once you have made that decision,

please answer the following questions:

1. What appeals to you about taking the risk?

2. If you took the risk, what could go wrong?

3. If the things you feared most were to happen, what could you do to correct the situation?

I. According to Gorham (1988) the following behaviors promote student learning:

1. Appropriate use of humor

2. Praising student performance

3. Engaging students outside of the classroom

4. Appropriate level of self-disclosure

5. Encouraging students to talk

6. Asking questions about student viewpoints or feelings

7. Following up on topics raised by students even if not directly related to class

material.

8. Referring to “our” class and what “we” are doing.

J. You can successfully overcome each of the major obstacles or barriers to the use of active

learning strategies, and reduce the possibility of failure, by gradually incorporating teaching

strategies that increase student activity level and instructor risk into your regular teaching

style. Choose what is appropriate for you within the context of your discipline!

References

AAC Task Group on General Education. (1988). A new vitality in general education.

Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges.

Adler, M.J. (1982). The Paideia proposal: An education manifesto. NY: Macmillan.

Angelo, T.A. & Cross, P.C. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques. Second edition. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bloom, B., Englehart, E., Furst, W.H., & Krathwohl, D., eds. (1956). Taxonomy of educational

objectives (Cognitive domain). New York: David McKay Co.

Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the

classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1. Washington, D.C.: The

George Washington University.

Chickering, A.W. & Gamson, Z.F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice. AAHE

Bulletin, 39(7), 3-7.

Davis, B.G. (1993). Tools for teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ericksen, S. (1984). The essence of good teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Gage, N.L. (1963), Handbook of Research on Teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Gorham, J. (January, 1988). “The relationship between verbal teacher immediacy

behaviors and student learning. Communication Education, 37 (1), 40-53

Hake, R.R. (1998). Interactive engagement v. traditional methods: A six-thousand-student

survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of

Physics, 66, 64-74

Lowman, J. (1995). Mastering the techniques of teaching. Second edition. San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass.

McKeachie, W.J. (1994). Teaching tips. Ninth Edition. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath

McKeachie, W.J., Pintrich, P.R., Lin, Y.G., & Smith, D.A. (1987). Teaching and learning

in the college classroom: A review of the literature. Ann Arbor: National Center for

Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning, The University of

Michigan.

Ruhl, K. L., Hughes, C. A., & Schloss, P. J. (1987, Winter). Using the pause procedure to

enhance lecture recall. Teacher Education and Special Education, 10, 14-18.

Sutherland, T.E. & Bonwell, C.C. eds. (Fall, 1996). Using active learning in college

classes. New Directions for Teaching and Learning , no. 67. San Francisco: Jossey-

Bass.

Thomas, J. (1972). The variation of memory with time for information appearing during a

lecture. Studies in Adult Education, 4, 57-62.

Weimer, M.G. (Ed.). (1987). Teaching large classes well. New Directions for Teaching and

Learning, Number 32. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Appendix One

ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING THE LECTURE

Activities to include in the first ten minutes of a lecture.

In an individual writing activity have students summarize the main ideas from the previous class

session and speculate (or pose questions) about the upcoming class session.

Ask students to identify one question from the assigned readings that they would like to have

answered in class (could be done prior to class). (Open book). Students then share their question

with 3 peers and pick one question from the group to pose to the instructor. Finally, each group

asks the instructor a question.

Have students gather in groups of 3 or 4 and discuss a) the issues they expect will be relevant to

the day’s scheduled lecture topic and/or b) what they expect to get from the lecture and how they

think it can be used (applied) in their work or outside life.

Give students the plot to the lecture and then begin class by having them write their reflections

on a question based on the upcoming lecture. Students can then turn to the person next to them

and discuss their responses for five minutes.

Put students into groups of three and have them develop a set of “consensus answers” to a series

of eight to ten questions about the topic for the day. After providing correct answers followed by

a discussion, reward the group with the most correct answers.

The students could work in small groups to brainstorm and possibly organize past experiences

that may relate to the class objective for the day.

Present a concept or a group of concepts to students at the beginning of class. On plain paper, 1)

they are instructed to brainstorm ideas related to the concept(s), and 2) draw the relationships

among the concept(s) and their ideas. (At the end of class, they will be asked to do this again).

This activity may be done in pairs.

During the first 10 minutes provide the students with a problem covered in their previous night’s

reading. Ask them to hypothesize how the problem might be resolved. Then have them compare

their hypothesis with the actual resolution. Have them discuss those factors which were

responsible for the differences between the hypothesis and the actual solution.

Activities for the middle 30-45 minutes of class.

Students are randomly assigned to groups (4-6 students) the first class meeting of the quarter. In

the first group meeting they get to know each other, name their group, select a spokesperson,

select a topic from a list for a group presentation at the end of the quarter, and develop questions

that the group wants to ask the instructor (“no holds barred”). This is used in an organized

behavior class. Variations, i.e. omitting topic selection, can be used in any class at any time. The

group is used in subsequent classes for experiential exercises related to topics.

Use "thumbs up, thumbs down or thumbs sideways". Make a statement about the content and tell

students to put their thumbs up if they agree with the statement - thumbs down if they disagree or

thumbs sideways if they don’t know. Discussion on why the choices were made follows.

Break the students up in small groups (four to five) and assign a role-playing task to highlight

different methods/circumstances illustrated by the text or lecture. The students must plan and

then act out a short scenario which illustrates the method assigned to their group.

Round table exercise: write a response to a question, then pass it to the person on your left until

all in the group have had the opportunity to respond. Responses can also be passed between

groups.

Cooperative paraphrase exercise as part of a discussion between pairs (“What I understand you

to have said is...........”).

Stop and have students engage in a short write ("What do you think and/or feel about what has

been said?")

After reading a short essay describing and discussing a concept that is relevant to the task at hand

each student reflects on the application of this concept to her life. She then shares with another

student her ideas. Feedback (questions of clarification, paraphrasing, etc.) is required before the

second student can share his thoughts. Then both students draw conclusions and share those

conclusions.

Have students work in small groups to complete a cognitive map (a diagram showing

relationships between elements) of concepts addressed in class. Large group discussion follows.

Have students work in small groups to complete an ungraded mini-test over concepts addressed

in class. Discussion of the answers follows.

Distribute clearly worded questions, relevant to the topic introduced in the first ten minutes of

class, to small groups. Each group discusses their topic, using notes and text, and presents a brief

answer to the class. The remaining time is used to summarize and integrate the responses.

Have students find/report statistical information and then prepare generalizations based on those

results. For instance, in a geography class, use the current edition of Goodes’ World Atlas and

have students in groups list the top four Lemo alloy metal producers (countries) from the atlas.

Instructor will write these on the board (e.g. Chromicism, countries 1-4, etc.). At this point, the

board will be covered with statistics of various metals (“boring” according to students). Then

have students work in small groups to make four generalizations about these countries.

When there is a topic which lends itself to the discussion, differences of opinion, etc., and a total

class discussion would be “chaotic” or perhaps only a few students might participate, the class is

divided into smaller groups (of their choosing or mine). The topic is then addressed in small

groups with a “reporter” in each group. After a 10-15 minute time frame, the reporters are asked

to exchange places within the groups, i.e., each reporter ends up in a different group, and

continues the exercise sharing input from his/her previous group.

After lecturing for 10-12 minutes with material and information brought by the instructor from

sources beyond the class assigned readings, pause for 3-5 minutes. Students, working in ad hoc

pairs with someone seated next to them, share what they have understood from the lecture and

prepare a two-three statement summary, which a few groups can share subsequently with the

entire class (on a voluntary basis).

Require groups of students to determine how to “act out” a concept under discussion: i.e.

independent assortment of alleles or electron transport. This would follow the introductory

information in the lecture.

During a discussion of a specific technique (i.e., software development), review the basics of the

technique. Assign short group tasks to solve a specific problem in phases. Stop the group and

discuss the results. Then assign a more complex task until you get the students to solve the entire

problem. Use the last few minutes to review the task and assign individual homework using the

same technique.

Have a structured group discussion following a film, focusing on controversial issues, ethics,

etc.. Provide specific questions to be answered by small groups, each having a facilitator and

recorder/reporter.

Have question/answer period where students are assigned to bring one question raised in the

course of reading their assignments, on a 3x5 card. Don’t use too often - the questions become

pretty dull!

Have the students form small groups (four to five people) and provide each group with a real-life

example related to the course content. The students critique the example using what they have

learned. For instance, in a research course they could be given a real survey that they can

redesign and improve.

Activities to include in the last ten minutes of a lecture.

Hand out 4X6 cards to the students (one per student) and ask them to write down on the cards

(one side) the major points covered in the class or the purpose of that specific class. Then, I have

them discuss what they have written with a partner for about two minutes. Then, I ask them to

write a revised version of the points or purpose on the reverse side of the card, which they hand

in as they are leaving class.

Have students working in pairs or groups develop an outline of the day's presentation.

Have students develop an alternative way to present the lecture material

Have students form groups of three or four. Introduce a problem related to today’s content. Ask

groups to solve the problem, proposing three alternative strategies towards its resolution.

Divide the class into groups of three to five, depending on size of class. Ask each group to

propose three goals which they would like the class to accomplish at the next meeting.

Have students form groups and write one or two good multiple choice questions and present

these questions (via overhead) to the class. Discuss the questions.

Have students review each other's notes to enhance learning.

Have students answer the discussion questions at the end of the assigned chapter. They then

explain their answers to the class.

Have students summarize the main topics of discussion in one or two paragraphs and then relate

them to yesterday's discussion.

Have students evaluate each other’s work-- in this time frame, something very small (notecards

for research papers, for example), making sure they have grading instructions. To ensure low

risk: create short, structured specific roles. Make sure student's know each other’s names.

Have students keep a journal, taking a few minutes to write down their feelings and thoughts

regarding various topics.

Select Active Learning Articles (1995-1999)

Charles C. Bonwell, May, 2000

This is a bibliography in the making. Its purpose is not to provide an exhaustive bibliography:

rather it hopes to present examples of good practice. If you are aware of other articles that would

be useful for teachers engaging in active learning, email me at [email protected] and I

will include them in the next revision.

Business

Berg, J.D., Hughes, J., McCabe, J., & Rayburn, K. (1995). Capital market experience for

financial accounting students. Contemporary Accounting Research, 11(2), 941-958.

Bradford, B.M., & Peck, M.W. (1997). Achieving AECC outcomes through the seven principles

for good practice in undergraduate education. Journal of Education for Business, 72, 364-

368.

Krunweide, T. & Bline, D. (1997). Encouraging active learning through the use of student

developed problems. The Accounting Educators’ Journal, 9(2), 116-129.

Seipel, C. & Tunnell, L. (1995). Using a comment sheet to grade accounting written assignments.

Accounting Educators’ Journal, 7(2), 159-165.

Smith, D.C., Nelson, S.J., & Moncada, S.M. What writing skills should accounting students be

taught? (1998). Business Education Forum, 52(4), 43-44.

Humanities

Bahner, S. (1995). Short takes on writing: The 60-minute collaborative paper. College Teaching,

43(1), 14-15.

Jones, P., Taylor, A. & Tate, D. (1997). Flip it! And you be the judge: Two cooperative-learning

activities to teach foreign languages. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 7(2), 5-7.

Mark, B. L. & T.E. Jacobson. (1995). Teaching anxious students skills for the electronic library.

College Teaching, 43(1),28-29.

Pebworth, M. & Cooper, G. (1997). The poster/POST-IT activity: In the discussion section and

beyond. College Teaching, 45(1), 7-9.

Sciences/Applied Sciences

Becker, E.S. (1997). Teaching ethics as a writing-intensive, ability-based course. Journal of

Pharmacy Teaching, 6(½), 139-144

Dean, E.E. (1996). Teaching the proof process: A model for discovery learning. College

Teaching, 44(2), 52-55.

Deering, C.G., & Shaw, S.J. (1997). Dealing with difficult students in the classroom. Nurse

Educator, 22(5), 19-23.

Garrett, M., Schoener, L., & Hood, L. (1996). Debate: A teaching strategy to improve verbal

communication and critical-thinking skills. Nurse Educator, 21(4), 37-40.

Gosser, D.G. & Roth, V. (1998). The workshop chemistry project: Peer-led team learning.

Journal of Chemical Education, 75(2), 185-187.

Haddad, A.M. (1997). Teaching ethics as a writing-intensive, ability-based course. Journal of

Pharmacy Teaching, 6(½), 49-64.

Hare, A.C. (1997). Active Learning and assessment in mathematics. College Teaching, 45(2), 76-

77.

Herreid, C.F. (1998). Sorting potatoes for Miss Bonner: Bringing order to case-study

methodology through a classification scheme. Journal of College Science Teaching, 27(4),

236-239.

Hodges, L.C. (March, 1999). Active learning in upper-level chemistry courses: A biochemistry

example. Journal of Chemical Education, 76(3), 376-77.

Hofer, B.K. (1999). Instructional context in the college mathematics classroom: epistemological

beliefs and student motivation. Journal of Staff, Program & Organizational Development,

16(2), 73-82.

Kovac, J. (January, 1999). Student active learning methods in general chemistry. Journal of

Chemical Education, 76(1), 120-124.

Lunsford, B.E., & Herzog, M.J.R. (1997). Active learning in anatomy and physiology: Student

reactions & outcomes in a nontraditional A&P course. The American Biology Teacher, 59(2),

80-84.

Mahavier, W.T. (1997). A gentle discovery method (the modified Texas approach). College

Teaching, 45(4), 132-135.

Paulson, D.R. (August, 1999). Active learning and cooperative learning in the organic chemistry

lecture class. Journal of Chemical Education, 76(8), 1136-40.

Richards, L.G. & others. (1995). Promoting active learning with cases and instructional modules.

Journal of Engineering Education, 84(4), 375-381.

Rice, R.E. (1998). “Scientific writing”—a course to improve the writing of science students.

Journal of College Science Teaching, 27(4), 267-272.

Rosenthal, J.S. (1995). Active learning strategies in advanced mathematics classes. Studies in

Higher Education, 20(2), 223-228.

Savarese, M. (1998). Collaborative learning in an upper-division university geobiology course.

Journal of Geoscience Education, 46(1), 61-66.

Summers, P. (1997). Math specimens. The National Teaching and Learning Forum, 6(4), 10-11.

Sutcliffe, R.G., Cogdell, B., Hansell, M.H., & McAteer, E. (February, 1999). Active learning in a

large first year biology class: A collaborative resource-based study project on “AIDS in

Science and Society”. Innovations in Education and Training International, 36(1), 53-64.

Towns, M.H. (1998). How do I get my students to work together? Getting cooperative learning

started. Journal of Chemical Education, 75(1), 67-69.

Weinstein, B.D., (19?). Teaching ethics as a writing-intensive, ability-based course. Journal of

Pharmacy Teaching, 6(½), 1932.

Zoller, U. (May, 1999). Scaling-up of higher-order cognitive skills-oriented college chemistry

teaching: An action-oriented research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(5), 583-

96.

Social Sciences

Blinde, E.M. (1995). Teaching sociology of sport: An active learning approach. Teaching

Sociology, 23(3), 264-268.

Britt, M.A. (1995). Research on trial: A pedagogy for research methods instruction. Teaching of

Psychology: Ideas and Innovations. Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Undergraduate

Teaching of Psychology (9th, Ellenville, NY, March 22-24) ED 389374 JC960019.

Carkenord, D.M. (1996). A group exercise to explore employee ethics in business-related

psychology courses. Teaching of Psychology, 23(2), 100-102.

Conn, C.L. (1995). Graphing-to-learn in economics. College Teaching 43(3), 110-111.

Henderson, B.B. (1995). Critical-thinking exercises for the history of psychology course.

Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 60-63.

Giordano, P.J. & Hammer, E.Y. (1999). In-class collaborative learning: Practical suggestions

from the teaching trenches. Teaching of Psychology, 26(1), 42-44.

Hoban, G. (Fall,1999). Using a reflective framework for experiential education in teacher

education classes. Journal of Experiential Education, 22(2), 104-111.

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Possible Applications:

As you reflect upon the session to this point, how might you apply what you have heard to your

courses or classroom?

______________________________________________________________________________

The ABCDs of Writing Instructional Objectives

The ABCD method of writing objectives is an excellent way to structure instructional objectives. In this

method, "A" is for audience, "B" is for behavior, "C" for conditions and "D" is for degree of mastery needed.

Example: -"Given a sentence written in the past or present tense, the student will be able to re-write the

sentence in future tense with no errors in tense or tense contradiction (i.e., I will see her yesterday.)."

The key here is to use verbs that indicate a clearly observable and measurable action. Appropriate action verbs

for the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains are listed below.

Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain

Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive learning, originated by Benjamin Bloom and collaborators in the 1950's,

describes several categories of cognitive learning.

ORIGINAL BLOOM COGNITIVE TAXONOMY

suggested that provocative questions

should be brief and contain only one or two issues at a time

for class reflection. It is also important to provide deliberate

silence, or ‘‘wait’’ time, for students upon asking ques-

tions.

22,27

Waiting at least 5 seconds allows the students to

think and encourages thought. Elliot

argued that waiting

even as long as 10 seconds allows the students time to think

about possibilities. If a thought question is asked, time must

be given for the students to think about the answer.

Classroom Discussion and Debates

Classroom discussion and debates can promote critical

thinking. Various techniques are available. Bernstein

devel-

oped a negotiation model in which students were confronted

with credible but antagonistic arguments. Students were chal-

lenged to deal with the tension between the two arguments.

This tension is believed to be one component driving critical

thought. Controversial issues in psychology, such as animal

rights and pornography, were presented and discussed. Stu-

dents responded favorably and, as the class progressed over

time, they reported being more comfortable arguing both sides

of an issue. In athletic training education, a negotiation model

could be employed to discuss certain topics, such as the use

of heat versus ice or the use of ultrasound versus electric stim-

ulation in the treatment of an injury. Students could be as-

signed to defend the use of a certain treatment. Another strat-

egy to promote students to seek both sides of an issue is pro

and con grids.

Students create grids with the pros and cons

or advantages or disadvantages of an issue or treatment. De-

bate was used to promote CT in second-year medical stu-

dents.

After debating, students reported improvements in lit-

erature searching, weighing risks and benefits of treatments,

and making evidence-based decisions. Regardless of the teach-

ing methods used, students should be exposed to analyzing the

costs and benefits of issues, problems, and treatments to help

prepare them for real-life decision making.

Observing the reasoning skills of another person was used

by Galotti

to promote CT. Students were paired, and 4 rea-

soning tasks were administered. As the tasks were adminis-

tered, students were told to talk aloud through the reasoning

process of their decisions. Students who were observing were

to write down key phrases and statements. This same process

can be used in an injury-evaluation class. One student per-

forms an evaluation while the others in the class observe.

Classroom discussion can then follow. Another alternative is

to divide students into pairs. One student performs an evalu-

ation while the other observes. After the evaluation is com-

pleted, the students discuss with each other the evaluation (Ta-

ble 5 presents examples). Another option is to have athletic

training students observe a student peer or ATC during a field

266 Volume 38 •Number 3 •September 2003

Table 6. Exercises to Promote Critical Thought

●Summarize 5 major points made in this chapter. Identify an individual

you believe would disagree with these points. Write the reactions and

counterarguments of this individual to the major points you identified.

●Discuss the essence of this chapter using a metaphor.

●Explain the chapter to your neighbor, who has a high school edu-

cation and has not been in the work force for 15 years. How would

your explanation differ if you were explaining the reading to your

chemistry professor? Why, and what assumptions did you make

when you were developing each explanation?

●How might the information you gained from this reading affect your

life personally and professionally?

evaluation of an athlete. While observing, the student can

write down any questions or topics to discuss after the eval-

uation, providing the student an opportunity to ask why certain

evaluation methods were and were not used.

Daily newspaper clippings directly related to current class-

room content also allow an instructor to incorporate discussion

into the classroom.

For example, an athlete who has been

reported to have died as a result of heat illness could provide

subject matter for classroom discussion or various written as-

signments. Such news also affords the instructor an opportu-

nity to discuss the affective components involved. Students

could be asked to step into the role of the ATC and think

about the reported implications of this death from different

perspectives. They could also list any assumptions made by

the article or follow-up questions they would ask if they could

interview the persons involved. This provides a forum to en-

lighten students to think for themselves and realize that not

each person in the room perceives the article the same way.

Whatever the approach taken, investigators and educators

agree that assignments and arguments are useful to promote

thought among students.

Written Assignments

In-class and out-of-class assignments can also serve as pow-

erful vehicles to allow students to expand their thinking pro-

cesses. Emig

believed that involving students in writing

serves their learning uniquely because writing, as process and

product, possesses a cluster of attributes that correspond

uniquely to certain powerful learning strategies. As a general

rule, assignments for the purpose of promoting thought should

be short (not long term papers) and focus on the aspect of

thinking.

Research or 1-topic papers may or may not be a

student’s own thoughts, and Meyers

argued that term papers

often prove to be exercises in recapitulating the thoughts of

others.

Allegretti and Frederick

used a variety of cases from a

book to promote CT regarding different ethical issues. Count-

less case-study situations can be created to allow students to

practice managing situations and assess clinical decision mak-

ing. For example, after reading the National Athletic Trainers’

Association position statement on lightning, a student can be

asked to address the following scenario: ‘‘Explain how you

would handle a situation in which a coach has kept athletes

outside practicing unsafely. What information would you use

from this statement to explain your concerns? Explain why

you picked the specific concerns.’’ These questions can be

answered individually or in small groups and then discussed

in class. The students will pick different concerns based on

their thinking. This variety in answers is not only one way to

show that no answer is right or wrong but also allows students

to defend their answers to peers. Questions posed on listservs

are excellent avenues to enrich a student’s education. Using

these real-life questions, students read about real issues and

concerns of ATCs. These topics present excellent opportunities

to pose questions to senior-level athletic training students to

examine how they would handle the situation. This provides

the students a safe place to analyze the problem and form a

decision. Once the students make a decision, additional fac-

tors, assumptions, and inferences can be discussed by having

all students share the solution they chose.

Lantz and Meyers

used personification and assigned stu-

dents to assume the character of a drug. Students were to relate

themselves to the drug, in the belief that drugs exhibit many

unique characteristics, such as belonging to a family, interac-

tion problems, adverse reactions, and so forth. The develop-

ment of analogies comes from experience and comparing one

theory or scenario to another with strong similarities.

Fopma-Loy and Ulrich

identified various CT classroom

exercises educators can implement to promote higher-order

thought (Table 6). Many incorporate a personal reaction from

the student and allow the student to link that learning to his

or her feelings. This personal reaction of feelings to cognitive

information is important to show the relevance of material.

Last, poems are another avenue that can be used to promote

CT.

Although poems are widely thought of as an assignment

in an English class, athletic training students may benefit from

this creative writing activity. The focus of this type of home-

work activity should be on reviewing content creatively. The

lines of the poem need not rhyme as long as appropriate con-

tent is explained in the poem. For example, a poem on the

knee could be required to include signs, symptoms, and ana-

tomical content of one injury or various injuries. A poem on

head injuries could focus on the different types of history

questions that should be asked. Students should understand

that the focus of the assignment is a creative review of the

material and not a test of their poetic qualities. The instructor

should complete a poem as well. To break the ice, the instruc-

tor’s poem can be read first, followed by a student volunteering

to read his or her poem.

CONCLUSIONS

Regardless of the methods used to promote CT, care must

be taken to consider the many factors that may inhibit a stu-

dent from thinking critically. The student’s disposition to think

critically is a major factor, and if a deficit in a disposition is

noticed, this should be nurtured. Students should be encour-

aged to be inquisitive, ask questions, and not believe and ac-

cept everything they are told. As pointed out by Loving and

Wilson

and Oermann,

thought develops with practice and

evaluation over time using multiple strategies. Additionally,

faculty should be aware of their course goals and learning

objectives. If these goals and objectives are stated as higher-

order thought outcomes, then activities that promote CT

should be included in classroom activities and assignments.

Finally, it is important that CT skills be encouraged and re-

inforced in all classes by teaching faculty, not only at the col-

lege level but at every level of education. Although huge gains

in CT may not be reflected in all college students, we can still

plant the seed and encourage students to use their thinking

abilities in the hope these will grow over time.

Journal of Athletic Training 267

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Journal of Athletic Training 263

Journal of Athletic Training 2003;38(3):263–267

qby the National Athletic Trainers’ Association, Inc

www.journalofathletictraining.org

Active Learning Strategies to Promote

Critical Thinking

Stacy E. Walker

William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ

Stacy E. Walker, PhD, ATC, provided conception and design; acquisition and analysis and interpretation of the data; and

drafting, critical revision, and final approval of the article.

Address correspondence to Stacy E. Walker, PhD, ATC, Department of EMS, 300 Pompton Road, William Paterson University,

Wayne, NJ 07470. Address e-mail to [email protected].

Objective:

To provide a brief introduction to the definition

and disposition to think critically along with active learning strat-

egies to promote critical thinking.

Data Sources:

I searched MEDLINE and Educational Re-

sources Information Center (ERIC) from 1933 to 2002 for lit-

erature related to critical thinking, the disposition to think criti-

cally, questioning, and various critical-thinking pedagogic

techniques.

Data Synthesis:

The development of critical thinking has

been the topic of many educational articles recently. Numerous

instructional methods exist to promote thought and active learn-

ing in the classroom, including case studies, discussion meth-

ods, written exercises, questioning techniques, and debates.

Three methods—questioning, written exercises, and discussion

and debates—are highlighted.

Conclusions/Recommendations:

The definition of critical

thinking, the disposition to think critically, and different teach-

ing strategies are featured. Although not appropriate for all

subject matter and classes, these learning strategies can be

used and adapted to facilitate critical thinking and active par-

ticipation.

Key Words:

athletic training education

The development of critical thinking (CT) has been a

focus of educators at every level of education for years.

Imagine a certified athletic trainer (ATC) who does not

consider all of the injury options when performing an assess-

ment or an ATC who fails to consider using any new rehabil-

itation techniques because the ones used for years have

worked. Envision ATCs who are unable to react calmly during

an emergency because, although they designed the emergency

action plan, they never practiced it or mentally prepared for

an emergency. These are all examples of situations in which

ATCs must think critically.

Presently, athletic training educators are teaching many

competencies and proficiencies to entry-level athletic training

students. As Davies

pointed out, CT is needed in clinical

decision making because of the many changes occurring in

education, technology, and health care reform. Yet little infor-

mation exists in the athletic training literature regarding CT

and methods to promote thought. Fuller,

using the Bloom

taxonomy, classified learning objectives, written assignments,

and examinations as CT and nonCT. Athletic training educa-

tors fostered more CT in their learning objectives and written

assignments than in examinations. The disposition of athletic

training students to think critically exists but is weak. Leaver-

Dunn et al

concluded that teaching methods that promote the

various components of CT should be used. My purpose is to

provide a brief introduction to the definition and disposition

to think critically along with active learning strategies to pro-

mote CT.

DEFINITION OF CRITICAL THINKING

Four commonly referenced definitions of critical thinking

are provided in Table 1. All of these definitions describe an

individual who is actively engaged in the thought process. Not

only is this person evaluating, analyzing, and interpreting the

information, he or she is also analyzing inferences and as-

sumptions made regarding that information. The use of CT

skills such as analysis of inferences and assumptions shows

involvement in the CT process. These cognitive skills are em-

ployed to form a judgment. Reflective thinking, defined by

Dewey

as the type of thinking that consists of turning a sub-

ject over in the mind and giving it serious and consecutive

consideration, can be used to evaluate the quality of judg-

ment(s) made.

Unfortunately, not everyone uses CT when

solving problems. Therefore, in order to think critically, there

must be a certain amount of self-awareness and other char-

acteristics present to enable a person to explain the analysis

and interpretation and to evaluate any inferences made.

DISPOSITION TO THINK CRITICALLY

Recently researchers have begun to investigate the relation-

ship between the disposition to think critically and CT skills.

Many believe that in order to develop CT skills, the disposition

to think critically must be nurtured as well.

4,10–12

Although

research related to the disposition to think critically has re-

cently increased, as far back as 1933 Dewey

argued that pos-

session of knowledge is no guarantee for the ability to think

well but that an individual must desire to think. Open mind-

edness, wholeheartedness, and responsibility were 3 of the at-

titudes he felt were important traits of character to develop the

habit of thinking.

More recently, the American Philosophical Association Del-

phi report on critical thinking

was released in 1990. This re-

port resulted from a questionnaire regarding CT completed by

264 Volume 38 •Number 3 •September 2003

Table 1. Various Definitions of Critical Thinking

●Purposeful thinking in which individuals systematically and habitually

impose criteria and intellectual standards upon their thought

●A composition of skills and attitudes that involve the ability to rec-

ognize the existence of problems and to support the truthfulness of

the problems

●The propensity and skill to engage in an activity with reflective skep-

ticism

●The process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment

Table 2. Dispositions to Think Critically

Disposition Definition

Inquisitiveness One’s intellectual curiosity and desire for

learning

Open mindedness Being tolerant of divergent views and sensi-

tive to the possibility of one’s own bias

Systematicity Being orderly, organized, focused, and dili-

gent in inquiry

Analyticity Prizing the application of reasoning and use

of evidence to resolve problems, anticipat-

ing potential conceptual or practical difficul-

ties, and consistently being alert to the

need to intervene

Truth seeking Being eager to seek the best knowledge in a

given context, courageous about asking

questions, and honest and objective about

pursuing inquiry even if the findings do not

support one’s self-interests or one’s pre-

conceived opinions

Self-confidence Trusting the soundness of one’s own rea-

soned judgments and leading others in the

rational resolution of problems

Maturity Approaching problems, inquiry, and decision

making with a sense that some problems

are necessarily ill-structured; some situa-

tions admit more than 1 plausible option;

and many times judgments must be made

based on standards, contexts, and evi-

dence that preclude certainty

Table 3. Common Assumptions of Nursing Faculty

●Beginning students do not know how to problem solve

●There is a ‘‘best’’ way to think about problems

●What is taught is what is learned

●Students should be able to make expert decisions upon graduation

●Students should be capable of working in any clinical area upon grad-

uation

a cross-disciplinary panel of experts from the United States

and Canada. Findings included continued support for the the-

ory that to develop CT, an individual must possess and use

certain dispositional characteristics. Based upon the disposi-

tional phrases, the California Critical Thinking Dispositional

Inventory

was developed. Seven dispositions (Table 2) were

derived from the original 19 published in the Delphi report.

It is important to note that these are attitudes or affects, which

are sought after in an individual, and not thinking skills. Fa-

cione et al

purported that a person who thinks critically uses

these 7 dispositions to form and make judgments. For exam-

ple, if an individual is not truth seeking, he or she may not

consider other opinions or theories regarding an issue or prob-

lem before forming an opinion. A student may possess the

knowledge to think critically about an issue, but if these dis-

positional affects do not work in concert, the student may fail

to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize the information to think

critically. More research is needed to determine the relation-

ship between CT and the disposition to think critically.

METHODS TO PROMOTE CRITICAL THOUGHT

Educators can use various instructional methods to promote

CT and problem solving. Although educators value a student

who thinks critically about concepts, the spirit or disposition

to think critically is, unfortunately, not always present in all

students. Many college faculty expect their students to think

critically.

Some nursing-specific common assumptions made

by university nursing teaching faculty are provided

(Table

3) because no similar research exists in athletic training. Es-

peland and Shanta

argued that faculty who select lecture for-

mats as a large part of their teaching strategy may be enabling

students. When lecturing, the instructor organizes and presents

essential information without student input. This practice elim-

inates the opportunity for students to decide for themselves

what information is important to know. For example, instead

of telling our students via lecture what medications could be

given to athletes with an upper respiratory infection, they

could be assigned to investigate medications and decide which

one is appropriate.

Students need to be exposed to diverse teaching methods

that promote CT in order to nurture the CT process.

14,17–19

pointed out by Kloss,

sometimes students are stuck and un-

able to understand that various answers exist for one problem.

Each ATC has a different method of taping a sprained ankle,

performing special tests, and obtaining medical information.

Kloss

stated that students must be exposed to ambiguity and

multiple interpretations and perspectives of a situation or prob-

lem in order to stimulate growth. As students move through

their clinical experiences, they witness the various methods for

taping ankles, performing special tests, and obtaining a thor-

ough history from an injured athlete. Paul and Elder

stated

that many professors may try to encourage students to learn a

body of knowledge by stating that body of knowledge in a

sequence of lectures and then asking students to internalize

knowledge outside of class on their own time. Not all students

possess the thinking skills to analyze and synthesize infor-

mation without practice. The following 3 sections present in-

formation and examples of different teaching techniques to

promote CT.

Questioning

An assortment of questioning tactics exists to promote CT.

Depending on how a question is asked, the student may use

various CT skills such as interpretation, analysis, and recog-

nition of assumptions to form a conclusion. Mills

suggested

that the thoughtful use of questions may be the quintessential

activity of an effective teacher. Questions are only as good as

the thought put into them and should go beyond knowledge-

level recall.

Researchers

23,24

have found that often clinical

teachers asked significantly more lower-level cognitive ques-

tions than higher-level questions. Questions should be de-

signed to promote evaluation and synthesis of facts and con-

cepts. Asking a student to evaluate when proprioception

exercises should be included in a rehabilitation program is

more challenging than asking a student to define propriocep-

tion. Higher-level thinking questions should start or end with

Journal of Athletic Training 265

Table 4. Examples of Questions

Category Key Concepts Examples

Knowledge Memorization, description What, when, who, define, describe, identify, state, show, how

Comprehension Explanation, comparison Conclude, demonstrate, rephrase, differentiate, explain, give an ex-

ample of

Application Solution, application Build, construct, solve, test, demonstrate, how would you

Analysis Induction, deduction, logical order Support your, what assumptions, what reasons, does the evidence

support the conclusion, what behaviors

Synthesis Productive thinking Think of a way, propose a plan, develop, suggest, formulate a so-

lution

Evaluation Judgment, selection Choose, evaluate, decide, defend, what is the most appropriate,

which would you consider

Table 5. Postevaluation Questions

●What was the expected outcome of the special tests performed? Ex-

plain your reasoning for the special tests which were performed. Why

were these chosen?

●Was muscular or postural substitution necessary during any of the

special tests, and if so, why do you think there was substitution?

●Were any false-positives noted when performing the special tests?

●Explain the hierarchy of special tests for this particular problem.

●Should some specialized tests be discarded? Why?

●Explain clinical specificity and sensitivity as well as reliability and va-

lidity of the special tests performed.

words or phrases such as, ‘‘explain,’’ ‘‘compare,’’ ‘‘why,’’

‘‘which is a solution to the problem,’’ ‘‘what is the best and

why,’’ and ‘‘do you agree or disagree with this statement?’’

For example, a student could be asked to compare the use of

parachlorophenylalanine versus serotonin for control of post-

treatment soreness. Examples of words that can be used to

begin questions to challenge at the different levels of the

Bloom Taxonomy

are given in Table 4. The Bloom Taxon-

omy

is a hierarchy of thinking skills that ranges from simple

skills, such as knowledge, to complex thinking, such as eval-

uation. Depending on the initial words used in the question,

students can be challenged at different levels of cognition.

Another type of questioning technique is Socratic question-

ing. Socratic questioning is defined as a type of questioning

that deeply probes or explores the meaning, justification, or

logical strength of a claim, position, or line of reasoning.

4,26

Questions are asked that investigate assumptions, viewpoints,

consequences, and evidence. Questioning methods, such as

calling on students who do not have their hands up, can en-

hance learning by engaging students to think. The Socratic

method focuses on clarification. A student’s answer to a ques-

tion can be followed by asking a fellow student to summarize

the previous answer. Summarizing the information allows the

student to demonstrate whether he or she was listening, had

digested the information, and understood it enough to put it

into his or her own words. Avoiding questions with one set

answer allows for different viewpoints and encourages stu-

dents to compare problems and approaches. Asking students

to explain how the high school and the collegiate or university

field experiences are similar and different is an example. There

is no right or wrong answer because the answers depend upon

the individual student’s experiences.

Regardless of the an-

swer, the student must think critically about the topic to form

a conclusion of how the field experiences are different and

similar.

In addition to using these questioning techniques, it is equal-

ly important to orient the students to this type of classroom

interaction. Mills

EDCO 725 Liberty University Applying High Order Thinking Skills Discussion assign.pdf

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