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Research Paper: Parenting Styles and Child Outcomes: Final Assignment
Christy L. Lipps
Liberty University
DBPC305: Effective Parenting: Childhood Behavior and Discipline Strategies
Professor Rachel Burger
August 14, 2025
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Research Paper: Parenting Styles and Child Outcomes Final Assignment
One of the most important roles that a person can have in their lifetime is that of a
parent. The effects of parenting on the children and, by extension, the world are immeasurable.
How parents interact with their children, set boundaries and rules, communicate, and manage
their child’s emotional health will impact the child in both the short term and long term.
Research on parenting styles has attempted to capture many of these differences in how
children are parented. Parents can have the best of intentions, but life stressors can make
healthy and consistent parenting difficult or impossible. Factors like mixed families, high-needs
or strong-willed children, culture stress, and more can create challenges in parenting. I had a
rather uninvolved or neglectful parenting style with me when I was a child, and it affected me in
significant ways in my self-esteem, emotional health, and views of relationships.
While my situation is somewhat unique, and these family stressors can run in families for
generations, I feel that my experience can serve as a vantage point to assess some of the
research and biblical teachings related to parenting. This paper is a review of parenting styles,
their outcomes, and an analysis of why parents often do not use the most effective parenting
style, tips for improvement, and biblical principles to raise our children as Christian children with
healthy spiritual and emotional lives.
Parenting Styles: Description and Explanation
Family and child experts have listed different approaches and styles of parenting. Child
and family research and experts have identified four major parenting styles. These major
parenting styles are authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful/uninvolved
(Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2019). Not every parent is perfect in their parenting skills. However,
they can learn about the different styles and use them in their home.
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Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parenting is a common parenting style practiced by many parents. This
parenting style has shown positive results on the children’s emotional, social, and academic
development. This parenting style has care, empathy, and flexibility. Parents who adopt this
parenting style set their standards and enforce them gently on their children. The authoritative
parents are in the process of setting their parenting rules, they explain the reason behind the
rules and ensure there is two-way communication in the process (Awiszus et al., 2022). This
approach creates space for both parents and children. Authoritative parents are setting their
rules, and they also give space for their children. In my home, I have a two-and-half-year-old
child with developmental delays, a speech delay, signs of mild autism, and sensory processing
differences. In my home, the authoritative style works best because my son thrives in a space of
security and predictability. He has his limits and boundaries and takes his time to process things.
On my end, I also have patience, empathy, and flexibility because my son requires more time to
learn a skill.
Authoritarian Parenting
Authoritarian parenting is a strategy that most parents apply when parenting their
children. Authoritarian parents expect obedience and follow every rule that the children
present. In this approach, the parent does not give room for flexibility or even empathy.
These parents apply hard rules to their children and expect their children to follow every one
of them. The authoritarian parenting approach is found to increase a child’s independence
and expression (Kong & Yasmin, 2022). Children from authoritarian homes are found to
develop problems such as anxiety and increased aggression.
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Permissive Parenting
Permissive parenting has no set rules and regulations for a child to follow. In the
permissive approach, the parent is not required to offer advice or guidance in the children’s
upbringing. This style does not give room for discipline and limits for the child. Children in
permissive parents’ homes face challenges when it comes to self-discipline and self-control
(Awiszus et al., 2022).
Dobson (2014) provides an example of the spoiled child who does not understand
respect or limits. Children need structure to have a healthy view of authority and consequences.
Although permissive parenting allows for creativity and free communication, the lack of
structure does not provide a realistic understanding of the world.
Neglectful/Uninvolved Parenting
The permissive parenting style is when a child is not expected to follow any rules or
regulation. In neglectful or uninvolved parenting, there is very low support, connection, and
warmth from the caregiver. In most cases, caregivers who use the neglectful parenting style
have fewer worries about their children’s performance in the schooling environment. Children in
neglectful/uninvolved parents’ homes are more likely to perform poorly in school and have
significant attachment issues (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2019).
Parents of this style are often not very responsive to their child's needs or desires, do not
provide much instruction or set limits, and in general, do not have a very close relationship with
their child. Uninvolved parents may be neglectful of their children on purpose, or they may
simply be overwhelmed by their own problems and lack the energy to deal with their child's
issues. Neglectful parenting is consistently associated with more negative child outcomes, like
behavioral and emotional problems, and lower self-esteem (Awiszus et al., 2022).
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Effects of Parenting Styles on Children and Families
Parenting styles have significant long-term effects on children. Authoritative parenting
leads to the most positive outcomes, such as high self-esteem, academic success, and emotional
stability (Kong & Yasmin, 2022). Authoritarian parenting results in obedience but can stifle
autonomy and creativity. Permissive parenting may lead to impulsivity and poor self-control.
Neglectful parenting is associated with the most negative outcomes, including behavioral
problems, poor academic performance, and emotional detachment (Kuppens & Ceulemans,
2019). Parenting styles also affect the parents themselves. Authoritative parents experience a
strong emotional connection with their children (Delvecchio, 2020). Authoritarian parents may
face rebellion and secrecy from their children. Neglectful parents risk losing their relationship
entirely. According to family systems theory, the health of individual family members impacts
the entire system, creating patterns of dysfunction if parenting styles are poor (Awiszus et al.,
2022).
In addition to temporal and eternal considerations for the child, for Christian parents
there are also eternal consequences involved in child rearing. The parents have a responsibility
in the development of the child’s moral and spiritual view of the world through both direct and
indirect teaching and example. Dobson (2007) makes it clear that parents must be diligent to
intentionally disciple their children in the home and that current cultural patterns are contrary
to this biblical standard and are leading to the dismantling of biblical values. Children who are
raised under the authority of their Christian parents, which includes discipline in the context of
biblical teaching, are more likely to be nurtured in their faith and live in a manner that is
consistent with biblical principles.
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Personal Reflection on Parenting Style of Origin
Growing up, my parents demonstrated a neglectful or uninvolved style. There was
minimal emotional support, inconsistent discipline, and little engagement in my personal or
academic life. While basic physical needs were met, emotional connection and guidance were
lacking. This environment shaped my self-perception, often making me feel unseen and
undervalued. I learned independence early but also carried feelings of insecurity and mistrust
into adulthood.
This personal experience aligns with research indicating that neglectful parenting often
leads to difficulties with emotional regulation, relationship building, and resilience (Awiszus et
al., 2022). While my upbringing gave me a strong desire to break the cycle, it also provided
firsthand insight into the long-term impact of disengaged parenting.
Favored Parenting Style and Why
The authoritative parenting style is the best for healthy development. In comparison to
the other three parenting styles, the authoritative parenting style has proven to be the most
successful. There are several main reasons that authoritative parenting is the most beneficial for
a child. The first reason is that authoritative parents set limits for their children. When there are
clear rules in place, it helps children to know what to expect from their surroundings. The
second reason is that this type of parenting allows for independence and encourages children to
make decisions. When children feel like they are in control of their lives, it can help them to
become more independent. The third reason is that authoritative parents take the time to listen
to their children and to try and understand how they are feeling. This can help to create a strong
bond between parents and children. The fourth reason is that this type of parenting teaches
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children how to be social. By providing children with the opportunity to interact with others in a
positive way, it can help them to develop important social skills (Pinquart & Gerke, 2019).
Preferred/Current Parenting Style for My Family
I chose to utilize authoritative parenting style with my own child because it best aligns
with my personal values and beliefs. Additionally, this approach meets the needs of our family
well. My two-and-a-half-year-old son has several developmental delays, including what appears
to be mild autism, a speech delay, and increased sensory needs. He is very sensory-seeking and
enjoys a high level of input. This makes for a lot of fun in everyday life, but also means that I
must be very creative, flexible, and attentive. Authoritative parenting provides a solid
framework and consistency but allows me to tweak strategies to account for the way he learns,
his processing speed, and sensory seeking/tuning. This strategy will also allow me to be
compassionate, patient, and empathetic. It also encourages me to hold him accountable to his
developmental stage and sensory needs and apply a lighter touch when necessary.
Practical Strategies for Helping Parents
Helping parents can start with education and community. Parenting classes, workshops,
and support groups provide practical strategies, emotional support, reduces isolation, and boost
confidence. Access to credible parenting resources—books, podcasts, evidence-based websites
— arms parents with current strategies and information. Another important factor is modeling
healthy parenting behaviors through mentorship or healthy peer relationships. Parents can learn
a lot about conflict resolution, effective discipline strategies, and active listening skills through
these interactions. For children with developmental delays or special needs, collaboration with
specialists (occupational therapists, speech therapists, behavior consultants) can be key in
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tailoring approaches to the child's unique needs. Encouraging parents to prioritize self-care is
also crucial to ensuring they have the emotional and physical energy required to be consistent
and patient with their children. Helping parents is about equipping them with tools, resources,
and a supportive community to feel confident in their role as caregivers.
Biblical Perspective on Parenting
The Bible offers timeless wisdom for effective parenting, which includes principles of
love, discipline, and intentional guidance. “Start a youth out on his way; even when he grows
old he will not depart from it” (Christian Standard Bible, 2017, Proverbs 22:6). This underscores
the proactive and intentional nature of the authoritative style, leading children purposefully
while honoring their unique journey. “Fathers, don’t stir up anger in your children, but bring
them up in the training and instruction of the Lord” (CSB, 2017, Ephesians 6:4). This verse gently
reminds parents to avoid harsh discipline, maintaining a balance between firmness and
gentleness. Authoritative parenting reflects these biblical tenets by setting clear boundaries,
tending the heart, and guiding children toward the truth of God. This means weaving faith into
daily life, exemplifying Christlike character, and teaching moral values not just in words, but in
lived actions. Biblical parenting views the role as stewardship, molding young lives for God’s
purposes.
Conclusion
Parenting is a responsibility but also an opportunity to influence the next generation.
Research and personal experience have both led me to the conclusion that the authoritative
style is the most effective approach for raising children to have the best outcomes. When it
comes to my child, I have found this style to be the most effective in providing the structure,
patience, and understanding required for a child with special needs and still allowing for
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independence and resilience to develop. Tools, community, and prayer can help parents to
handle the pressures of modern parenting. The biblical mandate to “train up a child” is both a
promise and a responsibility, and as Christians, we can be reminded that our influence has
eternal value. Combining research-based tools with biblical principles can help parents raise
well-adjusted and capable children who are also rooted in a strong value system that lasts a
lifetime.
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References
Awiszus, A., Koenig, M., & Vaisarova, J. (2022). Parenting styles and their effect on child
development and outcome. Journal of Student Research, 11(3).
https://doi.org/10.47611/jsrhs.v11i3.3679
Christian Standard Bible. (2017). Holman Bible Publishers.
Delvecchio, E., Germani, A., Raspa, V., Lis, A., & Mazzeschi, C. (2020). Parenting styles and child’s
well-being: The mediating role of the perceived parental stress. Europe’s Journal of
Psychology, 16(3), 514–531. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.v16i3.2013
Dobson, J. (2007). Parenting isn’t for cowards; The “you can do it” guide for hassled parents.
Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.
Dobson, J. (2014). The new dare to discipline. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.
Kong, C., & Yasmin, F. (2022). Impact of parenting style on early childhood learning: Mediating
role of parental self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 928629.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.928629
Kuppens, S., & Ceulemans, E. (2019). Parenting styles: A closer look at a well-known concept.
Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(1), 168–181.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1242-x
Liu, S.-W., Zhai, F., & Gao, Q. (2020). Parental stress and parenting in Chinese immigrant families:
The mediating role of social support. Child & Family Social Work, 25(S1), 135–
148. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12734
Pinquart, M., & Gerke, D.-C. (2019). Associations of parenting styles with self-esteem in children
and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(8),
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