CSIS 100 -INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SCIENCES AND SYSTEMS
Introduction
Information Sciences and Systems (ISS) is a rather diverse area of study that blends the
knowledge of IT as well as theoretical approach based on the use of systems and data. They
define information as undertaking the generation, acquisition, categorization, processing,
archiving, accessing and distributing of information. ISS encompasses both the theoretic and the
applied, with issues such as the algorithms that should be used, the structure of the actual
systems that will be implemented, and the effects that they will have in different fields.
Importance in the Modern World
Today, information sciences and systems are pivotal towards the success of any venture.
Data is viewed as a strategic resource that informs all the activities within various domains and
influences decision-making and developments. Effective IS enables coordination of operations,
increases output while ensuring efficient and effective flow of business in various organizations
within the business world, healthcare, education and government sectors. They also enable the
promotion of scientific research work and development times.
Early Developments in Information Science
Information science has its archival in ancient civilizations, and people were engaging in
record keeping and data management for administrative and governance needs. Prior forms of
documentation can be illustrated by such tools as clay tablets, papyrus, and other means that can
be classified as archaic. The innovations like the printing press in the middle of 15th century
brought about radical changes in information flow and setup the basis for the modern
information studies.
Evolution of Information Systems
Indeed the period of 1950-‘60s may be seen as a break through point in the development
of the information systems since then the computer began to be successfully used as an
instrument in the information processing. ENIAC for instance, is one of the world’s first
computers and its intended use was largely for the calculations higher in speed than that of hand
calculations. However, with the coming of the early ages of computers and other technologies,
the objective shifted slightly toward data handling and processing. In the early periods of the
1960 and the 1970s Management Information Systems or MIS and Decision Support Systems or
DSS emerged to help organisations to use and maintain information.
Key Milestones and Figures
There are several major milestones and key figures that have contributed to the
development of ISS. Coding theory was pioneered by Claude Shannon early 1940, it was the
foundational aspects of the communication systems in the form of structure of mathematics.
Though perhaps not as groundbreaking or earth-shattering, there are other improvements in the
way of data management that one must note: the introduction of the relational database model in
the 1970s by Edgar F. Codd. This was complemented by the enhancements in the usage of the
internet from the 1990 and resulting in an influx of flow of information and data facilitated the
change process within the information sciences and systems.
Fundamental Concepts
Information Theory
Foundational to ISS is Information theory by Claude Shannon and applies to information
system security. It entails on how quantities of data are expressed, managed, and transmitted.
Some of these concepts includes entropy, the degree of uncertainty of the set of possible
outcomes of message transmission as well as redundancy which is the repeated transmission of
the same information over the communication channel to avoid errors in data transmission.
Data, Information, and Knowledge
Therefore, in ISS, three increasingly fourth terms should be distinguished: data was
described as lower order and information was described as middle order while knowledge was
described as higher order. Data refers to material, which is collected and unstructured so as to be
converted into useful and understandable information. They also argue that information equals
processed data and given an application that makes the data significant. Information can only be
of such importance when it has been utilized where it’s required say in decision making or in the
elimination of any challenge that may be present.
Systems Theory and Cybernetics
Luvudg von Bertalanffy introduced the general systems theory, which is a framework for
understanding variety of systems, that of emphasizing interaction between the subunits which
compose the given system and the ability of every subunit to affect the others. Feedback control
is a branch of cybernetics as a science by Norbert Weiner that involves study of how animals and
machines are controlled, and how the communicate in order to monitor a certain process.
Information Processing and Storage
Information processing entails the manipulation of raw information through various
activities such as sorting, filtering among others in order to arrive at a more meaningful form of
information. The most important component of LMS relates to the techniques that are employed
in storage of data over a period of time and they entail the physical storage disk, hard disk, cloud
storage etc.
Information Systems
Types of Information Systems
Management Information Systems (MIS)
These Systems are designed to provide managers with routine information with which
they can make day-to-day decisions. MIS often offer regular reports in the form of daily, weekly
or monthly on issues such as; the total sales made, available stock, or the general performance of
aVenture. Managers also use these reports to control day-to-day activities and observe those
which require attention. Having provided an account on how MIS can assist in presenting proper
information at the right time which is contemporally well endowed, the following can be
ascertained: This work shows that proper understanding of MIS is prerogative in bringing about
efficient utilization of various resources available in an organisation and by implication,
achieving optimum and or the highest performance of the organisation. The main of them is that
it is an important part of the planning, controlling and co-ordinate functions in business
activities.
Decision Support Systems (DSS)
These are facility software used in the decision-making process, especially where large
amounts of data are involved. While MIS is more focused on running data processing jobs, the
DSS is aimed at solving difficult decision-making problems. They incorporate data from within
the organization as well as from outside, use mathematical models and offer forecasts, scenarios
and several other useful analytical tools. DSS are especially the case for solving unstructured
decision, that is, the decision, for which it is difficult to pinpoint a solution.
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)
The Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) are an important element of an organization
since it deals with dealing the tactical level of the organization’s transactional data. All
transactions that include sales, purchases, deposits, withdrawals and payments amongst others
that occur within an organization are conducted, recorded, processed and stored by these
systems. TPS are designed for preservation of stability, correctness and accuracy of
transactional data which are constructive in advancement of operations. They support mainly the
repeated processes to increase the volubility of work, reduce the control in the process, and to
eliminate or at least to minimize the slack. Some of the examples of TPS are; the Point of sale
systems in most service industries, orders processing systems in manufacturing industries and
Electronic funds transfer systems for banking industries. It is also often implemented as the
initial , or foundational layering that is common to other types of systems including MIS or DSS.
Executive Information Systems (EIS)
Executive Information Systems (EIS) are extracted systems that aim at offering an
organization’s upper echelon direct and effortless access to internal and external information
germane to strategic planning. These systems are custom designed to address the need of the
senior executive management by presenting summarized summary of the state of the
organization, its competitors, and the industry. EIS contain clear user interface, cockpit and data
display to the users in a simple and easy to comprehend formats. They allow managing the
continuation of various measures of organizational performance, tracking the progress towards
goals within strategic plans, and detecting new opportunities and threats. Through the offer of
important data within short time, EIS enhance formulation of strategies, decisions, and overall
leadership.
Knowledge Management Systems (KMS)
These are acknowledged organizational constructs of knowledge management meant for
the achievement of sharing of knowledge and expertise of people for usage in other elements of
the company. KMS help in creation, archiving, sharing and managing of knowledge resources,
knowledge content or knowledge material available in form of documents, manuals, best
practices and lessons learnt. They can include meeting/work platforms, documents and files
stored and shared between participants, and information libraries. As the focus of KMS is on
knowledge sharing, collaboration and knowledge creation, they help organizations to easily spot
the existing and most appropriate practices and techniques for further innovation and improved
performance of its human resources. They are most useful in industries, employs, and or
business cycles where information is an organizational forte, for instance, research firms,
consultancy firms, and professionals.
Components of Information Systems
Hardware
Hardware refers to the aspects or equipment that is composed of the information system,
and the tools used to perform various tasks. It covers all facets such like ; Information
technology related hardware like; computers servers, Organizations’ network hardware, storage
technology gadgets/ devices and peripherals like a keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. The core
translates into computers and servers, which are mostly the appliances used for processing data
and executing applications. Networking hardware involves devices such as routers, switches,
and modems among others, which play an enormous in creating a connection between two or
even more devices with the use of network. Regarding the systems and peripherals, the storge
cards for hard drives & solids state drives come to offer storage solutions for data and
applications. Hardware is vital as part of an information system because it defines the quality of
the equipment , that in turn defines the efficiency of the sysem as the focus of the system, in as
far as the system is an information system, is to facilitate efficient functional and strategic
operations.
Software
These are data processing tools that operate on hardware platforms. Thus, it can be
further classified into two types: System Software and Application Software. Application
software is installed within an operating system to perform specific functions and include
Microsoft Office Suite, web browsers, geo-social media platforms, Google Apps, etc.
Application software is a set of programs that are developed to run on a computer for a particular
purpose and are used by the users like a word processor, a spreadsheet, a database, or an
organizational-level application like CRM (Customer Relationship Management) or ERP
(Enterprise Resource Planning) systems. Software is the essential component for the conversion
of raw input data into useful information, for performing routine tasks, improving efficiency and
for becoming a resource that offers tools for analysis and decision making.
Data
This is raw unprocessed information that is entered into information systems along with
the end product. It can contain numeric quantities, text, graphics, pictures, videos, sensor data,
and even records of transactions. Information is the raw material for information systems and the
basis on which all other processes are applied to turn data into useful information. Data quality is
very important since data is the input for obtaining information and hence the quality of the
information depends on the quality of the data. Data cleansing, validation, and integration are the
common activities needed for proper data management so that the data that is input to an
information system is reliable. In the contemporary society, application of analytics has been
deemed central to operation, therefore capacity to accumulate, store and analyze data is
definitely a competitive edge for any entity.
Procedures
These procedures encompass the steps that are taken while performing systems. They
state how certain aspects of the system should, can or must be used, dominated, maintained in
order to control or eliminate risks, and if they should be combined, focused or separated.
Procedures, which may be considered within this context, may include use and installation
manuals, standard operating procedures SOPs, security measures, and the measures that apply to
backup and restore procedures. Procedures also help to develop an effective working system,
which creates quality and eliminates possibilities of errors, which are also legal in the hospital. It
also offer some advice on how to solve issues, how to modify the system, or how to encode
special data’s. Thus, structures on word procedures may add strength to different aspects of the
information systems and prevent cases that appear because of the failure of system or violation
of cyber security rules.
People
Workers are the people who interact with the Information System and integrate the
information available into their day-to-day business. From the techs who enter the data and
those who retrieve the data, the middle level IT personnel who design the system and market it,
to those who troubleshoot the system. As supported by Baker, the users must also have the
necessary skills and training required to operationalize the system and know-how to identify the
appropriate procedures when employing the system. The technical individuals involved
comprise of system administrator, database administrator, and technicians such as network
engineers are essential in ensuring the functionality and efficiency of the system is maintained
from a technical standpoint. Furthermore, the availably produced information inherent in the
system is utilized by the managers and decision makers in strategic and efficient management
decisions. Another part of an information system that is considered to be very sensitive is the
people aspect of the system that show that people can make or mar the system depending with
the manner in which the technology is applied or administered.
Technologies and Tools
Databases and Data Management
These data structures are commonly employed for storing and sorting massive data sets
that can help find data quickly. Some all technologies used in data management are relational
database management system, NoSQL database management system and data warehouse
management system. Data management is the act of handling data and the main goal is to ensure
that the data is protected from contamination, and that unauthorized access and alteration are
prevented while at the same time ensuring that the data can be accessed when wanted.
Networking and Communication Technologies
Enabling technologies like LAN, WAN and the internet are the tools for communication
and sharing of information in diverse locations. End-user technologies such as electronic mail,
instant messaging and video-tele conferencing allow for more immediate forms of
communication.
Cloud Computing and Big Data
Cloud computing and big data are now familiar technologies currently in use in today’s
businesses. Cloud technology gives possibility to receive and work with big amount of data,
providing their accessibility on demand. Hadoop for instance is a big data technology that entails
huge volumes of data that can be analyzed to establish certain patterns required in organizations.
Artificial intelligence and Machine learning
Information systems are progressively being transformed through adoption of AI and ML
which offer opportunities for increased automation in decision-making processes. AI platforms
are capable of understanding data in natural language, analyzing patterns and providing
suggestions, while ML is relatively better as it adapts over time with the help of past results.
Applications and Impacts
Business and Industry
In the business context, information systems play a role in many areas including customer
relationship management systems (CRM), enterprise resource planning systems (ERP), and
supply chain management systems (SCM). They optimize business processes, create client
satisfaction and robust plans, and support the management activity. For instance, systems such as
the enterprise resource planning unify key business activities, giving an integrated business
outlook.
Healthcare
ISs like EHR and telemedicine benefit patients as they receive accurate and timely
information to support treatment. They help researchers in medical fields and medical
practitioners in diagnosing and treating diseases and conditions, and they also help in reducing
administration work. It also helps to work with Health information systems to handle public
health, showing trends, reporting disease outbreaks and designing the subsequent actions.
Education
Information systems used in educational institutions include administrative information
systems, learning management systems, and research. Moodle and Canvas are some of the LMS
platforms that allow online learning since it offers a learning management environment where a
student can learn through various activities such as accessing course content, submission of
assignments and even interacting with the other students and trainers. IS also contribute to
management of students records, mobilization of resources and performing academic research.
Government and Public Services
They employed information systems for effective and efficient delivery of services, two,
to increase transparency and three, citizens’ interaction. An example showcasing e-government
systems within most developed countries is on matters of tax filing where it is done online, or
issues to do with identity where biometric systems are used. IS also play a vital role with
reference to public safety whereby it assists in the sharing of information among the police
forces.
Some of the Challenges associated with information science and systems include:
Security and Privacy
The issue of security and privacy of data is among the biggest questions facing
Information Sciences and Systems today. The problem of handling vast amounts of data due to
the advancement in technology Interconnected networks create a high risk of cyber-attacks.
Information that organizations possess should be well protected from such attacks, which include
hackers, malware, and phishing. Employing encryption, firewalls, and intrusion detection
services for example may be vital, but often may involve a tighter budget and a lot of
complications. However, the retention of the users is also an important factor, and with the recent
acts such as the GDPR and the CCPA now in place, preserving the users’ privacy is a major
issue.
Data Quality and Management
Lack of data accuracy yields inaccurate information and wrong conclusions about the
status of organizational information systems. As for the data acquisition it is necessary to
mention that once the data is collected it has to be validated, cleansed, and integrated in the
organization’s information system thus the organization has to have strict data management
practices. In addition, because of the numerous generative data points or big data, extra tools and
methodologies are utilized for storage, analysis, and processing. This involves working with data
collected and stored in different forms, formats, and making it readily available and
comprehensible across the functioning of the firm.
Technological Advancements
The main idea of ensuring the modernization of the existing information systems and the
adaptation of the newest technologies is not only difficult but also rather costly. For example,
cloud computing, AI, and ML engender extensive shifts in infrastructure, workforce competence,
and approaches to business at large. It is clear that companies need to spend money on training
their people and training their people effectively in the use of new technologies they have
captured.
System Integration and Interoperability
Various existing systems are employed in organizations and these may be from different
vendors and hence may not be interoperable. These insights indicate that the apparent
interconnectivity and integration of these systems are not possible without proper planning,
development and can often be complex and needs constant enhancement. Limited cross-system
compatibility can result in isolation of data meaning that information is practically locked into
particular systems with limited mobility within an organization and this greatly affects analysis
and decision making processes.
Cost Management
The creation, installation and management of Information systems created by the
organization may incur several costs. They are needed while at the same time are a
consideration that any organization or firm needs to factor in. The specific tangible costs that are
implicated here are those associated with procuring the necessary hardware and software as well
as those that can be attributed to other system developments and maintenance needs, security,
data storage, and personnel. Possible ways to address costs may include searching for how
information can be stored cheaper, for instance, through the clouds or outsourcing other services
that are essential in organizations yet are not core competencies, yet they necessitate the use of
information systems.
Scalability and Performance
With the growth in size of organizations, the information systems in those organizations
experience growth and change in accordance with the increase in the amounts of information that
are processed and the users of the information systems. One, of the most difficult things is to
develop the structures for scaling while still retaining high efficiency. Systems must be highly
scalable, meaning both in terms of capacity and functionality of the systems, so they can be
expanded for performance and added value. This ranges from structuring systems to enhance
their efficiency, adopting Cloud solutions, and using efficient data processing methods. End
users that are faced with poor response time which is associated with slow processing speeds or
downtimes may be greatly affected in their operations as well as their level of satisfaction.
Conclusion
Information science and systems remain transformative disciplines that straddle the
bridge between technology, data, and people. The uses of information science are manifold;
needed disciplines that are important in healthcare, business intelligence and other areas
emphasize the contribution of information science to improving aspects of life.
As the future of information science and systems, this discipline seems set for more
growth with the continued evolution of Artificial Intelligence and Machine analytic and Data to
have the potential to transform the use as well as the management of information. The nature of
these fields will be highly multi-disciplinary and therefore will remain as a knowledge driver for
innovation, which will open up more opportunities as well as unveil challenges that will define
the future of digital technologies. Familiarity and effective utilization of information science and
systems are crucial in the light of modern-day informational chaos. In this manner, we can
champion positive change, improve outcomes across all domains of decision-making, and
increase our insights into the nature of information as an object of study.
