RESEARCH PAPER 1
Research Paper
Ryan Chrzanowski
School of Behavioral Sciences, Liberty University
RESEARCH PAPER 2
Abstract
The purpose of this research paper is to focus on PTSD in both Male and Female
incarcerated and recently released juvenile offenders versus teens of the same age range that
have never been incarcerated, in an attempt to prove links between those that suffer from PTSD
after being incarcerated and recidivism rates for those juvenile offenders. The importance of
these studies is to show what incarceration not only does to juvenile offenders during their
incarceration such as them developing PTSD and other mental health disorders, but also in how
it directly correlates to juvenile recidivism rates and these youths becoming career criminals.
RESEARCH PAPER 3
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is a very difficult to diagnosis in average, ordinary
clients, even with the PTSD Criterion. It is especially difficult to diagnose in juveniles due to the
already changing brain chemistry at that age, hormones, behavior that could be attributed to
normal teenage behavior, but most importantly, juveniles are still developing their language and
cognitive functions and capabilities, so they are not in the best position to tell someone what
exactly is going on with them, or even have the faculties to put their feelings into words that
would make sense.
It becomes increasingly difficult to diagnosis and treat post-traumatic stress disorder in
juveniles that have had run-ins with the criminal justice system because all too often, their
symptoms are misunderstood. First, it is important to understand what exactly Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder is and what are some of the underlying symptoms. “Posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) is a psychiatric disorder that may occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a
traumatic event, series of events or set of circumstances. An individual may experience this as
emotionally or physically harmful or life-threatening and may affect mental, physical, social,
and/or spiritual well-being. Examples include natural disasters, serious accidents, terrorist acts,
war/combat, rape/sexual assault, historical trauma, intimate partner violence and bullying” (APA,
2023).
It is upon reviewing the symptoms for PTSD that it becomes clear why it may be
considered difficult to diagnose this condition in juveniles. PTSD symptoms include; intrusive
thoughts, which is described as a period of involuntary memories, distressing dreams, and even
flashbacks of a traumatic event. Not many young adults have a period during their maturity in
which they are not plagued by unwanted thoughts, emotions, and hormones. A juvenile would
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already have to have a baseline of being open and honest about what they are feeling and
thinking, otherwise this symptom could just be written off as a normal teenage mind.
The next symptom is avoidance. “Avoiding reminders of the traumatic event may include
avoiding people, places, activities, objects and situations that may trigger distressing memories.
People may try to avoid remembering or thinking about the traumatic event” (APA,2023). Teens
and juveniles use avoidance behavior in their everyday functions, often using it to avoid
emotions, experiences, and thoughts that could be considered too difficult, or using it to avoid
anything they are unsure of how to process in a healthy manner. Avoidance is a staple juvenile
behavior.
The next symptom of PTSD that is mirrored in the average juvenile is changes in
cognition and mood. This period may include instances of having ongoing distorted beliefs and
views regarding oneself or others, being detached or estranged from others, or having difficulty
experiencing positive emotions and satisfaction. “Juvenility is marked by slow physical growth,
fast-paced learning, and intense social activity, especially in the context of peer relationships; it
affords the child a preparatory phase in which to practice social skills and start competing for
social status before he/she begins to engage in mating and reproduction” (Del Giudice et al.,
2014).
Most young people at this age or maturity level already avoid most other family
members, friends they grew up with, and even themselves at all cost. This is just another
example of PTSD symptom mirroring puberty and vice versa. The final symptom discussed by
the APA regarding PTSD is Alterations in arousal and reactivity. This period is marked by “being
irritable and having angry outbursts; behaving recklessly or in a self-destructive way; being
overly watchful of one's surroundings in a suspecting way; being easily startled; or having
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problems concentrating or sleeping” (APA, 2023). Sadly, all of these behaviors are considered
well within normal ranges for a juvenile.
Having now reviewed and researched the symptoms of PTSD, it is clear to see why it is
so difficult to diagnose this type of condition in someone who is going through a lot of these
manifestations simply because their body is changing, and they are maturing. Now, imagine
working with juvenile offenders and not being able to tell if they are suffering from a debilitating
mental condition, or just suffering because it is a Monday and they are maturing. Even worse is
to see a juvenile changing for the worse, exhibiting these symptoms and not knowing if they
require treatment or just time for their body to adjust.
Now, imagine if you will, all of the pitfalls, dangers, emotions, confusion, and anger that
most juveniles go through just dealing with puberty, now put that individual into a facility with
200 other juveniles all going through the same thing, while also watching out for violence on a
daily basis, sexual, emotional, and mental abuse on a daily basis, little to no sleep, all while that
individual fights for emotional and physical superiority with everyone around them just as much
as that same battle rages within themselves.
Numerous studies on prison reform studies have been conducted over the years, with
many professionals concluding that crime and imprisonment just breeds more crime. “Studies
show punitive “law-and-order” policies can actually create more crime than they prevent”
(Spero, 2022), and in the case of juvenile offenders it can help lay the groundwork for creating
career criminals.
One example of PTSD leading to recidivism is from a study done that shows “The
prevalence of PTSD is higher among incarcerated female delinquents (49%) than among
incarcerated male delinquents (32%), and higher than among youths in the community (<10%)”
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(Albert, et al., 2007). This research is important because it shows a pattern in crime, punishment,
and mental health diagnosis’. Moreover, when working with juvenile offenders, mental health
disorders, and recidivism it is important to identify the links in that chain so they can be broken,
so the cycle can stop.
“Furthermore, a number of studies indicate that psychiatric disorders in this population
are linked to a wide range of negative outcomes, including elevated risk of repeat offenses, poor
prognosis of mental health problems, high rates of substance misuse, increased likelihood to
experience or perpetrate violence in intimate relationships, and psychosocial difficulties in
adulthood” (Beaudry, 2020). Even if an offender is incarcerated for a minor, non-drug related,
non-violent offense, they are released with a myriad of issues from violent tendencies, substance
use disorder, and mental health issues.
Does this mean that offenders are not being diagnosed or treated while incarcerated?
“Youth admitted to juvenile detention facilities are typically screened for psychosocial problems
that are associated with recidivism and further offending, such as substance abuse, victimization,
and various psychiatric disorders (Cauffman et al., 1998),” however the number of screenings
has diminished unless the offender had family history of needing mental health treatment, or
there are outward signs for continued intervention. Unfortunately, prisons and juvenile detention
centers are understaffed, and the number of incarcerated versus the number of counselors being
able to meet with those youths is staggering.
“These high rates of trauma exposure have, no doubt, contributed to the observed high
rates of PTSD in justice-involved youth. Justice-involved samples, including both boys and girls,
have current or within-past-12-month PTSD prevalence rates of 5–24% and partial current PTSD
prevalence rates of 14%” (McNair et al., 2019). Sadly, the correlation between juvenile
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detention, recidivism, PTSD, and understaffing have always been a bit interchangeable, in that
there is no one single definitive action and cause when trying to connect juvenile detention to an
increased number of those diagnosed with PTSD or connecting juvenile PTSD to recidivism
rates.
“A previous systematic review and meta-analysis synthesized evidence up to 2006 on the
prevalence of mental disorders in detained adolescents. The findings highlighted considerable
mental health needs. Since then, a significant body of new primary research has been published”
(Beaudry, 2020). However, every few years these numbers change based on funding for research,
staffing, consistent time frames in order to test validity, and other quantitative methods that
would help narrow down a specific, cause, effect, and resolution.
“Each year, approximately 2.4 million youth are arrested, accounting for 17% of all
arrests. On a typical day approximately 109,000 youth are detained. The number of youths in the
juvenile justice system with psychiatric disorders is a major public health problem. Two thirds of
males and three quarters of females in juvenile detention have 1 or more psychiatric disorders”
(Abram et al., 2004). There is actually literature that suggests that PTSD is more common among
juvenile youth in detention facilities or within the justice system as a whole than there is in
standard community samplings.
Unfortunately, most of these studies performed were too few and far between, too unique,
or severely lack any standardized methods of research to create reliable estimates of all those
suffering, as well as the estimates for solutions. At the time of this paper, no large or organized
study as been conducted to examine the presence of PTSD and other related mental illnesses
across the demographic of incarcerated juvenile offenders and the relation of PTSD in juveniles
and recidivism. Another set back to any type of study of this nature is that “studying detained
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youth requires special procedures because they are minors, because they are detained, and
because many do not have a parent or guardian who can provide appropriate consent” (Abram, et
al., 2004).
In conclusion, there needs to be more compressive studies performed to try and find links
between juvenile detention, PTSD, and recidivism. The world’s growing prison population and
lack of facilities should be a clear indication that something within the system is broken. Is it
really worth detaining these youth wherein you only aid in the creation of career criminals with
severely debilitating mental health disorders that will reoffend, create more trauma, all while
never addressing the need to treat these individuals while they still have a chance at becoming
productive, well-adjusted members of society.
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REFERENCES
Abram KM, Teplin LA, Charles DR, Longworth SL, McClelland GM, Dulcan MK.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Trauma in Youth in Juvenile Detention. Arch Gen
Psychiatry. 2004;61(4):403–410. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.4.403
Albert, D., Chapman, J. F., Ford, J. D., & Hawke, J. (2007, June). Trauma Among Youth in the
Juvenile Justice System: Critical Issues and New Directions. California Courts.
https://www.courts.ca.gov/documents/BTB25-1G-02.pdf
Beaudry, G., Yu, R., Långström, N., & Fazel, S. (2021). An updated systematic review and meta-
regression analysis: Mental Disorders among adolescents in juvenile detention and
Correctional Facilities. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry, 60(1), 46–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.01.015
Cauffman, E., Feldman, S., Waterman, J., & Steiner, H. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder
among female juvenile offenders. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Psychiatry, 37(11), 1209–1217
Giudice, M.D., Angeleri, R., Manera, V. (2011). Juvenility and the Juvenile Transition. In:
Levesque, R.J.R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Adolescence. Springer, New York, NY.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1695-2_307
McNair, F. D., Havens, J., Surko, M., Weinberger, E., Baetz, C., Moaveni, M., Bart, A., Marr, M.,
Quinlan, C., & Horwitz, S. M. (2019). Post-traumatic stress and related symptoms among
juvenile detention residents: Results from Intake Screening. Child Abuse & Neglect,
92, 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.03.011
Rousseau, D. (2017, May 1). Juvenile Delinquency and Mental Illness. Boston University .
https://sites.bu.edu/daniellerousseau/2023/02/28/juvenile-delinquency-and-mental-
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illness/#:~:text=Many%20of%20these%20disorders%20include,or%20attention
%20deficit%2Fhyperactivity%20disorder.
Spero, D. (2022, April 12). More prisons create more crime. Medium. https://medium.com/age-
of-awareness/more-prisons-create-more-crime-1e0456aa1714
What is posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?. American Psychiatric Association. (2023).
https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/ptsd/what-is-ptsd
