Chapter 2 – theories of human development
Theories and theoretical models of human development
oTheories provide a framework for the study of human development that furthers
scientific vision and stimulates the application of science for public policy and
social programs.
Maturationist theory
oGranville Stanley Hall
Psychologist and educator
Interest focused on childhood development, evolutionary theory, and
their applications to education
Work was significant in laying the foundation for the field
His maturationist theory emphasized the importance of genetics and
evolution, and was based on the premise that growing children would
recapitulate evolutionary stages of species development as they grew up.
Hall concluded that it would be counterproductive to push children ahead
of their developmental stage, since each stage laid the foundation for
what was to follow.
In simple terms, his position was that everyone would need to crawl
before learning to walk.
Psychoanalytic theories
oSigmund Freud, the Founder, highlighted the essential role played by early
childhood experiences.
oFreud's position was that a person's psychological responses and behaviors were
reflections of instinctual biological drives.
oFreud postulated that objects or means for satisfying our instinctual drive for
pleasure shifted throughout our early years of development, moving from the
mouth and oral stimulation, to the anus and the experience of control, and
eventually to the genitals and the inclusion of sex, role behaviors and
identification.
Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
Stage Age Characteristics
Oral stage Birth to 1 year An infants primary
interaction with the world is
through the mouth. Is vital
for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral
stimulation through
gratifying activities such as
tasting and sucking. If this
pleasure is unmet, the child
may develop an oral fixation
later in life, examples of
which include thumb sucking,
smoking, fingernail biting,
and overeating.
Anal stage 1 to 3 years With the development of
new cells and the control
provided by those cells
(sphincters), the focus shifts
from oral stimulation to
controlling bladder and
bowel movements. Training is
a primary issue for children
and parents. Too much
pressure can result in an
excessive need for order or
cleanliness later in life, while
too little pressure from
parents can lead to messy or
destructive behavior later in
life.
Phallic stage 3 to 6 years At this point in development,
the focus of the id’s
instinctual energy shifts to
the genitals. It is during this.
That children develop an
attraction to the opposite sex
parent. It is also at this. That
children adopt the values and
characteristics of the same
sex, parent and form the
superego.
Latent stage 6 to 11 years During this stage, children
develop social skills, values,
and relationships with peers
and adults outside of the
family.
Genital stage 11 to 18 years During this stage, people
develop a strong interest in
the opposite sex, and the
onset of puberty causes the
libido to become active once
again. If development has
been successful to this point,
the individual will continue to
develop into a well balanced
person.
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
oErickson presented a model emphasizing the challenges and task presented
across ones lifespan as key to understanding human development.
oHe also emphasized development from within a social context.
oErickson's theory is an epigenetic theory, which means it focuses on both the
biological and genetic origins of behaviors as interacting with the direct influence
of environmental forces over time.
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
Stage Life stage and age Meaning and interpretation
Trust vs mistrust Infant (0 to 1 ½ years) infant will develop a healthy
balance between trust and
mistrust if cared for and
responded to consistently.
Abuse or neglect will foster
mistrust. Positive outcomes
consist of the development
of hope and drive, while
negative outcomes could
contribute to withdrawal.
Autonomy vs shame and
doubt
Toddler (1 to 3 years) Autonomy means self-
reliance or independence of
thought and confidence to
act for oneself. Toilet training
is a significant part of this
stage. Positive outcomes
consist of willpower and self-
control, while negative
outcomes could contribute
to compulsive behaviors.
Initiative vs guilt Preschool (4 to 6 years) Initiative means aptitude and
self-confidence to perform
actions, even with the
understanding of risks and
failure. Guilt results from
abandonment or believing in
action will draw disapproval.
Positive outcomes foster
purpose and direction, while
negative outcomes
encourage inhibition.
Industry vs inferiority School age (7 to 12 years) Industry means having a
meaningful activity and the
competence to perform a
skill. Inferiority means feeling
incapable of experiencing
failure or inability to discover
one's strengths. This stage is
crucial in these school years.
Positive outcomes foster
competence, while negative
outcomes encourage inertia.
Identity vs role confusion Adolescent (12 to 18 years) Identity means and
understanding of one's self
and how one fits into the
surrounding world, while
role confusion focuses on the
inability to understand one's
self or personal identity.
Positive outcomes foster
fidelity and devotion, while
negative outcomes
encourage repudiation
behavior.
Intimacy vs isolation Young adult (19 to 40 years) Intimacy means developing
relationships with friends,
family, and partners.
Isolation involves feelings of
being excluded from
relationships or partnerships.
These encompass sexual
maturity, reciprocal love,
support, and emotional
connection. Positive
outcomes foster love and
affiliation, while negative
outcomes encourage age
exclusivity.
Generativity vs stagnation Adulthood (41 to 65 years) Generativity means
unconditional care for ones
offspring or the future
generations to come, while
stagnation refers to self
absorption/concentration.
Positive outcomes foster care
and giving, while negative
outcomes encourage
objectivity.
Integrity vs despair Mature adult (>= 65 years) Integrity means an
understanding of self and
satisfaction with life, while
despair contributes to
feelings of wasted time,
opportunity, and chances.
Positive outcomes foster
wisdom, while negative
outcomes encourage despair.
Behaviorism theory
oPlaced nearly sole emphasis on the impact on environment, experience, and
learning about the unfolding development of the human condition
oJohn B. Watson
Father of American behaviorism
Emphasized the role of environment in the shaping of human
development.
oTwo main themes or forms of behavioral theory explain how environment
has such a formational impact:
BF Skinner suggested that behavior was formed or shaped as a result.
Of the consequences experienced.
His operant conditioning model argued that behavior followed
by a rewarding stimulus would be more likely to recur and
endure than that followed by a punishing consequence.
Social learning theory
oInitially presented by Albert Bandura as a social learning theory.
oBanduras social learning theory posits that people learn from one another via
observation, imitation, and modeling.
oAccording to Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, and Pastorelli, social learning is
connected to perceptions and interpretations of the individuals experiences
oSelf efficacy, the belief that personal achievement depends on one's actions,
teaches people to have high aspirations and to strive for notable
accomplishments when they see others solve problems successfully.
oSocial learning theory is described as the “bridge” between traditional
learning theory and the cognitive approach because it focuses on how mental
(cognitive) factors are involved in learning.
oSocial learning theory focuses on how mental factors are involved in learning
and observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were
at work.
oThese mental factors mediate in the learning process to determine whether a
new response is acquired.
o4 Mediational processes proposed by social learning theory:
1. Attention: This is the extent to which we are exposed to/notice the
behavior. We observe many behaviors daily; many of these behaviors
do not seize our attention and we will not imitate them.
2. Retention: The behavior may be noticed, but it is not always
remembered, which obviously prevents imitation and later repetition
by the observer.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the
model has just demonstrated. Other people's behaviors are observed
daily, but we are limited by our cognitive and/or physical ability to
imitate or repeat these behaviors; even if we wish to reproduce these
behaviors, we cannot.
4. Motivation: The observer will consider the drive to perform the
behavior and the subsequent rewards and punishments that result
from imitation of a behavior. The observer will be more likely to
imitate the behavior if the perceived reward outweighs the perceived
negative consequence.
oThe social learning approach takes thought processes into account and
acknowledges the role that they play in deciding whether a behavior is to be
imitated.
Cognitive theory
oEmphasizes the unfolding of conscious thought and the developing abilities
to process, store, retrieve, and use information.
oTwo major players in the realm of cognitive theory are Jean Piaget and Lev
Vygotsky
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
oDescribes how humans gather and organize information, and how this
process changes developmentally.
oHe believed that children are born with a very basic mental structure on
which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.
oFor Piaget, the focus was on how mental structures and processes evolved to
help individuals make meaning out of their experiences and adapt to their
changing environments.
oTo understand this process of adaptation, he employed the constructs of
schema, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.
oA schema referred to the cognitive structures by which an individual
organizes his or her experience and environments.
oFor example, Upon encountering a dog for the first time, an infant will
experience visual, auditory, and olfactory input. These data, according to
Piaget, will be linked in A neural pathway, a schema that will eventually be
used as a mental template to represent dog each time these stimuli are
encountered.
oHowever, as we know, not all dogs will be like the first one. Experienced and
other animals may possess some of the characteristics of our dog, but will be
different. These subtle differences will force an individual to develop new
schemata to reflect and organize these categories of stimulation. The process
by which this is done includes:
First, a new encounter.
Experience of disequilibrium, the discomfort of not quite
understanding or being able to make sense of the new encounter.
The process of adaptation.
oAccommodation: condition of making a new schema.
oPiaget concluded that a person's cognitive development unfolds through four
distinct and qualitatively different stages.
oHe is credited with discovering that thoughts, not just experience, contributr
to human development
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development.
Stage Approximate age Description
Sensorimotor stage Birth to 18 to 24 months adapt and organize
experiences by way of
sensory and motor actions.
Initially, simple reflexes (for
example, sucking) help
them know their world.
Later, Within this stage,
infants differentiate
themselves from the
external world, and objects
take on their existence.
This is the time when
object permanence occurs,
with the infant able to
symbolize the object and
realize that objects exist
even if they are out of the
infant sensory experience.
Preoperational stage 2 to 7 years While the child at this
stage lacks logical
operations, he or she is no
longer tied to sensorimotor
input but it's tied to and
operates via
representational and
conceptual frameworks.
The child can employ
symbols to recreate or
present experiences. In this
stage, the child believes
that everyone sees the
world the same way that
he or she does. This is
called egocentrism.
Conservation, Another
achievement of this stage,
is the ability to understand
that quantity does not
change if the shape
changes.
Concrete operational stage 7 to 11 years In this stage, the child can
employ logic, however,
only to concrete problems
and objects.
Formal operational stage >= 11 years At this point, children's
abstract thinking leads to
reasoning with more
complex symbols. They can
think logically about
abstract propositions and
test hypothesis
systematically. They
become concerned with
the hypothetical, the
future, and ideological
problems.
Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective
oMaintained that children actively construct their knowledge.
oHe emphasized the role of culture in promoting certain types of activities and
emphasized that a child masters task that are deemed culturally important.
oHe believed that human development is the result of interactions between people
and their social environment.
Biopsychosocial theory
oBiopsychosocial model focuses on the integration and reciprocal effect that the
biological, psychological, and social systems have on our development.
Ecological systems theory
oEmphasize environmental factors
oUrie Bronfenbrenner created one ecological theory that has important implications
for understanding lifespan development
Developed the ecological systems theory of human development, which
posits that a child’s development occurs within a complex system of
relationships; including parent-child interactions (the microsystem); the
extended family, school, and neighborhood (the mesosystem); and the
general society and culture (the exosystem)theory posited 5 environmental
systems significant for understanding human development: microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory
System Description
Microsystem microsystem refers to the immediate
surroundings of the individual and consist of
the interactions in his or her immediate
surroundings. It is the setting in which a
person lives; Family, peer groups,
neighborhood, and school life are all included
in the micro system.
It is in the microsystem that the most direct
interactions with social agents take place,
with parents, peers, and teachers, for
example. The individual is not merely A
passive recipient of experiences in these
settings, but someone who helps to construct
these social settings.
Mesosystem The message system connects with the
structure of the micro system. The
relationship can be seen between school, life,
the neighborhood, and the family. The child's
environment links the child with his or her
immediate surroundings.
Some common examples are the connections
between family experiences and school
experiences, school experiences and church
experiences, and family experiences and peer
experiences.
A result of Mesosystem interactions could be
that children whose parents have rejected
them may have difficulty developing positive
relations with their friends or peers.
Exosystem The exosystem is the outer shell surrounding
both the mesosystem and the microsystem.
The inner level of the exosystem is affected
by the support of the macrosystem.
Bronfenbrenner describes the exosystem as
being made-up of social settings that do not
contain the developing person, but affect
experiences in his or her immediate settings.
The ecosystem includes other people and
places that the child may not interact with
but still have a large effect on the child, such
as parents workplaces, extended family
members, neighborhoods, and so on. For
example, a wife or child's experience at home
may be influenced by the husband's
experiences at work. The father might receive
a promotion that requires more travel, which
might increase conflict with the wife and
affect patterns of interaction with the child.
Macrosystem The macro system influences the individual
directly, but the individual has less influence
in determining settings. The macro system
includes aspects of culture and the relative
freedoms permitted by the national
government, cultural values, the economy,
wars, and so on. The macro system also
describes the culture in which individuals
live, including socioeconomic status, poverty,
and ethnicity.
Chronosystem The chrono system refers to the patterning of
environmental events and transitions over
the life of an individual, as well as
sociohistorical circumstances. For example,
divorce is one transition.
Researchers have found that the negative
effects of divorce on children often peak in
the first year after the divorce. Two years
after the divorce, family interaction is less
chaotic and more stable. An example of
sociohistorical circumstances would be the
increasing opportunities in the last decades
for women to pursue a career.
Cultural diversity and human development
oContributions of Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky are significant to the study of
human development because their theories focus on its socioecological and
sociocultural contexts
oBronfenbrenner’s theory focuses on the mutual accommodation and interaction
between the developing individual and the physical environment; this approach
defines the development of the individual who interacts with the environment in
the process of mutual accommodation
oVygotsky developed the theory of cognitive development to emphasize that
human development is inseparable from social and cultural activities
According to Vygotsky, by interacting with the environment, society, and
people with higher skill levels, children develop higher mental processes
and learn to use the tools of culture such as language, mathematics,
interpersonal skills, and so on
Seeking the truth: research methodologies
oDevelopmental theory: Systematic statement of general principles that provides
A coherent framework for understanding how and why people change over time
concerning their behaviors, attitudes, thoughts, philosophies, and physical and
psychological capabilities.
Research observation
oThe scientific observation approach in human development research requires the
researcher to record human behavior objectively, methodically, and
systematically.
oTwo possible settings for making scientific observations:
A laboratory, which is a controlled setting in which the researcher can
manipulate the environment to optimize the research result
A real world setting
oHawthorne effect: Participants in the laboratory research study may perform
differently (most work harder and perform better) since they are aware that they
are being observed.
oConducting observations in natural settings, the researchers can observe people’s
real behaviors and interactions with one another
Survey interviews
oTable 2.5 strengths and weaknesses of survey research
Process of case study
oCase study: in-depth look at a single individual
oThe focus of the case study is to collect complete, detailed information about the
individual in a situation or when exhibiting a set of behaviors
Research design: the experiment
oThe experiment would be one in which the researcher manipulates one or more
independent variables, controls any other relevant extraneous variable, and
observes the effect of the manipulations on the dependent variables
oIndependent variable: variable being manipulated by the researcher (presumed
cause)
oDependent variable: change in behavior measured by the researcher (presumed
effect)
oConfounding variables: all other variables that might affect the results, and
therefore produce a false set of results
oTable 2.6 Strengths and Weaknesses of Laboratory Research
The field experiment
oExperiment in a more natural setting, that is, in the field (like the show What
Would You Do?)
oLess artificial than the labortary experiment
Natural experiment
oBehavioral scientist and psychologists can use a natural situation to conduct a
research study that they cannot themselves manipulate
oThis is not a true experiment because the psychologists us unable to manipulate
or control variables. For this reason, a natural experiment is sometimes referred
to as a quasi-experiment
Lifespan study
oStudies that focus on the relation of age to some other variable
Cross-sectional research
oDescriptive study in which the characteristics under investigation are measured
simultaneously in different age populations
Longitudinal research
oObservational
oResearchers do not interfere with their subjects
oResearchers conduct several observations of the same subjects over some time,
sometimes lasting many years
Rules governing human subjects research
World opinion
oNuremberg trial
oPrinciple 1: respect for persons
Treat individuals as autonomous agents and protect persons with
diminished autonomy
oPrinciple 2: beneficence
Do unto others as you would have them do unto you
oPrinciple 3: justice
Distribute the risks and potential benefits of research equally among
those who may benefit from the research
ACA guidelines for ethical research
Research contributing to a counselors identity
