Discussion 4
Developing Human Resources
a. Introduction to Orientation
Effectively done, orientation serves a number of purposes. In general, the
orientation process is similar to what sociologists call socialization. Socialization
occurs when a new employee learns the norms, values, work procedures, and patterns
of behavior and dress that are expected in the organization. Some of the principal
purposes of orientation.
Organizational socialization consists of a series of social processes through
which organizations transmit to members the expectations, norms, values, and
behaviors associated with their roles within the company. This complex and
multifaceted process is critical for integrating new employees into the organizational
culture and ensuring they understand and adopt the attitudes, skills, and behaviors
necessary to perform effectively in their roles. Organizational socialization begins
even before an employee's first day and continues throughout their tenure with the
organization, encompassing various stages and mechanisms.
Pre-Employment Phase: The socialization process often begins during the
recruitment and selection phase. Prospective employees start to form perceptions
about the organization based on job advertisements, the recruitment process,
interviews, and any interactions they have with current employees. This phase sets the
initial expectations and can significantly influence the individual’s decision to join the
organization. Effective communication during this phase helps align the candidate’s
expectations with the reality of the organization’s culture and role requirements.
Onboarding and Orientation: Once an individual is hired, the formal
socialization process typically starts with onboarding and orientation programs. These
programs are designed to introduce new employees to the organization’s structure,
policies, procedures, and culture. Orientation sessions may include presentations,
training workshops, tours of the workplace, and introductions to key personnel. This
phase aims to reduce uncertainty and anxiety, providing new hires with the
information and resources they need to start their jobs confidently. A well-structured
onboarding program can significantly enhance job satisfaction and retention by
helping new employees feel welcomed and valued.
Role Clarification: As part of the onboarding process, new employees receive
detailed information about their specific roles and responsibilities. This role
clarification is crucial for helping employees understand what is expected of them,
how their job fits into the broader organizational context, and how their performance
will be evaluated. Supervisors and mentors play a vital role in this phase by providing
guidance, setting performance goals, and offering feedback. Clear communication
about role expectations helps prevent misunderstandings and sets the foundation for
effective performance.
Social Integration: Socialization is not just about learning job-related tasks but
also about becoming integrated into the social fabric of the organization. This
involves building relationships with colleagues, supervisors, and subordinates.
Organizations often facilitate social integration through team-building activities,
social events, and collaborative projects. These interactions help new employees
develop a sense of belonging and foster a supportive network that can provide
assistance and encouragement. Social integration is critical for creating a positive
work environment where employees feel connected and engaged.
Culture Assimilation: Understanding and assimilating into the organizational
culture is a key aspect of socialization. Organizational culture encompasses the shared
values, beliefs, rituals, and norms that define how things are done within the
company. New employees learn about the culture through observation, interactions,
and formal training sessions. This cultural learning helps them understand the
informal rules and expectations that guide behavior within the organization. Managers
and long-term employees act as cultural ambassadors, modeling behaviors and
reinforcing the cultural values of the organization.
Performance Feedback and Evaluation: Regular performance feedback and
evaluations are essential components of the socialization process. Through ongoing
feedback, employees learn how well they are meeting role expectations and where
they need to improve. Constructive feedback helps employees adjust their behaviors
and practices to align with organizational standards. Performance evaluations also
provide opportunities for employees to discuss their career goals, receive coaching,
and identify development opportunities. This continuous feedback loop fosters
professional growth and ensures that employees remain aligned with organizational
objectives.
Training and Development: Ongoing training and development programs
support the socialization process by helping employees acquire new skills and
knowledge. These programs may include technical training, leadership development,
and soft skills enhancement. By investing in employee development, organizations
signal their commitment to their workforce’s growth and success. Training initiatives
also help employees stay current with industry trends and technological
advancements, ensuring they can contribute effectively to the organization’s goals.
Mentorship and Peer Support: Mentorship programs are an effective way to
facilitate organizational socialization. Pairing new employees with experienced
mentors provides them with a trusted advisor who can offer guidance, support, and
insights into the organizational culture. Mentors help new hires navigate the
complexities of their roles and build confidence in their abilities. Peer support groups
also play a significant role in socialization by providing a platform for new employees
to share experiences, seek advice, and build camaraderie with colleagues at similar
stages in their careers.
Adjustment and Adaptation: Over time, employees continue to adjust and
adapt to their roles and the organizational environment. This phase involves refining
their understanding of the organizational culture, improving their job performance,
and strengthening their relationships with colleagues. Employees who successfully
navigate the socialization process become fully integrated members of the
organization, contributing to its success and achieving their professional goals.
In summary, organizational socialization is a dynamic and ongoing process
that involves multiple stages and mechanisms to ensure that employees understand
and adopt the expectations, values, and behaviors required for their roles. By
effectively managing this process, organizations can enhance employee satisfaction,
performance, and retention, ultimately fostering a cohesive and productive workforce.
In practice, members of the established group (company, unit, culture)
communicate to newcomers systematic sets of expectations for how they should
behave. People undergoing socialization respond both cognitively and emotionally. 2
First, they receive and attempt to understand the cultural messages being sent to them
by the agents of socialization (co-workers, superiors, subordinates, customers).
Second, to various degrees they agree with and emotionally accept those messages. If
messages sent are not understood or accepted, people being socialized must invent
their own behaviors.
An orientation program is an attempt to send clear messages and provide
accurate information about the company culture, the job, and expectations.
Unfortunately, what is clear to one person may be muddled to another. Clear messages
that are understood and accepted can achieve a number of orientation goals, such as
the following. To Reduce Anxiety Anxiety in this case means fear of failure on the
job. It is a normal fear of the unknown, focused on the ability to do the job. This
anxiety can be made worse if current employees ignore the new employee. To Reduce
Turnover If employees perceive themselves as ineffective, unwanted, or unneeded,
they may react to these feelings by quitting. Turnover is high during the break-in
period, and effective orientation can reduce this costly reaction.
To Save Time Improperly oriented employees must still get the job done, and
to do so they need help. The most likely people to provide this help are co-workers
and supervisors, who will have to spend time breaking in new employees. Good
orientation programs save everyone time. To Develop Realistic Expectations In what
sociologists call the older professions (law, medicine) or total institutions (the church,
prison, the army), job expectations are clear because they have been developed over
long years of training and education. Society has built up a set of attitudes and
behaviors that are considered proper for these jobs. For most of the world of work,
however, this does not hold true. New employees must learn realistically what the
organization expects of them, and their own expectations of the job must be neither
too low nor too high. 3 Each worker must incorporate the job and its work values into
his or her self-image. Orientation helps this process.
In smaller organizations, the operating manager usually does all the orienting.
In larger organizations, HR managers may conduct the initial orientation with
additional information about the specific job and department provided by the
operating manager. In some unionized organizations, union officials are involved.
National Semiconductor Corp. became involved in a benchmark project to improve its
orientation of employees. The firm had concluded that its existing orientation was not
the best, and it began to revamp the program. It used Walt Disney—a firm that has a
reputation for an outstanding orientation program—as a model. 4 National
Semiconductor also used a “college hire assimilation program” (CHAP).
Most new hires out of college are general trainees. The goals of CHAP are to
ease the transition from school to work, accelerate productivity, encourage teamwork,
build a personal and professional network, and install corporate values. CHAP
consists of 40 hours of activity and instruction during the first three months of
employment. The new hires work on rotating assignments in different departments. At
the end of the three months, they have career planning sessions with an in-house
career counselor to help them decide in which area they wish to work.
The final phase of a well-designed and systematic orientation program is the
assignment of the new employee to the job. At this point, the supervisor is supposed
to take over and continue the orientation program. One way to ensure adequate
orientation is to design a feedback system to control the program or use management
by objectives. Even in organizations with superb orientation programs, the time
inevitably arrives when training and/or development is needed.
b. Introduction to Training
One way to display the meaning and comprehensiveness of training and
development is to use a visual model of how it unfolds in an organization. The needs
assessment phase serves as the formulation for decisions that must be made at later
phases. It is important for the needs assessment to be complete, timely, and accurate.
Needs assessment is a process that is used to determine if and what type of training is
necessary.
It usually involves an organizational, person, and task analysis. Organizational
analysis involves examining a firm’s mission, resources, and goals to determine if
training can be used to improve the firm’s success, growth, and strategy. Person
analysis involves the determination of who needs training and their readiness for
training. Task analysis involves the identification of the tasks, knowledge, skill, and
behaviors that should be included in a training program.
Interviews, surveys, reviews of records, observation, and discussions with
management and subject matter experts (SMEs) are methods used to conduct a needs
assessment. These data and information gathering techniques provide a profile of
what type of training is needed, who should be trained, when training should be
conducted, and whether training is the preferred approach. After a needs assessment is
completed, instructional objectives lead to the selection and design of specific and
customized instructional programs. If assessment and the selection and design of
programs are done carefully, the training and development can be monitored and
evaluated.
Since training is a form of education, some of the findings regarding learning
theory logically apply to training. These principles can be important in the design of
both formal and informal training programs. The following is a brief summary of the
way learning principles can be applied to job training.
In order to learn, a person must want to learn. In the context of training,
motivation influences a person’s enthusiasm for training, keeps attention focused on
the training activities, and reinforces what is learned. Motivation is influenced by the
beliefs and perceptions of the trainee. If a trainee is not motivated, little can be
accomplished in a training program.
To learn complex things, a person must have certain aptitudes. Do you think
that thousands of repetitions and hours of training would enable any person to hit a
major league pitcher’s curveball out of a baseball park? The ability to learn plays a
role in whether what is taught in a training program can be understood and applied
back at work. Special accommodations may be necessary for trainees with learning
disabilities. Behavioral psychologists have demonstrated that people learn best with
fairly immediate reinforcement of appropriate behavior. The learner must be rewarded
for new behavior in ways that satisfy needs, such as pay, recognition, and promotion.
Standards of performance should be set for the learner. Benchmarks for learning
provide goals and give a feeling of accomplishment when reached. These standards
provide a measure for meaningful feedback.
Time is required to assimilate what has been learned, to accept it, to internalize
it, and to build confidence in it. This requires practice and repetition of the material.
Supervisors should encourage trainees to practice what they have learned in training
programs. Appropriate materials for sequential learning (cases, problems, discussion
outlines, reading lists) must be provided. The trainer acts as an aid in an efficient
learning process. The learning methods used should be as varied as possible. It is
boredom that destroys learning, not fatigue. Any method—whether an old-fashioned
lecture or programmed learning or a challenging computer game—will begin to bore
some learners if overused.
Communication must be done in a clear, consistent, and understandable
manner and over enough time to allow absorption. Organizations with international
and multilingual workforces may want to offer training programs in different
languages to ensure the material is understood correctly. The trainer must do her or his
best to make the training as close to the reality of the job as possible. Thus, when the
trainee returns to the job, the training can be applied immediately. Peter Senge
popularized the concept of learning organizations in his book The Fifth Discipline. He
described them as places “where people continually expand their capacity to create
the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are
nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually
learning how to learn together.
The economic costs of training (e.g., salaries of trainers, lost time away from
work, materials, travel, accommodations) need to be continually reviewed, and a
training program must be evaluated to determine if it has made a specific contribution
(e.g., performance improvement, morale enhancement, increased self-confidence) to
the organization’s goals.
c. Managing the Training Program
The needs assessment involves analyzing the organization’s needs; the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform the job; and the person or
jobholder’s needs. The organizational needs assessment requires an examination of
the long- and short-term objectives of the firm. The organization’s financial, social,
human resource, growth, and market objectives need to be matched with the firm’s
human talent, structure, climate, and efficiency. Where is the organization going, and
does it have the capability to get there? These are the important questions that need to
be assessed. Typically, objectives, ratios, organization charts, historical records on
absenteeism, quality of production, efficiency, and performance appraisals will be
carefully reviewed.
The knowledge, skills, and abilities (K, S, A) needed to perform the job are
carefully considered. What are the tasks? What skills are needed to perform well?
What does performing well mean? Data from current employees, supervisors, and
experts must be collected to complete this part of a needs assessment. The employee’s
needs also must be considered. Asking people what their needs are on the job and
asking them to perform tasks can provide information and data. Examining the
employee’s performance against a standard or compared with that of co-workers can
help identify strengths, weaknesses, and needs. Determining if a person can do the job
is an important step in improving the firm’s ability to match the person with the best
job for him or her.
Great care must be exercised in choosing effective instructors or trainers. To
some extent, the success of the training program depends on proper selection of the
person who performs the training task. 17 Personal characteristics (such as the ability
to speak well, to write convincingly, to organize the work of others, to be inventive,
and to inspire others to greater achievements) are important factors in the selection of
trainers. The process of analyzing needs and developing a training program can be
accomplished by company trainers. HR specialists or hired outside consultants who
report to the HR manager or other top managers are also used to perform a needs
analysis and to conduct the training.
Although much formal training is typically conducted by professional trainers
who possess specialized skills in instructional design and delivery, there is a growing
recognition that managers often serve as the best trainers from a technical perspective.
This is particularly true when managers are provided with support and preparation by
qualified training professionals who can help them organize and present the material
effectively. The involvement of managers in the training process brings several
advantages that address common criticisms and enhance the overall effectiveness of
training programs.
One of the most significant benefits of using managers as trainers is their deep,
practical knowledge of the specific tasks and responsibilities associated with the roles
they supervise. Managers have hands-on experience and a thorough understanding of
the nuances and challenges that employees face in their day-to-day work. This
practical expertise allows them to provide relevant, real-world examples and insights
that professional trainers might lack. Consequently, employees are more likely to see
the direct applicability of the training content to their job functions, which can
enhance their engagement and motivation to learn.
Additionally, managers can tailor training to the specific needs and context of
their team or department. Unlike standardized training sessions that may cover broad
topics, manager-led training can be customized to address the unique requirements
and priorities of the group. This customization ensures that the training is highly
relevant and immediately useful, which helps to overcome the common criticism that
"training is OK in the classroom, but it won’t work back on the job." By focusing on
job-specific skills and scenarios, managers can bridge the gap between theoretical
knowledge and practical application.
The presence of trained trainers, whether they are professional trainers or
managers who have received adequate preparation, is a major factor in determining
the success of a training program. Effective trainers possess not only the technical
knowledge but also the ability to communicate information clearly, engage learners,
and adapt to different learning styles. When managers receive proper training in these
instructional skills, they can become highly effective trainers who deliver impactful
and memorable training sessions.
Moreover, involving managers in the training process can foster a culture of
continuous learning and development within the organization. When employees see
their managers actively participating in training and development activities, it sends a
powerful message about the importance of learning and growth. Managers who act as
trainers can model a commitment to professional development and encourage their
team members to take ownership of their learning journeys.
Manager-led training also enhances the relationship between managers and
their employees. It provides opportunities for managers to interact with their team
members in a different context, building rapport and trust. These interactions can lead
to better communication and collaboration, as employees feel more comfortable
seeking guidance and feedback from their managers. The shared experience of
training can also strengthen team cohesion and create a supportive learning
environment.
Unfortunately, identifying and using the best qualified trainers is not a perfect
process. Selecting a trainer that has a limited understanding of learning, training
delivery, individual motivation, and training techniques is doomed to fail. As a
cautionary suggestion, a review of the trainer’s understanding of theory, methods, and
delivery should precede placing anyone in a trainer position.
d. Training and Development Instructional Methods
Probably the most widely used method of training (formal and informal) is on-
the-job training. It is estimated that more than 60 percent of training occurs on the job.
The employee is placed into the real work situation and shown the job and the tricks
of the trade by an experienced employee or the supervisor.
Although this program is apparently simple and relatively less costly, if it is
not handled properly, the costs can be high—damaged machinery, unsatisfied
customers, misfiled forms, and poorly taught workers. To prevent these problems,
trainers must be carefully selected and trained. The trainee should be placed with a
trainer who is similar in background and personality. The trainer should be motivated
for training and rewarded for doing it well. The trainer should use effective techniques
in instructing the trainee. One approach to systematic on-the-job training is the job
instruction training (JIT) system developed during World War II.
Toll-free hotlines can help improve a firm’s customer service. Toll-free
numbers give customers an easy way to complain or ask questions. Training
individuals to handle complaints and questions is done on the job in a number of
firms. General Electric (GE), for example, trains customer service operators on the
job so that the realism of listening, thinking, and responding on the spot hits home. 20
GE’s answer center in Louisville, Kentucky, is open 24 hours a day. It employs 180
telephone representatives, 150 customer service reps, and 30 technicians. It handles 2
million calls from customers each year. Each rep is trained and is able to handle about
100 calls a day, each one lasting about 3.5 minutes. After learning about the firm’s
products, the rep is trained on the telephone. Communication and telephone skills are
observed and critiqued. Other firms that use 800 numbers and on-the-job training
include Armstrong Floors and Ceiling Building Products Division, JCPenney, and
Ralston-Purina. ExxonMobil uses an on-the-job training approach to achieve
excellence among engineers in the exploration and production division. 21 The
objective at ExxonMobil is based on the premise that the most significant
development of an engineer takes place on the job.
One widespread technique is the case method , which uses a written
description of a real decision-making situation in the organization or a situation that
occurred in another organization. Managers are asked to study the case to identify the
problems, analyze the problems for their significance, propose solutions, choose the
best solution, and implement it. More learning takes place if there is interaction
between the managers and the instructor. The instructor’s role is that of a catalyst and
facilitator. A good instructor is able to get everyone involved in solving the problem.
With good instructors and good cases, the case method is a very effective device for
improving and clarifying rational decision making. 22 The trainer using the case
method must guard against (1) dominating the discussion, (2)Ipermitting a few people
to dominate the discussion, or (3) leading the discussion toward his or her preferred
solution. As a catalyst, the instructor should encourage divergent viewpoints, initiate
discussion on points the managers are missing, and be thoroughly prepared.
One variation of the case method is the incident method. In the incident
method, just the bare outlines of a problem are given initially, and the students are
assigned a role in which to view the incident. Additional data are available if the
students ask the right questions. Each student “solves” the case, and groups based on
similarity of solutions are formed. Each group then formulates a strong statement of
position, and the groups debate or roleplay their solutions. The instructor may
describe what actually happened in the case and the consequences, and then the
groups compare their solutions with the results. The final step is for participants to try
to apply this knowledge to their own job situations.
Role-playing is a cross between the case method and an attitude development
program. Each person is assigned a role in a situation (such as a case) and asked to
play the role and to react to other players’ role-playing. The player is asked to pretend
to be a focal person in the situation and to react to the stimuli as that person would.
The players are provided with background information on the situation and the
players. Usually, a brief script is provided for the participants. Sometimes, the role-
playing is videotaped and reanalyzed as part of the development situation. Often, role-
playing is done in small groups of a dozen or so. The success of this method depends
on the ability of the players to play the assigned roles believably. If done well, role-
playing can help a manager become more aware of and more sensitive to the feelings
of others.
Another method used to develop managerial decision-making abilities is the
in-basket technique . The participant is given materials (typically memos or
descriptions of things to do) that include typical items from a specific manager’s mail,
e-mail, and a telephone list. Important and pressing matters, such as out-of-stock
positions, complaints by customers, and a demand for a report from a superior, are
mixed in with routine business matters, such as a request to speak at a dinner or a
decision on the date of the company picnic four weeks hence. The trainee is analyzed
and critiqued on the number of decisions made in the time allotted, the quality of the
decisions, and the priorities chosen for making them. In order to generate interest, the
in-basket materials must be realistic, job-related, and not impossible to make
decisions on.
Essentially, management games describe the operating characteristics of a
company, industry, or enterprise. These descriptions take the form of equations that
are manipulated after decisions have been made. Management games emphasize
development of problemsolving skills. In a typical computerized management game
procedure, teams of players are asked to make a series of operating (or top-
management) decisions. In one game, for example, the players are asked to decide on
such matters as the price of the product, purchase of materials, production scheduling,
funds borrowing, marketing, and R&D expenditures. When each player on the team
has made a decision, the interactions of these decisions are computed (manually or by
computer) in accordance with the model. For example, if price is linearly related to
volume, a decrease in price of x percent will affect the volume, subject to general
price levels. Players on the team reconcile their individual decisions with those of the
other team members before making a final decision. Then each team’s decision is
compared with those of the other teams. The result of that team’s profit, market share,
and so forth is compared, and a winner or best team performance is determined.
Looking Glass is a management game that permits individuals to participate as
managers in the simulation of a hypothetical glass manufacturing company with 4,000
employees and $200 million in annual sales. 25 Executives from IBM, AT&T,
Monsanto, and Union Carbide have used Looking Glass to provide a picture to
participants of their management style. Looking Glass was developed at the Center
for Creative Leadership, a nonprofit think tank in Greensboro, North Carolina.
Advantages of games include the integration of several interacting decisions, the
ability to experiment with decisions, the provision of feedback on decisions, and the
requirement that decisions be made with inadequate data, which usually simulates
reality. The main criticisms of most games concern their limitation of novelty or
reactivity in decision making, the cost of development and administration, the
unreality of some of the models, and the disturbing tendency of many participants to
look for the key to winning the game instead of concentrating on making good
decisions. Many participants seem to feel that the games are rigged—that a few
factors or even a single factor may be the key to winning.
A development approach for improving interpersonal skills is behavior
modeling , which is also called interaction management or imitating models.26 The
key to behavior modeling is learning through observation or imagination. Thus,
modeling is a “vicarious process” that emphasizes observation. One behavior
modeling approach begins by identifying interpersonal problems that employees,
especially managers, face. Typical problems are gaining acceptance as a new
supervisor, handling discrimination complaints, delegating responsibility, improving
attendance, disciplining effectively, overcoming resistance to change, setting
performance goals, motivating average performance, handling emotional situations,
reducing tardiness, and taking corrective action.
Behavior modeling has been introduced into such organizations as AT&T,
General Electric, IBM, Boise Cascade, Kaiser Corporation, Olin, and B.F. Goodrich.
The research evidence is generally positive. In a series of studies, groups trained in
behavior modeling have outperformed groups who received no training or traditional
management development training. Behavior modeling offers a number of promising
possibilities in organizations. One especially important need in organizations is to
develop effective leaders. Modeling appears to offer some promise for developing
leadership skills if used in conjunction with video methods. 30 The participants can
view their styles, behaviors, strengths, and weaknesses and learn from this personal
firsthand view. People who see themselves in action have a vivid reminder that they
can benefit from practice.
Cases, games, modeling, and role-playing are still popular, but an increasingly
popular form of development is outdoor or real-life, action-oriented programs.
Leadership, teamwork, and risk-taking are top-priority items in the outdoor-oriented
programs . The programs, conducted in remote areas, combine outdoor skills with
classroom seminars. Most of the programs have taken their cues from Outward Bound
programs, originated inIthe early 1960s. River rafting, mountain climbing, night
searching, team competition, boat races, rope climbing, and problem-solving
exercises are popular types of outdoor training.
Teamwork and trust are objectives that outdoor programs attempt to achieve.
Do these outdoor programs work? When a participant returns to the office, is he or
she more teamoriented? To date, there is little carefully designed research available
indicating that these programs are effective. The popularity of these programs is based
on the opinion that they appear to be action packed, participants like them, and they
involve healthful exercise. However, some critics question whether an organization
has a right to send or encourage a person to participate in a program that requires
some athletic ability, enjoyment of the outdoors, or risk.
Deciding on an approach or a combination of approaches must be done by
weighing various criteria. The choice can be made on the basis of number of
managers to be developed, relative costs per manager for each method, availability of
development materials in various forms (including the instructor’s capabilities), and
employees’ relative efficiency in learning. In general, the more active the manager, the
greater the motivation to learn—and thus the higher the probability of success. If there
are only a few instructors, individualized programmed instruction may be considered.
If none of the managers is capable of giving certain instructions, outside instructors
may be contacted, or movies or videos might be used. Finally, the method used should
reflect the degree of active participation desired for the program. Inevitably, the
effectiveness of each form of development or training must be evaluated. There are
studies to support the effectiveness of most methods; if a method is appropriate for the
particular program in question, it should be used.
The classic debate continues about which development approach or technique
is best. Some favor a combination of approaches, while others prefer an array of
humanist or behaviorist techniques. 33 The techniques of behaviorism include
behavioral modeling, roleplaying, positive reinforcement, and simulations. The
preferred techniques of the humanist approach to development (associated with Carl
Rogers) include self-assessment, visualization, and guided reflection. There are also
advocates of cognitive approaches who believe that lectures, discussion, readings, and
debates are the best approach to use.
The objectives can involve knowledge, skill, or attitude. To accomplish these
objectives, an array of humanist, cognitivist, and behaviorist techniques are available.
On the basis of theory and research, it appears that simpler tasks, like word processing
or filing, are learned efficiently by behaviorist techniques. On the other hand, more
complex tasks, such as learning how to be an effective leader of employees, often
require cognitive and humanistic approaches. Also, the ability of the learner needs to
be considered. More sophisticated learners usually require more cognitive approaches
and a chance to discuss their viewpoints.
On-the-job management training is the preferred type from many points of
view, especially because of its relevance and immediate transferability to the job.
There are three widely used approaches to training managers on the job. These
programs are not mutually exclusive; often they are run simultaneously.
One of the best and most frequently used methods of training new managers is
for effective managers to teach them. 34 The coach-superior sets a good example of
what a manager does. He or she also answers questions and explains why things are
done the way they are. It is the coach-superior’s obligation to see that the
managertrainee makes the proper contacts so that the job can be learned easily and
performed adequately. In some ways, the relationship between the coach-superior and
the managertrainee resembles the buddy system in employee training. Although most
organizations use coaching and counseling as either a formal or an informal
management development technique, it is not without its problems. Coaching and
counseling fail when inadequate time is set aside for them, when the subordinate is
allowed to make no mistakes, if rivalry develops, or if the dependency needs of the
subordinate are not recognized or accepted by the superior. In sum, many experts
contend that coaching and counseling, when coupled with planned rotation through
jobs and functions, are effective techniques. They can fit the manager’s background
and utilize the principle of learning by doing what has proven effective. Finally, the
method involves the supervisors, which is essential to successful management
development.
Another approach to management training is to provide transitory experiences.
Once it has been determined that a person will be promoted to a specific job,
provision is made for a short period before the promotion in which she or he learns
the new job, performing some new duties while still performing most of the old ones.
This intermediate arrangement is labeled differently in various organizations: assistant
understudy, multiple management, or management apprenticeship.
The main characteristic of this type of program is that it gives partial prior
experience to a person likely to hold a position in the future. 35 In some approaches,
the trainee performs a part of the actual job; thus, an assistant does some parts of the
job for the incumbent. Another variation is to provide trainees with a series of
assignments that are part of the new job in order to train them and broaden their
experiences. To the extent that transitory experiences simulate the future job and are
challenging, they seem to provide an eminently reasonable approach to management
development. Little systematic study has been made of the effectiveness of this
approach, however, and it appears to be used less often than coaching or counseling.
In another on-the-job approach, trainees are rotated through a series of jobs to
broaden their managerial experience. Organizations often have developed
programmed career plans that include a mix of functional and geographic transfers.
Advocates of rotation and transfer contend that this approach broadens the manager’s
background, accelerates the promotion of highly competent individuals, introduces
more new ideas into the organization, and increases the effectiveness of the
organization. But some research evidence questions these conclusions. 36 Individual
differences affect whether the results will be positive, and generalists may not be the
most effective managers in many specialized positions. Geographic transfers are
desirable when fundamentally different job situations exist at various places. They
allow new ideas to be tried instead of meeting each situation with the comment, “We
always do it that way here.” As in many other types of development, trained
supervisors can make this technique more effective.
Organizations with the biggest training programs often use off-the-job
training. A survey of training directors in Fortune 500 companies examined their
views of which off-the-job training techniques were the most effective for specific
objectives. The training directors indicated that if knowledge was the objective, it
would be best to use programmed instruction. On the other hand, if the training was
intended to improve problem-solving skills, then it would be better to use the case
method of training (for example, having participants analyze job-related cases).
Research suggests that the most popular methods of instruction for off-the-job
training are lecture-discussion, programmed instruction, and computerassisted
instruction (CAI).
The most frequently used training method is for a trainer to give a lecture and
involve the trainee in a discussion of the material to be learned. Effective classroom
presentation supplements lecture with audiovisual aids such as blackboards, slides,
and mock-ups. Frequently, these lectures are videotaped or audiotaped. The method
allows the trainers’ message to be given in many locations and to be repeated as often
as needed for the benefit of the trainees. Videotape recording also allows for self-
observation, which is especially useful in such programs as sales training and
interpersonal relations. The trainee’s presentation can be taped and played back for
analysis.
Intranets are internal, proprietary electronic networks similar to the Internet.
Typically, an intranet delivers programs that have been developed or customized for
an organization’s particular learning needs. List-serve discussion groups and virtual-
learning campuses are just a few ways organizations are using intranets to share
information among employees. Some intranets can also support the delivery of CD-
ROM-based training. As CD-ROM programs continue to become more sophisticated,
trainers can learn more about them through the use of “authoring” software, which
ranges in difficulty from straightforward, template-based programs to more complex
applications requiring expert programming skills.
HRM practitioners and trainers should also have a working knowledge of
multimedia technology. It enhances learning in individual and group settings with
audio, animation, graphics, and interactive video delivered via computer. Those
capabilities let trainees retrieve information when they want it and in the way that
makes the most sense to them. Training magazine and OmniTech Consulting Group
Inc. of Chicago assessed the use of multimedia-based training (MBT) in 146 of the
Fortune 1000 firms. MBT was defined as an interactive learning experience
incorporating the use of either CD-ROM or World Wide Web technology (via Internet
or intranet). 39 Virtual reality (VR) is a step beyond multimedia. VR is a computer-
based technology that enables users to learn in a three-dimensional environment. The
trainer can, by using a simulated situation, interact in real time with its components by
viewing a virtual model on a computer screen or through a head-mounted display.
Virtual reality training can be used in a wide range of applications, from
teaching pilots how to fly a new jet airline to helping new doctors make more precise
patient diagnoses. In 2009, Sodexo Inc., a foodservice and facilities firm, decided to
hold a 3-D virtual diversity conference for 450 of its geographically dispersed
employees. In previous years, the firm would pay for these employees to travel to the
firm’s Paris-based headquarters for the two-day conference. Instead, employees were
instructed to log onto a website where they directed an avatar (in a virtual conference
setting) to listen to presentations and discussions, participate in chat rooms, and
network with other attendees’ avatars. Sodexo reported that the virtual event was
successful and saved the company about $1.8 million in travel-related costs.
The Virtual Reality Institute was established in the United States to offer
training and consulting services to corporate clients. Northern Telecom, a developer of
communications products, and Superscape, a leading builder of VR tools for desktop
computers, announced the release of new virtual reality training software for
telephone console attendants. On a service call, an appliance technician is asked to fix
a broken refrigerator but discovers that he hasn’t worked on that particular model
before. No problem—he pulls out his laptop computer, accesses a phone line, and
within moments downloads schematics and technical data on the appliance. The
technician can also reach immediate interactive technical assistance that literally talks
him through repair procedures.
e. The Concept of Career
The concept of career has many meanings. The popular meaning is probably
reflected in the idea of moving upward in one’s chosen line of work—making more
money; having more responsibility; and acquiring more status, prestige, and power.
Although typically restricted to lines of work that involve gainful employment, the
concept of career can apply to other life pursuits. For example, we can think of stay-
at-home parents and volunteer workers as having careers; they too advance in the
sense that their talents and abilities to handle larger responsibilities grow with time
and experience. A parent of teenagers plays a far different role from the one he or she
played when the children were preschoolers.
This definition emphasizes that the term career does not imply success or
failure except in the judgment of the individual, that a career consists of both attitudes
and behavior, and that it is an ongoing sequence of work-related activities. Yet, even
though the concept of career is clearly work-related, it must be understood that a
person’s nonwork life and roles play a significant part in a career. For example, the
attitudes of a 50-year-old midcareer manager (midcareer means at or above the
midpoint of a person’s working tenure) about a job advancement involving greater
responsibilities can be quite different from those of a manager nearing retirement. A
single person’s reaction to a promotion involving relocation is likely to be different
from that of a father or mother of school-age children.
The values of society change over time, and, consequently, how a person
reacts to a career may be modified. While many people who are in managerial and
professional careers continue to be obsessed with advancement, continual success,
and a continually increasing salary, there is a growing number of individuals who
strive to balance between work achievements and personal and family priorities.
Family needs and spending time off the job with loved ones are becoming topics that
individuals are discussing and considering more completely.
Most working people prepare for their occupation by undergoing some form
of organized education in high school, nursing school, vocational school, or college.
They then take a first job, but the chances are that they will move to other jobs in the
same organization or in other organizations. Eventually, over the course of their
career, they settle into a position in which they remain until retirement. The duration
of each stage varies among individuals, but most working people go through all of
these stages. Studies of career stages have found that needs and expectations change
as the individual moves through the stages.
Managers at American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T), for example,
expressed considerable concern for safety needs during the initial years on their jobs.
This phase, termed the establishment phase, ordinarily lasted during the first five
years of employment. Following the establishment phase is the advancement phase,
which lasts approximately from age 30 to age 45. During this period, the AT&T
managers expressed considerably less concern for safety and more concern for
achievement, esteem, and autonomy. The maintenance phase follows the advancement
phase. This period is marked by efforts to stabilize the gains of the past. Although no
new gains may be made, the maintenance phase can be a period of creativity, since the
individual has satisfied many of the psychological and financial needs associated with
earlier phases. Although each individual and each career will be different, it is
reasonable to assume that esteem and self-actualization would be the most important
needs in the maintenance phase. But, as we will see, many people experience what is
called a midcareer crisis during the maintenance phase. Such people are not achieving
satisfaction from their work, and consequently they may experience psychological
discomfort.
The maintenance phase is followed by the retirement phase. The individual
has, in effect, completed one career, and he or she may move on to another one.
During this phase, the individual may have opportunities to experience self-
actualization through activities that it was impossible to pursue while working.
Painting, gardening, volunteer service, and travel are some of the many positive
avenues that have been followed by retirees. But the individual’s financial and health
status may make it necessary to spend the retirement years worrying about satisfying
needs. Preretirement planning programs are becoming more fulfilling needs.
The fact that individuals pass through different stages during their careers is
evident. It is also understandable that individual needs and motives are different from
one stage to the next. But managing careers requires a more complete description of
what happens to individuals during these stages. One group of individuals whose
careers are of special significance to the performance of modern organizations is the
professionals. “Knowledge workers”—such as professional accountants, information
systems specialists, scientists, and engineers—are one of the fastest-growing
segments of the workforce. In 2009, this segment constituted about 75Ipercent of the
U.S. workforce in certain sectors like health care and education.
Holland suggests that, whereas one personality type predominates, individuals
use a wide range of strategies for coping with their environment, and that many
strategies fallIwithin the boundaries of two or more types. He has determined by
research that the closer two orientations are in the hexagon arrangement, the more
similar are the personality types. Therefore, he claims that the adjacent types (for
example, realistic-investigative and social-enterprising) are similar, while nonadjacent
types (for example, realistic-social and artistic-conventional) are dissimilar.
Using Holland’s analysis and logic, one would conclude that if a person’s
predominant and secondary orientations are similar, he or she will have a relatively
easy time selecting a career. On the other hand, dissimilar predominant and secondary
orientations may result in difficulty choosing a career. Various quantitative
instruments have been used to assess a person’s resemblance to the six personality
types. 13 The Vocational Preference Inventory asks a person to indicate the vocations
that appeal to him or her, from a list of 84 occupational titles (14 titles for each of the
six scales). The person’s responses are scored and profiled. The higher a person’s
score on a scale, the greater the resemblance to the type that scale represents.
Determining what skills one has is extremely important in making career
choices. Holland’s work on career choice suggests that simply preferring one career or
occupation over another is not enough. A person must have or be able to develop the
skills required to perform the job. A person may have an investigative orientation, but
whether he or she has the skills to be a research scientist, physician, or biologist will
play a significant part in which specific occupation is selected. The Occupational
Information Network (O*NET), a database sponsored by the U.S. Department of
Labor, provides information about occupational requirements and worker attributes. It
describes occupations in terms of the skills and knowledge required, how the work is
performed, and typical work settings.
f. Career Development: A Commitment
When an organization understands the importance of career development, it
can offer numerous opportunities to employees. These opportunities can involve
simply a tuition reimbursement program or a detailed counseling service for
developing individual career path plans. Training programs are most valuable when
they are (1) offered regularly, (2) open to all employees, and (3) modified when
evaluation indicates that change is necessary. The overall objective of these programs
is to match employees’ needs and goals with current or future career opportunities in
the organization. Thus, a well-designed career development effort will assist
employees in determining their own career needs, develop and publicize available
career opportunities in the organization, and match employees’ needs and goals with
the organization. This commitment to career development can delay the obsolescence
of human resources that is so costly to an organization.
When a supervisor makes a hiring decision, they are required to provide a
detailed written explanation of the decision-making process and the rationale behind
the final selection. This explanation is a crucial part of maintaining transparency and
fairness in the hiring process, and it ensures that all applicants are fully informed
about the reasons for the outcome. Regardless of who is ultimately selected for the
position, this written explanation is returned to each employee who applied for the
job.
The process begins with the supervisor thoroughly reviewing all applications
and considering each candidate's qualifications, experience, and suitability for the
role. This review includes evaluating resumes, cover letters, and any additional
materials submitted by the candidates. The supervisor may also conduct interviews,
check references, and assess the candidates' performance during any assessments or
practical tests that are part of the selection process.
Once the supervisor has gathered all necessary information, they carefully
compare the candidates against the job requirements and criteria established at the
beginning of the hiring process. This comparison involves looking at both quantitative
factors, such as years of experience and specific skills, and qualitative factors, such as
cultural fit and potential for growth within the organization.
By providing a detailed written explanation to each applicant, the supervisor
ensures that the hiring process is perceived as fair and transparent. This practice helps
to build trust within the organization, as employees feel that their efforts and
applications are respected and valued. It also contributes to a culture of continuous
improvement, where constructive feedback is seen as an opportunity for growth.
Moreover, this approach encourages applicants to remain engaged and
motivated, knowing that their development is taken seriously by the organization.
Even if they were not selected for the current position, they understand that they have
received valuable insights that can help them in future applications and career
advancement.
In summary, the supervisor who makes a hiring decision provides a
comprehensive written explanation that is returned to each employee who applied for
the job. This explanation includes an overview of the process, the evaluation criteria,
a comparison of candidates, reasons for the selection, constructive feedback, and an
invitation for further discussion. This practice fosters transparency, fairness, and trust
within the organization, contributing to a positive work environment and supporting
employees' professional growth.
Although career planning is important during all phases of a career, three
points in a typical career seem to be particularly crucial. The recent hiree begins a
career with a particular job, and experiences in this first assignment have an important
effect on shaping the rest of his or her career. 16 The midcareer person is subject to
pressures and responsibilities different from those of the recent hiree, but he or she is
also at a turning point: a point where stagnation is a serious concern. Finally, the
preretirement person is facing an uncertain future from an economic, social, and
interpersonal standpoint.
g. Career Development for Recent Hirees
Recently hired employees face many anxious moments. They have selected
their positions on the basis of expectations regarding the demands that the
organization will make of them and what they will receive in exchange for meeting
those demands. 17 Young managers, particularly those with college training, expect
opportunities to utilize their training in ways that lead to recognition and
advancement. In too many instances, recently hired managers are soon disappointed
with their initial career decisions.
Although the specific causes of early career disappointments vary from person
to person, some general causes have been identified. Studies of the early career
problems of young managers typically find that those who experience frustration are
victims of “reality shock.” These young managers perceive a mismatch between what
they thought the organization was and what it actually is. Several factors contribute to
reality shock, and it is important for young managers and their managers to be aware
of them.
The first jobs of young managers often demand far less of them than they are
capable of delivering. Consequently, young managers believe that they are unable to
demonstrate their full capabilities and that, in a sense, they are being stifled. This
particular cause is especially damaging if the recruiter has been overly enthusiastic in
“selling” the organization. Some young managers are able to create challenging jobs
even when their assignments are fairly routine. They do this by thinking of ways to do
their jobs differently and better. They may also be able to persuade their managers to
give them more leeway and more to do. Unfortunately, many young managers are
unable to create challenge. Their previous experiences in school were typically
experiences in which challenges had been given to them by their teachers. The
challenge had been created for them, not by them.
Recently hired managers with college training often believe they can perform
at levels beyond those of their initial assignments. After all, they have been exposed to
the latest managerial theories and techniques, and in their minds, at least, they are
ready to run the company. Disappointment and dissatisfaction are the sure outcomes
when they discover that their self-evaluations are not shared by others in the
organization. The consequences of unrealistic aspirations and routine initial
assignments are low job satisfaction, in particular, and low satisfaction of growth and
self-actualization needs, in general.
While most young managers are very adept at social networking and texting
(and other forms of electronic communication), they sometimes lack the ability to
“connect with” senior employees and managers in a face-to-face manner. Effective
communication requires empathy, good listening skills, processing feedback, and the
ability to send and interpret nonverbal and verbal cues. Younger managers, many of
whom grew up playing video games and communicating via online social networking
sites, lack some of these interpersonal communication skills. In addition, some
younger managers have yet to develop effective writing skills for a professional
environment. Presumably, the influence of social media networking sites (e.g.,
Twitter) and the nature of texting has encouraged individuals to use abbreviations and
other “shortcuts.” This type of written communication often conflicts with the writing
standards of many companies and organizations. For example, an e-mail to the
supervisor or a client needs to be written in a professional manner without typos,
excessive abbreviations, or grammatical errors.
Feedback on performance is an important managerial responsibility. Yet many
managers are inadequately trained to meet this responsibility. They simply do not
know how to evaluate the performance of their subordinates. This management
deficiency is especially damaging to new managers. They have not been in the
organization long enough to be socialized by their peers and other employees. They
are not yet sure of what they are expected to believe, what values to hold, or what
behaviors are expected of them. They naturally look to their own managers to guide
them through this early phase. But when their managers fail to evaluate their
performance accurately, they remain ignorant and confused as to whether they are
achieving what the organization expects of them. Not all young managers experience
problems associated with their initial assignments. But those who do and who leave
the organization as a consequence of their frustrations represent a waste of talent and
money. While turnover and job change can be healthy and a good decision, the loss of
potentially successful employees will frequently cost far more than a well-designed
career management program capable of helping new hirees avoid such problems.
Research has indicated that the retention and development of young, talented
employees can be increased by a number of different organizational practices. While
most of these early career interventions have focused on developing managers, there
is no reason to believe that other employees can’t also benefit from similar programs.
It is now being recognized that blue-collar workers are valuable assets and need
career development in much the same way that managers do. Workers at any level of
the organization accumulate skills through their experiences and therefore must also
have access to systematic career development.
One way to counteract the unrealistic expectations of new recruits is to
provide realistic information during the recruiting process. Through realistic job
previews (RJPs), recruits are given opportunities to learn not only the benefits they
may expect, but also the drawbacks. Studies have shown that the recruitment rate is
the same for those who receive RJPs as for those who do not. 19 More important,
those who receive RJPs are more likely to remain on the job and to be satisfied with it
than are those who have been selected without using RJPs. The practice of “telling it
like it is” is used by a number of organizations, including the Prudential Insurance
Company, Texas Instruments, and the United States Military Academy.
Managers of newly hired people should be encouraged to slot them into the
most demanding of the available jobs. Successful implementation of this policy
requires managers to take some risks, because managers are accountable for the
performance of their subordinates. If the assignments are too far beyond the ability of
the subordinates, the managers and the subordinates share the cost of failure. Thus,
most managers prefer to bring their subordinates along slowly by giving them
progressively more difficult and challenging jobs, but only after the subordinates have
demonstrated their ability. Newly hired managers have potential for performance but
have not demonstrated performance. Thus, it is risky to assign an individual to a task
for which there is a high probability of failure. But studies have indicated that
managers who experienced initial job challenge were more effective in their later
years.
h. Career Development during Midcareer
Managers and other employees who reach the midcareer stage of development
are typically key people in their organizations. Logically, they now occupy key
positions in the organization and are often quite successful economically. Despite
these indicators of success, rather serious crises are frequently associated with
midcareer. These can include higher levels of stress that come with success, personal
and family problems associated with midlife crisis and transition, and dealing with the
notion that one’s most productive years may already be past. Attempting to deal with
all of these pressures can lead to job withdrawal, substance abuse, and depression.
At the same time, midcareer can be rewarding if effective career management
programs are in place. One important approach used to develop midcareer managers
is training. 23 Making training available to improve skills, improve knowledge, and
help employees grow intellectually sends a signal to the trainees that they are valued.
The mere fact that the company shows an interest introduces the Hawthorne effect. It
is a signal that the trainees are needed, valued, and still attractive to the firm. It is
especially important at midcareer to receive such signals from the organization.
Managers face the midcareer plateau during the adult stage of life and the
maintenance phase of careers. At this point, the likelihood of additional upward
promotion is usually quite low. Two reasons account for the plateau. First, there are
simply fewer jobs at the top of organizations, and even though the manager has the
ability to perform at that level, no opening exists. Second, openings may exist, but the
manager may lack the ability, the skills, or the desire to fill them. 24 Managers who
find themselves stifled in their present jobs tend to cope with the problems in fairly
consistent ways. They suffer from depression, poor health, and fear of and hostility
toward their subordinates. Eventually, they “retire” on the job or leave the
organization physically and permanently. Any one of these ways of coping results in
lowered job performance and, of course, lowered organizational performance.
Organizations such as Du Pont, Alcoa, and Western Electric employ full-time
staff psychiatrists to assist employees in dealing with career, health, and family
problems. 27 In the context of such counseling, midcareer managers are provided with
professional help in dealing with the depression and stress they may experience. Since
midcareer managers are usually well educated and articulate, they often only need
someone to talk to, someone skilled in the art of listening. The process of verbalizing
their problems to an objective listener is often enough to enable midcareer managers
to recognize their problems and to cope with them constructively.
The organization cannot be expected to go beyond counseling for personal and
family problems. But when the crisis is precipitated primarily by career-related
factors, the organization can be an important source of alternatives. In many instances,
the organization simply needs to accept career moves that are usually viewed as
unacceptable. Three career moves that have potential for counteracting the problems
of midcareer managers are lateral transfers, downward transfers, and fallback
positions. Lateral transfers involve moves at the same organizational level from one
department to another. A manager who has plateaued in production could be
transferred to a similar level in sales, engineering, or some other area. The move
would require the manager to learn the technical demands of the new position quickly,
and there would be a period of reduced performance as this learning occurred. But,
once qualified, the manager would bring the perspectives of both areas to bear on
decisions.
The use of fallback positions is another way to reduce the risk of lateral and
downward transfers. The practice involves identifying in advance a position to which
the transferred manager can return if the new position does not work out. By
identifying the fallback position in advance, the organization informs everyone who is
affected that some risk is involved but that the organization is willing to accept some
of the responsibility for it and that returning to the fallback job will not be viewed as
“failure.” Companies such as Heublein, Procter & Gamble, and Continental have used
fallback positions to remove some of the risk of lateral and upward moves. The
practice appears to have considerable promise for protecting the careers of highly
specialized technicians and professionals who are making their first moves into
general management positions.
