Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 1
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade
Liberty University
CJUS 550
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 2
Abstract
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has proclaimed the issue of human trafficking
and sexual exploitation a public health problem. Unfortunately, with the creation of the internet,
the issue has only intensified. Cyberspace has given traffickers more opportunities to advertise
and recruit internationally. With the inundation of encryption tools and the dark web, traffickers
are able to create a larger network for accomplishing their crimes. This paper will discuss the
current problem as it exists across the globe. It will examine prior research and incorporate their
findings to create solutions for eradicating the problems of the exploitation and trafficking of
humans. The paper will examine how scholars may respond to such solutions and explain the
implications of the research.
Keywords: human trafficking, sexual exploitation, healthcare, cybercrime, international
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 3
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade
Introduction
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has declared human and sex trafficking a
serious public health problem (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018). Federal law defines sex trafficking as
the “recruiting, enticing, harboring, transporting, providing, obtaining, advertising, maintaining,
patronizing, or soliciting a person to engage in a commercial sex act, or benefiting financially or
otherwise from such a venture.” (Wagner et al., 2017). The availability and expansion of the
internet has redefined how human trafficking is executed by opening up new ways to recruit and
advertise (Martellozzo et al., 2017). The only way the issue of human trafficking and sexual
exploitation can be controlled and reduced is if there is an international taskforce trained on
human trafficking within cyberspace. This taskforce would require the support of new policies
that view and treat this issue as a global crisis.
This paper will discuss the problem that lies ahead in stopping human trafficking online.
Furthermore, it will evaluate the findings of scholars who have previously studied human
trafficking in cyberspace, illuminating why the problem has not been solved and providing what
recommendations have been submitted for the resolution and prevention of these horrible crimes
going forward. Additionally, it will critically dissect the previous findings and recommendations,
aiming to identify the gaps and omissions in the literature. These gaps will be evaluated to find
solutions for resolving the issues as it relates to human trafficking in cyberspace.
Problem
In 2016, there were approximately 4.8 million victims of sex trafficking (Strike, 2020).
With the addition of the digital world, the issue of exploitation and trafficking of humans has
only been exacerbated by changing how information is exchanged and re-defining what is and is
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 4
not visible (Martellozzo et al., 2017). What was once a physical crime is now a hybrid crime
(Jerde, 2017); one that is now conducted in combination between the physical world and
cyberworld. Due to the covert nature of sex trafficking, it has always been increasingly difficult
to identify victims; however, with the evolution of this crime, it has only been more difficult to
create a uniformed system to track this crime (Martellozzo et al., 2017).
Cyberspace has given traffickers an environment to conceal their actions with the use of
encryption tools. Tools such as Tor anonymize user identities by routing communications
through various global networks, making it more difficult for activities to be detected. In
addition, it allows for hidden website development on the dark web (Jerde, 2017). Tor has
created the opportunity to create search engines, like Grams, TorSearch, and Torch on the dark
web (Antonopoulos et al., 2020). An evaluation of the issue of the sexual exploitation and
trafficking of humans found these search engines give better, easier access to those aiming to
procure counterfeit documents, regardless of nationality. These documents help in buying
properties, opening bank accounts, and more (Antonopoulos et al., 2020). These acts can be
conducted on a normal search engine; however, the ability to add anonymity, reduces the risk of
detection.
The evolution of the digital world has played a key role in increasing the number of
trafficked individuals, but also strengthening the efficiency of trafficking operations, rendering
investigation and prosecution tremendously challenging (Antonopoulos et al., 2020). Traffickers
have been able to broaden their recruitment and advertisement abilities, particularly as it pertains
to targeting a younger population with the availability of social media (Martellozzo et al., 2017).
They are now able to conduct business on online classifieds, social media, and networking
websites (Martellozzo et al., 2017), not only within the dark web, but in plain sight. Each year,
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 5
an online tip hotline operated by the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children
receives more than five thousand complaints of websites offering access to child pornography for
a fee (Holt, 2018). Advertisements such as these are occurring in local communities. Interviews
with local law enforcement reveal investigations are typically of the victim and offender being in
the same locale, often uncovering a bigger picture of associations between offenders across state
or national boundaries (Holt, 2018). However, what is drawing individuals to traffickers’ social
media pages?
Facebook and Instagram have been identified as the most common locations for online
recruitment and advertisement (Antonopoulos et al., 2020). Traffickers have developed
techniques for gaining the trust of their victims (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018). They earn the love
and admiration of their victim by promising to give them “a better life” (Lamb-Susca et al.,
2018). This may include promising to make them a star, promising job opportunities, and
providing money or transportation for their victim to run away from their current situation
(Wagner, 2017). They prey upon individuals who are poor, searching for meaning, suffering with
a history of sexual or physical abuse, or are even victims of war, trying to escape their country
(Lamb-Susca et al., 2018).
Furthermore, traffickers have become believable in the channels they use to reach
victims. They create website or social media profiles showing the availability of dedicated and
constant communication channels, as well as the feigned opportunities of travel via safe modes
of transportation. To lure victims, they often will write positive reviews on their pages
(Antonopoulos et al., 2020). Human traffickers deceive their victims by creating these channels,
knowing subjects are skeptical but presenting enough false hope that one cannot help but be
convinced to want to view these predators as potential allies with who can produce the means for
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 6
capturing a dream. Sometimes, traffickers will even engage a victim for years, working on the
individual until their barriers have fully eroded (Antonopoulos et al., 2020).
Policy, domestically and internationally, has been implemented to stop the act of human
trafficking. Beginning in the 1970s, anti-trafficking efforts in the United States developed from
starting on a domestic level and only gained momentum through the decades after. Some of the
earliest legislation focused on the trafficking and exploitation of women and girls from Europe to
the United States (Beale, 2019). Thereafter, Congress tried to employ its power transnationally to
manage the trade of humans. Since the first enacted anti-trafficking policies, Congress has
expanded the existing offenses to encompass a far wider range of conduct and expanded the
punishment of said crimes (Beale, 2019). Policy created by the American government includes
The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act passed in 1994, The Victims of Trafficking
and Violence Protection Act in 2000 (Beale, 2019), and the Preventing Sex Trafficking and
Strengthening Families Act in 2014 (Andretta et al., 2016), and the Allow States and Victims to
Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act in 2017 (Strike, 2020).
Unfortunately, there is still a lack of regulation transnationally due to the reality that
individual countries have drastically different ideas on how to deal with the issue of human
trafficking on the internet. For example, the United States has aimed to take a harsher approach
than the likes of Canada and New Zealand (Strike, 2020). These gaps in legislation make it easier
for offenders to be immune to detection or punishment (José Grabiel et al., 2018). Furthermore,
the Supreme Court has consistently said Congress has overstepped its power when trying to
prosecute traffickers who were not in American boarders, claiming it disrupts international
relations (Beale, 2019).
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There are international treaties and agreements to supervise the internet. This includes the
United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime which was passed in 2000
(Strike, 2020). Unfortunately, this treaty does not explicitly deal with the use of the internet for
human trafficking; it does try to promote cooperation internationally to prevent and combat
organized crime. The treaty requires nations involved in the protocol to criminalize and prevent
human trafficking. It also requires nations to protect and assist trafficked victims and promote
cooperation transnationally in order to combat the concern of trafficking (Schmalleger, 2020).
The treaty helped the UN create a way to categorize countries based on how the nation’s
government was combating trafficking. In the creation of the Trafficking Victims Protection Act,
the U.S Department of State used a similar methodology to categorize countries (Lamb-Susca et
al., 2018). Tier one is comprised of counties that are making the greatest efforts to control
trafficking (Schmalleger, 2020). Countries such as Canada, United States, Israel, Spain, Italy, and
Norway are included in this tier (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018). While Afghanistan, Dominican
Republic, Brazil, Greece, and Portugal are a part of tier two (Lamb- Susca et al., 2018). These
are countries whose governments do not fully comply with the minimum standards set by the
Trafficking Victims Protection Act, but are making significant efforts to bring themselves into
compliance with those standards (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018). China, Haiti, Jamaica, and Panama
are also tier two; though, they are on a watch list due to various reasons, such as the rate
trafficking is occurring within these countries. Lastly, there is a tier three. This category includes
countries that are doing little to nothing to reach standards to combat trafficking (Schmalleger,
2020). Countries such as Cuba, Russia, and Thailand make up this list (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018).
Furthermore, the Trafficking Victims Protection Act empowers the president to take action
against those countries exhibiting little to no compliance (Welch, 2017).
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 8
Even with such categorical system, the United States has one of the largest markets for
trafficking in the world, behind only Germany who ranks as the number one country for
incidents of human trafficking (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018). Unfortunately, large sporting events
such as the Super Bowl, World Cup, and Olympics give traffickers an ample opportunity for
advertising and conducting business (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018). In 2011, at the Super Bowl in
Dallas, TX, there were one hundred and thirty-three arrests for sex with minors. At the 2016
Super Bowl in Santa Clara, CA, there were forty identified victims of human trafficking (Lamb-
Susca et al., 2018).
Victims rarely self-identify and are not generally aware of the assistance offered by the
law (Wagner et al., 2017). This may be due to fear of negative judgment or blame, feelings of
helplessness, and self-blame or doubt (Andretta et al., 2016). Scholars have developed a list of
the most frequent indicators exemplifying vulnerabilities of potential victims. All that is required
is that those surrounding victims be vigilant. These indicators include mental health, physical
health, behavioral, criminal justice involvement, personal and family risk histories, and access to
their identifying documents (Nichols et al., 2021).
Those within the medical and criminal justice fields are on the front line and experience
the greatest amount of occasions for identifying a human trafficking victim. Logically, they
should be equipped in identifying these indicators as they should possess an awareness of the
most common red flags. Physical health would include bruising and multiple visits to a medical
facility for STIs (Nichols et al., 2021). Mental health indicators would be the existence of anxiety
or depression. A number of run-ins with the justice system is a huge indicator, but this is a prime
time for criminal justice professionals to further question what the true situation is. This indicator
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 9
may be coupled with behavioral issues. Furthermore, the inability to access identifying
documents such as a passport or state identification is indication the individual may be in the
midst of being trafficked (Nichols et al., 2021).
Solution
The crises of the trafficking and sexual exploitation of humans is only intensifying as
cyberspace evolves. This is why there should be an international taskforce trained on human
trafficking within cyberspace, and why policies should be created globally for remedying this
pervasive malady. The only way for the issue to be resolved is if there is a legal framework for
combating the issue (José Grabiel et al., 2018). This begins with creating a universal definition of
human trafficking and sexual exploitation and holding all countries accountable in setting
standards for tackling the problem. Furthermore, it requires a global understanding of
cybercrime (José Grabiel et al., 2018). Then, once there is a universal understanding, each nation
can work together and have a clear goal to create a taskforce.
A foundation has been set in the creation of the United Nations Convention Against
Transnational Organized Crime. The next step is to determine a competent jurisdiction for
judging those who are exploiting individuals and then establishing a standard for punishment.
With this growing problem, countries must come together and cooperate to control the crimes
traffickers are committing. The primary goal of this taskforce would be to fight against
trafficking by prosecuting and punishing traffickers and buyers of these services. Private online
organizations can help in the fight by removing the ability to conduct business on their search
engines and safeguarding their products that are currently easily manipulated into tools of
recruitment, advertisement, exploitation, and abuse. Google, Bing, and Microsoft have created
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 10
programs that remove explicit information from their search engines (Holt, 2018). Even more,
the cooperation between law enforcement and the banking industry has proven to be helpful in
investigations (Holt, 2018). Banks must follow regulations set for them and complete all
documentation accurately. This level of good faithed diligence provides police with new insights
and leads on criminal activity. Also, banks must prohibit the use of their services and
applications on any site with any form of connection to cybercrime, particularly those related to
trafficking (Holt, 2018).
The most common motivators for the perpetration of human trafficking are the
traffickers’ financial benefits, the demand for these services, and the culture’s social acceptance
of such services (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018). The eradication of acceptance of such practice must
be priority, and investigation into trafficking must be a strong objective. Child sexual offenses
require substantive coordination among agencies at all levels of investigation to ensure
successful analyses of the crime (Holt, 2018). The solution will be born out of the cooperation
between law enforcement, public health, economic regulation, and prosecution (Welch, 2017).
For this reason, there must be an establishment of a universal health program where
medical personnel can track previous health problems. Often, the frontlines of defense for
victims are health care providers such as nurses, hospitals, dental offices, obstetric and
gynecologist’s offices, primary care physicians, Planned Parenthood, mental health clinics,
substance abuse clinics, and suicide prevention hotlines (Lamb-Susca et al., 2018). Studies have
found that between fifty to eighty-eight percent of trafficking victims have had access to one or
more health care professionals at least once during their trafficking situation (Lamb-Susca et al.,
2018). A uniformed system would help medical professionals track indicators for sexual
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 11
exploitation and collect evidence for police when they get involved. This would require training
for all professionals involved and the proliferation of the understanding that many trafficked
victims are not aware they are victims at all. (Andretta et al., 2016). The necessary training
would include the warning indicators to look for in a victim, emotional intelligence training to
know how to respond to victims, and the subsequent services for aiding and rehabilitating
victims.
When Strike (2020) discussed the difference in policy between the U.S., Canada, and
New Zealand, she discussed how Canada and New Zealand were better in managing this human
trafficking problem. This was due to the resources given to victims and how they are treated a
victim instead of an offender. This is the most important part of the solution. There is already
legislation implemented to identify, document, and determine appropriate services with respect
to juveniles who the state has reasonable cause to believe is, or is at risk of being a victim of sex
trafficking (Andretta et al., 2016). In fact, many jurisdictions, such as Washington and Maryland,
have found success in developing Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children screenings to
identify victims (Andretta et al., 2016). These screenings would consist of a medical professional
asking questions about where the potential victim is staying, history of interactions with the
criminal justice system, and observable evidence of bruising. These questions should not be
invasive. If after the first questions are ask and suspicion of victim is still in question, the
professional would then ask more invasive line of questioning of their person history (Andretta et
al., 2016).
The establishment of these tools is crucial to shrinking the effects of human trafficking,
but it fails do anything for the prevention of such actions. Welch (2017) calls for a more counter-
Combating the Cyber Sex Trade 12
terrorism strategy. The intelligence community should assess both the global and domestic trends
in human trafficking just as they would terrorism trends (Welch, 2017). Many times, the
government is able to stop terrorist threats, so a counterterrorism and counterintelligence type
approach may prove worth the investment of time and resource.
Many scholars may be critical of the solutions to solve human trafficking and sexual
exploitation. They may say nothing can be done for this widespread problem due to the covert
nature of sex trafficking. Scholars may find it difficult to understand the possibility of having a
uniform medical system to identify victims. However, these solutions pave the path to the future
human trafficking prevention. Furthermore, scholars may find it farfetched to create an
international taskforce trained on human trafficking within cyberspace and creating global
policy. It may be difficult to start, but there is already a foundation for this solution in the United
Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime. To truly combat the issue of
exploitation and trafficking of individuals, policies must be changed, a global understanding of
the issue must be realized, and nations must work together. Scholars may be critical of this
solution, but with the issue being a public health crisis, there will be many who will work
towards fixing it.
Conclusion
Prior studies have generated ample and copious amounts of research on the topic of
human trafficking and sexual exploitation but did not provide sufficient solution to the problem.
There is a significant opportunity for individuals domestically and internationally to make
changes to stop human trafficking. It will first start with transnational cooperation between
government officials, healthcare workers, internet facilities, banking institutions, and more to
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create an international taskforce trained on human trafficking within cyberspace and the global
policies will have to be produced. Cybercrimes are almost invisible due to anonymity and
encryption tools causing it to be difficult to track victims of human traffickers. However, training
should be implemented to ensure everyone is aware of the indicators showing potential sex
trafficking victims. In addition, the definition of cybercrime, human trafficking, and sexual
exploitation must be the same in all countries prepared to work together to stop human
trafficking. If this is not achieved, then there will never be a true transnational force to push back
on the exploitation and trafficking of humans. Just as there is cooperation between countries in
stopping terrorism, similar action must be taken against human trafficking. The issue comes
rather close to terrorism as it takes the freedom away from an individual. Different entities have
been able to track terrorism globally; now it is time to implement similar practices in tracking
traffickers and their victims. In the end, the goal must be to rid every nation of human
trafficking. This can only be achieved by creating a taskforce to stand against traffickers,
prosecute them and their buyers to the fullest capacity, and provide the services to victims to
heal.
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