Running head: ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS
Ethical Treatment of Participants
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliations
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 2
Abstract
When conducting research, it is essential to follow the ethical principles that govern
human participants. Ethical principles reduce the threat of maltreatment of the participants that
may arise from the data collected. Also, the guidelines ensure that the benefits of the research
outweigh the risks that cannot be avoided. It has been established that methodologies used in
research and ethics in research are linked in the sense that they add the value of the study. The
literature review will capture the contemporary issues concerning ethics, and give realistic
support in guiding the approvals of ethical treatment. The moral code of the literature review is
to provide rules that cover the professionalism of the researchers in the world. Precisely, ethical
guidelines are useful in educating the researchers and students based on rules and regulations;
hence, researchers should maintain a high level of standards when conducting the research.
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 3
Introduction
In the process of conducting research, scientists have a responsibility of following the
moral standard according to some given guidelines. Institutions are liable for any consequences
when their student undertake any investigation. Also, most of the organizations and agencies that
provide fund for the research need to review the ethical standards where the research involves
human participants. In this regard, there is need to have policies and procedures that will ensure
that the ethical standards are followed. The established guidelines guide students’ researchers to
conduct research involving human participants without harming them physically or emotionally
(Resnik, 2011). The guidelines for the research relates to social participants established within
the framework of society. The paper will review the examination of primary and secondary
sources involved in the research. The essay will reveal the suitable approaches applied in the
research and defending the rights of the human participants.
Reasons for ethical approval in research
There is an increase in legal actions against professional researchers for the alleged
misconduct during ethical research. The possible allegations have led to a possibility of legal
actions if they cause harm to the human participants in the course of the study. However, it has
been noted that there are instances some are of human experience may go beyond the reach of
the research due to some ethical reasons. It is through the ethical principles that researchers can
know the acceptable conditions in human research. Also, the researcher must look at the
implications and consequences that the study will have to the human participants (Resnik, 2011).
One of the most important principles is that research should be done from everyone’s standpoint.
Professionals need to know that the society that contains different cultures and ethnicity; there
must be enough knowledge about the implications that may arise from the investigations.
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 4
The professional research that involves population with varying age, gender, and social
status may give some different implications. Researchers need to accept that they are the best
judge on whether the study will benefit the members or offend them. Through this, researchers
need to inform the participants about the aims of the investigation and any interventions that can
be expected to influence the involved human participants, whether positively or negatively.
Incase researchers fail to disclose the important information, before getting the content any
information from the participant to ensure that the researcher avoids any legal action in the future
(Alderson & Morrow, 2011). The researcher needs to include women or persons with disability
to ensure everyone in the research population has been involved. Most, studies are normally
driven by the urge to get new information and a good understanding of the diverse cultures. The
benefits that come from the research will benefit the participants and the population that is under
study.
Ethical Standards
How researchers conduct themselves professionally has been under close watch due to
the likelihood of mistreating human participants. The need for high-quality information pushes
the researchers to the edge if the information is not managed well. The approvals of ethical
research that involved human participants are required to defend the well-being of people and
minimizing the risk that may come from physical and psychological harm. Also, ethical
procedures and policies can protect the right of the researchers while conducting their
investigation (Alderson & Morrow, 2011). Ethical procedures help the researcher to avoid the
chance of negligence against the investigators or the involved institution. The agencies that fund
the research need to have signed evidence of the ethical policies and procedures when the
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 5
researcher is applying for the funds. Giving respect to the human population involved in the
research involves protecting the dignity, interests, and health of the individuals.
Ethical Principles
Research is divided into two types that include therapeutic research and non-therapeutic
research. A research is therapeutic when it offers a chance to receive experimental treatment. For
instance, when using experimental drugs in treating particular diseases such as cancer, this is
treated as therapeutic research. On the other hand, non-therapeutic research is the research that
allows the generation of information that can be used in the future or the information that is
going to benefit those people that are involved in the study. Most of the researches that are
conducted fall under the category of non-therapeutic (Corlyon, Katz & Ghate, 2006). Ethical
principles and procedures illustrate how people should behave while doing their research. There
needs to be the right judgment that should be used in particular situations that help in the process
of making decisions. Apart from human participants in the research and treating them well, how
the research is conducted is a crucial aspect of ethics.
Right for the participants to know
The research participants have the right to know who will be accessing their private
information during the research; need to know the research results. In any case, the researcher
obtains private information from the participants without obtaining ethical approval; the
researcher can be responsible for any legal claim (Alderson & Morrow, 2011).
Ethics in the research
Research ethics involves the morals and beliefs that guide how the research should be
conducted. Any research is usually guided by codes of ethics that answers the question of what is
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 6
right or wrong. This section of the research identifies the main areas of ethical concerns that are
informed by the literature review of the available materials for research and the interviews that
are conducted by the researchers (Alderson & Morrow, 2011). Every principle in the research
process is necessary because they altogether amplify the standards of conducting professional
research.
Research Autonomy
Research autonomy gives individuals freedom from being controlled or influenced by
others. Autonomy acknowledges the right of the research participants to control their actions
rendering to their plan and desires. Respecting the participants of the research involves
recognition of their autonomy and their rights to free will that strengthens their ability to make
decisions. In this regard, the autonomy of research participants discusses their ability and right to
make decisions concerning impact their life emotionally and physically, which includes the right
to discretion. According to Richter (2007), research autonomy can be divided into disclosure,
competence, voluntary, consent, and understanding.
Through autonomy, research participants can make informed decisions before and during
the research process. The principle of autonomy in research is used as voluntary consent to get
involved in the study. However, in the cases where the research involves individuals with limited
ability to make decisions such as minors and people who have problems in their consciousness,
there should be additional protections (Alderson & Morrow, 2011). The protection levels for the
children and other groups with compromised consciousness are measured depending on the risks
involved, the benefit of the research.
Consent
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Research ethics requires researchers to obtain consent from participants during the data
collection process. For the researchers to get signed consent, they agree with the participants
concerning the use of information in conducting the research. The consent is also useful in
identifying the funding agencies, the use of the collected data, and any harm that is likely to face
the participant. Also, the consent gives the degree of confidentiality that should be accorded to
the participant’s information (Appelbaum, 2007). Therefore, informed consent should have
information, voluntariness, and comprehension.
Competence
Professional researchers are required by the law and medical ethics to secure informed
consent from the research participants before begging the research. Researchers are required to
give disclosure of the information to a competent person who can make decisions voluntary. The
participants need to be competent when they are signing the agreement of consent because any
consent that is signed by an incompetent participant is regarded as invalid (Gay, Mills &
Airasian, 2011). It is, therefore important for the researcher to evaluate the participants to ensure
they are competent when signing the consent form.
Disclosure
In the process of giving information, researchers need to ensure that the participant’s
information is protected under ethical, legal, and non-disclosure obligations. The agreement
between the researcher and participants should be signed in confidentiality with enough details
concerning the nature of the study and the procedures that should be followed during the study
(Spriggs, 2007). The researcher should provide information that contains the objectives, the
risks, and benefits that accrues from the research.
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Voluntariness
Just like consent, voluntariness must be givens freely where the research participants
have the will to withdraw from the research anytime they want. Influencing the participants to
proceed with the research is taken and an exercise of control. Voluntariness is important in
research that involves vulnerable individuals because it ensures that the research participants
make informed decisions, but informed consent insists on giving participants accurate
information. In the approaches used in traditional research, informed consent focuses on the
design of the research through agreements. Researchers are, however, required to conduct their
study in public places or use information that is available to the public without having informed
consent (Flicker, et al., 2007. For example, observations in public place, conducting the analysis
of public records and information, and using secondary data from the public galleries. However,
researchers are required to have consented when using cameras, recording equipment, and any
other equipment used to record information.
Understanding
After signing the informed consent form, the participants establish the duty to legal
research and gives the researcher permission to disclose necessary materials to the participants.
However, participants need to possess the required understanding of the policies and procedures
to help them make informed decisions.
Protecting Participants from harm
Protecting participants from harm is also known as non-maleficence and beneficence, a
concept that insists on the significance of the researchers matching the need to protect defend the
participants from possible risks of harm arising from the research. However, the researcher needs
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 9
to allow the participants to benefits from the research results and prevent any harm that may
bring negative consequences to the group conducting the research. It is essential to balance the
principle of protection again the objectives of the study. For instance, it can be used in sensitive
cases that involve illegal dealings that might lead the participants to potential risks. Beneficence
involves acting in the right way, while non-maleficence involves doing no harm (Graham &
Fitzgerald, 2010). The idea of beneficence is mainly related to the maximization of the benefits
of research for participants and the society where the research took place. On the other hand, the
principle of non-maleficence is the obligation of evaluating harms that arises from the research
and putting the necessary measures to reduce the harms.
Rights of the participants
Researchers need to respect the pride, values, and rights of the participants’ involvement
in the research by protecting them from any dangerous situations when they conduct their work.
Minimizing the risks in the research means maintaining a tolerable level of risk. What matter
most in the research is how participants evaluate the treats and whether they are ready to take the
threats or not. There are chances that in a social study, bodily damage will occur, but the
researcher has the responsibility of ensuring that the participants’ do not suffer emotionally or
physically (Punch, 2013). Deception is one evil in research studies, and professional researchers
should ask the participants to avoid deception because it affects the results of the study.
Anonymity and Confidentiality
All participants in the study are entitled to the protection of their confidentiality and
anonymity, which is part of the research ethics. Participants’ personal information should be
protected from landing to wrong hands. Therefore, all participants have the right to decide the
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 10
extent to which thy share personal information with the researchers. It is a general rule;
participants of the research should not be obtained during the investigation, except in situations
where the information is provided to the experts. All participants should give informed consent
of being identified and reserve their right to review the information in the research before it is
released to the public (Punch, 2013). Besides, researchers need to take security measures such as
ensuring strong confidentiality of the records, secure the space and strip any information that can
be identifying. Researchers should be conscious of the situations where privacy can be breached.
For instance, they should not have a private conversation in a room that does not have
soundproofs.
It is important to have anonymity, which is non-disclosure of the participants and
establishing means by which to identify participants is difficult. Confidentiality and anonymity
should be taken care of when one is dealing with sensitive personal data such as data involving
illegal deal, politics, health issues, and religious affiliations. It is, however, good not notice that
some of the cases do not need confidentiality (Portaluppi, Smolensky & Touitou, 2010). For
instance, if the participant is a known figure to the public or a spokesperson of an organization,
confidentiality will not be important. Professional researchers have the responsibility of ensuring
that the information provided by the participants are well protected. When gathering information,
researchers need to consider the long-term effect and the use of the collected information. The
long-term effects include placing the results of the research in public galleries or allow other
professional researchers to examine the data that has been collected (Mack, Giarelli & Bernhardt,
2009). The important procedure during data collection is making a determination of whether the
public is at risk before proceeding with the study. It is important for the researchers to omit
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 11
names of the participants by using pennames and removing information that anyone can connect
to the individual participants in the results.
Conflicts of Interest
Researchers are required to maintain the highest degree of integrity and try as much as
possible to avoid conflict of interest. Issues regarding the conflict of interest arise when the
researcher has personal or financial interests that may prevent them from researching without
bias. Researchers are faced with situations that may lead to a conflict of interest between them
and the research participants. Professional researchers need to dissolve any personal or
professional relationship that might create a conflict of interests before starting with the
procedure of data collection (Li, 2008). Also, researchers should avoid the usage of information
that was acquired confidentially for their gain, not unless if they are authorized to do it. Any
information that is obtained from the participants during the investigation should remain
confidential unless if the participant is willing to disclose the information to the public. In the
case where the investigators are pressurized to give out the information, one needs to issue out
the legal requirements of data protection (Mack, Giarelli & Bernhardt, 2009).
People participating in psychological research are guaranteed anonymity and
confidentiality when they are giving out information for research. If the information is published,
the researchers must ensure that the information cannot be identified with the participants. When
researchers are not able to guaranteed confidentiality, it is important to inform the participants in
advance (Hawkins & Emanuel, 2008). Researchers need to refrain from conducting the study
when personal information may induce bias. Researchers are also required to issue receipts and
financial support from the sponsors or the funding organizations.
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 12
Non-discrimination principle
It is required that professional researchers not to engage in discriminations that are based
on gender, race, sexuality, language, religion, disability health conditions, or socioeconomic
status. Researchers should not have direct authority with people that they relate closely, such as
family members. It has been established that exploitation may occur when the investigator takes
advantage of the people close to them for personal benefits. In the cases where researchers have
high control, there is a possibility of exploiting participants and the employees (Hammersley &
Traianou, 2012). Some of the occurrences that may be seen as harassment include pervasive
actions that make individuals feel they are demeaned while on duty. Ethical policies and
procedures provide researchers with guidelines that prevent them from creating a hostile working
environment for the participants and other employees during the investigation.
Ethical decisions in the recruitment of the participants
Researchers have a duty of following the ethical standard when making decisions related
to the investigation or employment of the participants (Ford & Richardson, 2013). When
recruiting the participants or the employees in the investigations, researchers should ensure that
equal opportunity is given to every applicant, and the process of recruitment is done fairly to
give everyone equal chances.
Selection of participants
In the investigation, researchers need to be fair when hiring individuals to take part in the
research. The objective of any research focuses on promoting fairness to every person that will
be participating in the research and individuals who will benefit from the results. Some people
think that it is their right to take part is the desired research study. Contrary to this notion, no
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF PARTICIPANTS 13
person has an absolute right to take part in any study, and no person should be excluded from the
study without valid reasons (Hawkins & Emanuel, 2008). Ethical principles are important for
parenting the researcher from using people who are easy to manipulate to participants in the
research exclusively. For instance, there are cases where researchers use prisoners to conduct
psychological research because they can be recruited easily.
Conclusion
Ethical guidelines are important in research because they protect human participants from
harm that may be inflicted to them. Professional researchers have developed a code of ethics that
guides them on how human participants should be treated during the research. The literature
review has described the need for ethical policies, guidelines, and procedures in the research.
Ethical principles provide the guidelines or any research by guiding the researchers and the
participants. The challenges associated with codes of ethics in research are related to the need for
acquiring knowledge.
For any study to be considered professional and principled the risks, encountered need to
be balanced with the benefits accrued from the research and the importance of the information
gained. Experts indicate that, if the study is dangerous, it will have more benefits, and it is
considered ethical. It is important to increase the benefits that participants accrue that includes
timely payment, which helps to improve the study. Establishing an ethical standpoint in research
is important in guiding on the proceeds of the research studies. There is also a need to include the
technology-driven research in the study, such as the use of social media, to improve the
efficiency of conducting ethical research.
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