A critique of the literature review
From the literature reviewed, it appears that the relationship between employee age and employee
performance is influenced by motivational and competency factors. Some of the studies reviewed
include Grand (2005) who examined the interrelationship between cooperate age structures and
employee performance. The study found that means and dispersions of employee age in firms
were inversely U-shaped related to firm performance. Levine (2004) found a strong relationship
between age race and gender on quits and dismissals. Omari (2012) found that age is not
significantly related to employee outcomes. However, Karpinen (2012) found a positive
relationship between employee age and employee performance.
These relationships eventually impact on the way employees perform their work and their
productivity within their organizations. These mixed findings formed the basis of gaps to be
addressed by this study. Both empirical and theoretical literature above elicited inadequacies and
short comings highlighting gaps relating to conceptual, contextual and methodology, which this
study focused on.
Summary of Selected Empirical Studies and Research Gaps
Both empirical and theoretical literature above has elicited inadequacies summarized in table 2.1
as gaps in knowledge. The literature review highlighted the gaps relating to conceptual,
contextual and methodological gaps. The gaps have been summarized below and how focus is
made on the current study to address them.
Table Summary of Gaps in Knowledge
Author Focus Methodology Findings Gaps Focus on current
study
Grand
(2005)
Examined the
interrelationship
between corporate
age structures and
employee
performance.
Danish linked employer
employee data was
used.
Dispersions and
Means of age in
firms were inversely
U-shaped related to
firm’s
performance.
The study did not
consider the effects
of age moderators
in this relationship
HRM practices and
Employee
Competence are
age moderators
focused in the
current study
Levine
David
(2004)
Influences of age,
race and gender on
employee behavior,
quits, dismissals and
promotion
Data collected from 450
employees in a large
US firm using
questionnaires to
examine the influence
of age, race and gender
on quits and dismissals
A strong
relationship
between age, race
and gender on quits
and dismissals was
evident
The study only
focused on quits and
dismissals. It did
not consider the
aspect of employee
performance
This study focuses
on the relationship
between age and
employee
performance which
is a key
determinant of
organization
development
Collins
Christopher
and Jeff
Ericksen.
(2009)
Do the HR
Management
practices influence
employee behavior
and employee
performance in small
businesses?
Socio metric data was
collected from an
electronic firm, a small
business to examine this
relationship
HRM practices
directly relate to
high levels of
commitment and
organization
performance
This study did not
look at Age which
has an effect on
employee
performance. It was
also limited to small
businesses.
Focus is made on
how Employee Age
is moderated by
HRM practices to
influence Employee
Performance in both
small and large
businesses
Green jr,
(2005)
The Influence of
age and disparities
of gender on job
satisfaction of HR
professionals
Collected data using
questionnaires from 279
HR Professionals in large
firms on age, gender, job
satisfaction
and organization
commitment
Differences on Age
and gender did not
impact on
commitment level
and job satisfaction
of HR professionals
The study
considered and only
looked at one cadre
of employees; HRM
professionals. There
is need for a study
that is inclusive of
all professionals
This study cuts
across all
professional cadres
in state corporations
of Kenya
Laura T.
(2006)
Influence of race, age
and gender on
employee/manager
relationship
A survey instrument
was administered to 250
employees on race, age
and gender
The study indicated
positive relationship
between the two
variables
The study did not
link the relationship
to employee
performance
The current study
relates employee
age to employee
performance
Dalton
(2008)
The relative powers of
age and total
experience in years of
an occupation for
predicting supervisor
ratings of work
performance.
Collected data via
structural questionnaire
from 405 faculty college
students and tested for job
supervisory ratings
Results revealed that
experience
better predicted
performance more than
age.
The study focused on
college students which
may not be quite
representative
in work performance
This Study cuts across
all categories of
workers of state
corporations in Kenya.
Snell and
Boulander
(2007)
Made comparison
between competencies
of old and young
employees
Structural questionnaires
were used to collect data
from 400 respondents to
test this relationship
Both the young and the
old employees showed
unique competencies
Competencies alone
may not be adequate.
Motivators are also
key determinants of
performance.
Both competencies and
motivators are
moderators
incorporated in the
current study
Kiruja, E.
(2008)
The effect of employee
motivation on
performance in public
middle level technical
training institutions in
Kenya
A structural questionnaire
was used to collect data
from 300 respondents to
determine this relationship
Employees are less
satisfied with their
work environment
and pay.
The study was
conducted in only one
county and therefore
cannot be generalized
in other public and
private institutions
The current study
focuses on all state
corporations of Kenya
which is more
representative
Kindel
(2009)
Investigated
generational differences
in reactions to major
change initiatives in
public and not for profit
organizations that may
impact psychological
contract
Structural questionnaires
were used to compile data
from 250 respondents in a
public corporation
The study confirms
that older people value
job security as opposed
to younger
people who value
flexibility
Need to clarify that
different HR practices
can work for different
age groups
The current study
investigates the
moderating effect of
HRM practices on the
relationship between
employee age and
employee performance
David M
and Stephen
T
(2010)
The effect of age on the
satisfaction of
academicians within
teaching and research
Used questionnaire to
collect data from 554
respondents on age,
gender and job satisfaction
of academic staff in a
research college
Age affects job
satisfaction positively
on academic teaching
and research. It also
increases with rank
Focused only on
academics which is
not quite
representative
The current study
focuses on state
corporations of Kenya
which is more
representative.
Karpinen
(2011)
The relationship
between the variables,
Employee age and
employee performance
A survey instrument was
administered to 250
employees on race age and
gender
Employee age
influences employee
performance
Research done in
developed countries
may not portray the
same results in
developing countries
This Study focuses on
Kenya, a developing
country
Omari, S.
(2012)
The influence of
cognitive and
contextual factors on
the relationship
between employee
characteristics (age) and
employee outcomes in
Kenyan public
corporations
Structural questionnaires
were used to collect data
from 384 respondents to
determine this
relationship. Age was one
of the employee
characteristics
The study indicated
Positive relationship
between age and
employee outcomes
which influence
organization
performance
The study focused on
average age across
state corporations. So
the effect of age on
organization
performance may not
come out clearly
The current study
focuses on the
relationship between
individual employee
age and individual
employee
performance in state
corporations
Schmidt et
al. (2014)
Analysis of employee
experience and age
factors on Employee
performance.
Structural questionnaires
were used to collect data
on age and experience
of employees
Established a more
positive relationship on
experience than age.
The study did not
consider other factors
influencing employee
age and employee
performance
This study puts the
moderating effect of
HRM practices and
competence on
employee
performance.
Conceptual Framework
This section focuses on the conceptual framework and conceptual hypotheses of the study. It
describes the study variables and discusses the relationships among these variables. From the
conceptual framework, hypotheses were developed to test the proposed relationships.
The schematic diagram presented below as figure 2.1 is divided into three categories; It shows the
relationship between four variables under study; Employee Age which is operationalized as
Generation Jones (1955 - 1965) or 50 to 60 years. Generation X (1966 –1976) or 39 to 49 years
and Generation Y (1977–1994) or 21 to 38 years is the independent variable. Employee
performance (Task performance and Contextual performance) is the dependent variable. HRM
practices which includes, employee participation and empowerment, employee training and
development, compensation benefits (pay) employee welfare benefits and performance
management. Employee competence which includes, educational level, skills level of training and
experience, are Moderating variables. Moderating variables, HRM practices and Employee
competence affect the relationship between employee age and employee performance.
Based on the literature, studies have established a relationship between employee age and
employee performance (H1). Expectancy theory suggests that this relationship can be weak until
other factors such as individual abilities, traits, educational level, skills level and training level
come in as moderators. From the model we have HRM practices (H2) and employee competence
(H3) coming in as moderators in the relationship between employee age and employee
competence. This study sought to determine the influence of these moderators on this relationship.
(H4) denotes the joint effect of employee age, HRM practices and employee competence on
employee performance. The assumption of the study was that; the joint effect of employee age,
HRM practices and employee competence on employee performance was greater than that of the
individual predictor variables on employee performance.
H1 b
Figure 1 The relationship between employee age and employee performance as moderated
by HRM practices and employee competence.
*This operational definition of employee age is adopted from William (2004), who
equated old aged employees (1955 – 1965) with generation Jones, middle aged
employees (1966 – 1976) with generation X and younger employees (1977 – 1994)
with generation Y.
H2 H3
Moderating Variable Moderating Variable
H4
Independent
Variable
Dependent Variable
Employee performance
1. Task performance
(output)
H1 a Specific task
Non – Specific task
2. Contextual performance
Effort
Personal discipline
Team work
Y3.
Generation
(1977–1994)
X
2.
Generation
(1966–1976)
1. Generation
Jones
( 1955 -1965)
Employee Age
Employee Competence
Educational level Skills level
Training level Experience
HRM practices
Employee participation and
empowerment
Compensation benefits (pay) Employee
training and development
Employee welfare benefits
Performance Management
