BIOL 408 - Animal Behavior

TITLE: BIOL 408 -ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

1: Introduction

Animal behavior refers to the interaction of an animal with something, someone or as

regards something or someone or the way an animal behaves in relation to its surroundings. Such

behaviors may range from an instance as elementary as reflex and an innate response to as

elaborate as and or including stereotyped activities accompanied by intricate exchanges of

signals and cooperation. For instance, the bird is building a nest, a dog beside its master, a lion

when hunting in packs. Such responses are elicited by different causes which include, inherited

reflexes, and aspects of persons’ genetic makeup, the world around them and the manner in

presence of different communities of organisms. That is why the information about their feeding,

the means of protection from predators, their possibilities of reproduction, and the ways of

intercommunication is useful in order to comprehend the processes who govern the inhabitants

of our planet. Secondly, this research influences conservation practices in that knowledge

concerning the behaviour of animals is important during the process. By understanding the

behavioral demands and the processes of the Endangered species, the enhanced measures in

regard to habitats preservation and species’ control could be developed and implemented.

Moreover, it is crucial to improve the knowledge of animal behavior to improve the necessities

of the animals’ living environment and treatment.

Apart from that, the consideration of animals can also benefit the field of the evaluation

2: Historical Perspectives

Early Observations and Theories

Ethology as a formal field of study maybe be traced back to the earlier period when

human beings began to follow the animals in order to master their habits, modes of action and

even the most effective strategies to use while hunting or taming these animals. It is important to

advance our knowledge by looking into what earlier societies, even the Greeks and Romans, had

to say concerning observations and theories. For instance, in his various works, Aristotle used

detailed descriptions to write on animal behaviour and even made differentiation among the

animals basing his descriptions on their behaviours like migration, mating and social life among

others. Such early considerations provided the basis for further scientific study by insisting on

accurate and detailed documentation of animals’ actions.

Key Figures in the Study of Animal Behavior

Ethology, the scientific comprehensible of animal behavior came into focus of interest in

nineteenth and twentieth centuries and is highly indebted to the famous personalities like Charles

Darwin, Konrad Lorenz, and Nikolaas Tinbergen, etc.

Darwin laid the foundations of the methodology for investigating animals’ behaviour by

writing about evolution and the idea of natural selection. Thousands of years ago, in his book

“The Origin of Species,” Charles Darwin wrote about the role of evolution concerning behaviors.

He posited that behaviors that helped in survival and especially in reproducing would readily be

copied by the offspring and hence inherited. His subsequent book “The Expression of the

Emotions in Man and Animal” was aimed to continue the explanation of the innate origin of

many behaviors, and their possible evolutionary purpose.

the influence of the environment.

One more founder of ethology is Nikolaas Tinbergen who is famous for presenting the

“four questions” in ethology that give the definite outline to the study of animals’ behaviors.

These questions pertain to causes, emergence, purpose, and historical changes of behavior.

Basically, Tinbergen intended to understand the question of why animals do what they do,

Evolution of the Field Over Time

from psychology, neurology and genetics. Branches such as the behavioral ecology which arose

in the 1960s and the 1970s continued with the usage of the ecological theories but focused on the

behavior by asking how the behaviors of animals could have been influenced by the ecological

factors. Thus, this work led to the fact that researchers began to focus more on the applied

significance of behaviours depending on certain ecological conditions, which, in turn, improved

the understanding of the evolutionary aspect of behaviour.

Expansion of technology in the different years made the study of animal behavior even

more enhanced. Technologies like GPS tracking, genetic analysis, neuroimaging has given

researchers, different means that allowed them to record, assess, and quantify behaviors with

great accuracy. These technologies have allowed researchers to describe the movement, social

3: Mechanisms of Behavior

Genetic factors are strong determinants in the behavior of animals. Genes are also used in

the determinant of the transfer of behavior patterns between generations. They can influence an

individual’s ability in different actions such as reflex arcs to complex social behaviors.

Behavioral genetics entails the investigation into how genetic differences play out in behaviors

exhibited by people as well as groups. In animals like the mice twin and family studies have

proven that definite behaviors like aggression, mating preferences as well as parental care

built up or shut down depending on breeding. For instance, Russian geneticist Dmitry Belyaeve’s

experiments of baby fox selection and breeding over out long years demonstrated that out-

breeding criteria like selection of tamed foxes let to alteration in the physical features as well as

the behavioral pattern of foxes thus pointing towards the genetic basis of domesticated behaviors.

Heredity comes as the crucial antecedent of behavior, which flows with environment to

yield the ultimate behaviors. This interaction is reflected in such concepts as the gene-

environment correlations and epigenetics, when an individual’s experience impacts the Gene

expression as well as the resultant behavior. This contributes to the investigation of the genetic

Some of the mechanisms that are present in nervous system are at the center of control

and of regulation of various behaviors in animals. This part of the body mainly comprises of the

head, spinal cord and nerves and sensations that it transmits, receives and integrates or responds

to. Dry facts are essential to know before concerning the ways to produce such patients; Neurons

Some section of the brain is causative of specific behavior while another part of the brain

is causative of other behaviors. For instance, the hypothalamus is centre to feeding and drinking

song as well as singing. Prosomeric dopaminergic, serotonergic, and oxytocinergic systems are

formed and are active as the neurotransmitters and neuromodulators of behaviour. DA, on the

other hand, is used for reward and as a motivator, and it’s related behaviors that include foraging

and social interactions. Serotonin works with feelings and rage and oxytocin is associated with

the ability to bond and motherly emotions.

Neurobiological research investigations use various techniques to study the brain and its

relation to behavior such as electrical application, scans, gene modification and others. For

instance, optogenetics enables the researcher to control some neurons using light and hence

further understand the neural circuits responsible for motion, fear, and pleasures among others.

Ongoing and past research in this branch of biology continues to expand the understanding of the

nervous system’s role in regulating all the activities of animals.

Hormonal Influences

They are chemicals existing in the body of animals and are used mainly for transmitting

messages in the organisms. Produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the blood to another

part of the body, hormones reach their site of action like the brain. They can therefore function as

medications for temporary alteration and/or slow and steady influence on the way stimuli are

responded to and on developmental advancements. An example of the pathway that involves

hormones includes aggression and copulation in which testosterone is involved. For example,

particularly in pair-bond relations; these bonds occur not only between the parent and the

In relation to CASTOR, other parts also play a role in the control of the growth and

transformation of the insect and Juvenile hormone and Ecdysone. For instance, there is one study

done by Grelean et al regarding the experimental effects of juvenoid: a form of the juvenile

hormone of honey bees, on the transition of the employed nourishing behavior by the worker

honey bees to foraging behavior as the latter matures.

The changes in the hormonal sizes and their effects on behaviour are studied using

endocrinology, additional tests and the molecular analysis of hormonal level. Sex hormones in

the control of behaviour enables one to understand how various animals manage with change in

environment, how they manage contacts with other members of the same species as well as

mastering ways of achieving maximum reproductive success. Thus, when scientists investigate

the pattern that has connotations to genetics, neurobiology, and hormones, the ideal

understanding is arrived at concerning the motives that dictate the conduct of the animals besides

their relationships. Both these elements help in comprehending the layered structure of a

response and the significance of each in light of the living organisms’ existence in their

dynamically progressing world.

4: Development of Behavior

Innate vs. Learned Behaviors

Mating behaviors continue to be a focal point of study, and such behaviors could be

inherent, or acquired. Instinctive behaviour on the other hand, are the ones inherent in an

organism’s genes and that most of the time manifests itself without requiring the subject to learn

it. These behaviors are usually vital for the organism’s survival and reproduction and can be

young bird imitation of the songs of adult conspecifics. Juveniles need to hear the correct song

during the sensitive period in most songbirds’ lives in order to learn the specific repertoire for

attracting a mate and fending of rivals.

Critical Periods and Imprinting

Sensitive periods are particular time intervals within the development of an animal, when

the latter is most responsive to some stimuli, and the result of affective experiences in question

will be irreversible. In imprinting the behavior is learned during a critical period and is carried

into the later life of the organism. This process which was first observed by Konrad Lorenz

entails young animals following or becoming attached to the first moving object they encounter

in their lives, which mostly is their mother. This attachment is very vital for survival because the

Critical periods are therefore not limited to imprinting. For example, vision in mammals

including the human being is acquired by the experience gained from vision during the early

stages of development. If an animal does not receive normal vision during this critical period, it

5: Types of Animal Behavior

Foraging Behavior

Foraging is among the aspects of the behavior that tries to outline the tactics and

strategies used by the animals in acquiring their meals. This behavior is crucial for the

organism’s survival and has been embodied in its various forms in order to maximize the

likelihood of gaining calories and minimize the negative consequences and energy expenditures.

Mating and Reproductive Behavior

several tactics by different animals. These behaviors are usually complex and include things such

as courting rituals, choice of a mate and even strategies aimed at ensuring that mating and the

to catch the attention of females. Likewise, the male birds of paradise entertain themselves with a

behaviors do not only convey information about one’s genetic fitness and the quality of the genes

one carries but also play a role in species identification and in the coordination of reproductive

efforts.

In terms of reproduction there may be monogamy, polygamy and promiscuity This is a

general concept of the different reproductive behavior. There are many bird species and these are

Social Behavior

ranges from the simplest process of communication to complicated processes like competing for

ranks and importance in the community. These social behaviors are very vital for the existence

and procreation of many animals particularly those of the social kind.

As one of the numerous socially significant behaviors that require attention, altruism can

be referred to: a subject acts for the sake of an object, and thus, in a way, suffers for another.

These actions can be quantified and explained as a result of the Kin selection theory, since the

provided help goes to relatives, which increases the genotype fitness of the aider. Such a

phenomenon can be described with eusocial insects such as bees where workers are infertile in

order to help a queen, which is their own daughter with a great amount of genetically identical

material.

Division of labor such as search for foods, preparation and protection of young and the

group from unfriendly beings is widespread among sociable animals. Similarly meerkats also

have cooperation to defend their territory and while some stay awake for any threat some go out

in search of food. Cleaning, observed in primates, does not only touch on the aspect of

cleanliness, but also arise due to the possibility that two and related individuals may wish to

benefits; the issues of cooperation and competition are also explained.

Communication is the passing of information in between individuals in the society by

using signals, which may include light, sound, chemicals or touch. Communication is crucial for

organization of social processes, finding a partner, avoiding dangerous organisms, and to mark

the owner’s territories.

females is also a kind of visual communication. This is because auditory communication is very

important in many species especially where there is a lot of concealment regarding visibility.

Bird songs are another ingenious one, which is produced to lure females for a mate or to deter

other males from his domain. Wales and dolphins are known to communicate over large

distances using some form of vocal communication with the intention of telling other members

of a pod where to go and what to do.

Another mode of communication that transpires among the birds is chemical

communication which entails the use of pheromones and other chemicals. For example, ants

secrete chemicals called pheromones to pave ways that other ants in the colonies follow to hunt

for food. Same as birds, many mammals use territorial spraying for defining the territories and

for communication concerning to reproductive conditions. This mechanism of communication is

in form of touch and is quite essential in species that indulge in grooming, copulation, and in the

rearing of the young. In primates, this method is used to help them create good relationship with

each other; cat mothers also use this to help clean their young ones and at the same time sweeten

their relationship. In relation to the different methods of animal communication, it can be

appreciated how rich and how much evolved is this aspect of animal interactions and,

Territoriality and Aggression

These are behaviors that are associated with protection of a certain area or material goods

basic needs such as food, mates, and the best living conditions

In territorial behavior, the animals have the tendency to demarcate an area and act defensively

towards the other members of his/her own species that infringes the area marked by the animal.

territorial behavior is common among many animals and most likely communicated by the use of

visual, auditory or chemical indications. For instance, when birds sing it a way of claiming space

Vigor is a distinct conduct typical to territorial aggression, mate competition as well as

social rank conflicts. This most often presents itself through physical actions that may range

from fighting to making one’s stand. In many species, there are common rituals of posturing that

are followed in order to eliminate the threat of the fighting and not necessarily to remove the

contender; for instance, the fights over antlers of animals such as the deer or even the fights that

involve chest pounding of animals such as gorillas. These demonstrations regularly set up a

pecking order of the group members and can avoid the requirement for aggression. This means