Chapter 7 - The Reproductive Process
1. Describe the structure and function of the human male and female reproductive systems including
the names of the cells/processes involved in spermatozoa and ovum production as well as where
fertilization and implantation occur in humans.
● Spermatogenesis
○ Testis (located in scrotum, originally in the abdominal cavity then drop through canal to
scrotum and as they drop they drag the tube that connects it to the urethra. Temp in the
scrotum is lower, so that allows sperm to mature), Vas deferens, urethra.
○ Equal division of cytoplasm
○ Sustentacular cell gives nutrients to the following cells
1.) Spermatogonia (diploid) undergo mitosis
2.) Primary spermatocyte (diploid) undergoes meiosis one
3.) Secondary spermatocytes (haploid) undergoes meiosis two
4.) Spermatids (haploid), turn into spermatozoa in the coelom of the
seminiferous tubule
5.) Go into epididymis where they are stored and mature, they then can go to
the vas deferens to the urethra.
● Semen production
○ Seminal vesicle add fructose to the sperm (for energy)
○ Bulbourethral glands add alkaline mucus (to neutralize acidic conditions in vagina)
○ Prostate gland surrounds the urethra and has valves that can allow urine or semen to flow
through the urethra. If the prostate gland swells, it can pinch off the urethra.
● Inguinal hernia
○ If the abdominal viscera pushes through the inguinal canal because the area is weakened.
● Oogenesis
○ Zoa means motile, that's why it's not called oozoa.
○ Ectopic pregnancy is when the baby is implanted in fallopian tube instead of uterus
○ Born with primary oocytes in arrested state (prophase one)
■ They start maturing and going through the rest of the states around 12-13 years
old.
○ Unequal division of cytoplasm
1.) Oogonium (diploid)
2.) Primary oocyte (diploid)
3.) Once a month, one primary oocyte undergoes the rest of meiosis
a.) Most of the cytoplasm goes to the secondary oocyte (haploid)
i.) Secondary oocyte is what is ovulated
b.) The dumping ground for chromosomes is the first polar body
4.) Follicle ruptures and releases secondary oocytes. These go up the fallopian tube.
If sperm penetrates the secondary oocyte it will undergo meiosis 2.
5.) Results in ovum and second polar body.
2. Outline the hormonal control of female menstrual cycle; explain how pregnancy changes this
pattern (i.e. you should be able to explain the graphs associated with the menstrual cycle (hormones,
what’s happening in the ovary and uterus) as well as the graph associated with the scenario when the
secondary oocyte is fertilized (hormones and where they come from and what they do).
● LH and FSH from anterior pituitary
○ FSH: stimulates follicle growth
○ LH: stimulates ovulation (release of secondary oocyte from the follicle)
○ GnGH comes from the hypothalamus and affects the production and release of FSH and
LH from the anterior pituitary.
● Progesterone and estrogen originally from the folial, later comes form the corpus luteum.
○ Estrogen promotes cell division in the lining of the uterus.
○ Progesterone quiets smooth muscles of uterus, because you don't want it contracting
● Endometrium: uterine lining
● Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube
● Implantation occurs in the endometrium of the uterus.
● Estrogen inhibits FSH and LH
● Estrogen supports the endometrium
● Estrogen levels increase during the first 13 days, it makes the endometrium thicker.
● Mid cycle: estrogen levels get really high. Change from inhibitory to stimulating LH and FSH.
○ They are bound to alpha receptors, and then start to bind to beta receptors, which have a
positive feedback. LH surge causes ovulation
● Last 13 days: Corpus luteum (follicle left in ovary) continues secreting p&e
○ LH andFSH at the lowest levels, which prevents the maturation of another follicle, the
estrogen levels inhibit these hormones.
○ If no fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum degenerates.
○ Estrogen and progesterone drop
○ Endometrium decreases
○ Cycle repeats
● If you get fertilization: the egg is viable for about 24 hours after ovulation. Sperm can be viable
for 24-48 hours.
● Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube, it emplants in the endometrium in the uterus, which
starts producing a placenta, placenta secretes HCG (preg. test).
● Corpus luteum is the initial source of progesterone and estrogen
● 7-11wks then placenta takes over hormone secretion rather than HCG.
● Progesterone
○ Inhibits uterine contractions
○ Firms cervix/inhibits dilation
● Estrogen
○ Supports endometrium
● Positive feedback loop until the cervix opens up for birth
3. What are good and bad things that can cross the placenta?
● Blood from baby and blood from the mom do not cross
● Small things can cross both ways through placenta
● Good stuff
○ Oxygen from the blood
○ Nutrients
○ Baby gets rid of waste (co2)
● Bad stuff
○ Drugs
○ Alcohol
● The pill: elevated progesterone and estrogen
○ Inhibits FSH and LH
Chapter 25 Amphibians
1. List characteristics of modern amphibians.
● Ectotherms
● Tetrapods-4 legs
● Double circulatory system
● Dependent upon water or moist environment (skin permeable to water) (all life stages dependent)
● External fertilization or pick up spermatophore (over vent)
● Urea-primary form of metabolic waste
2. Know the 3 orders of amphibians (caecilians, salamanders, frogs/toads) and their salient features.
● Caecilians-limbless, burrowing, tropical, worm-like
● Salamanders- tailed
● Frogs and toads-without tail
3. Know about the various reproduction patterns for amphibians noted in lecture and know the term
paedomorphosis.
● Paedomorphosis (child form)-become sexually mature while retaining larval characteristics
Chapter 26 Reptiles
1. List characteristics of the Class Reptilia.
● Tough, dry, scaly skin (keratin), impermeable to water
● Amniotic egg (laid on land)- birds and reptiles have but mammals do not
● Internal fertilization
● Uric acid-convert ammonia to this because it uses the least amount of water to excrete
2. What are the four extra embryonic membranes of the amniotic egg and what is the function of each
membrane?
● Yolk sac-food
● Amnion-water buffer
● Allantosis-waste repository
● Chorion-outermost membrane, vascularized, used for gas exchange (water, gas, CO2), later called
the chorioallantoic membrane as the animal gets bigger and the chorion and allantois fuse
together
3. Classify reptiles to order.
● Turtles
● Snakes and lizards
● Tuatara
● Alligators, caiman, crocodiles, gavial
4. What are the main features of reptilian skin and how would you distinguish it from frog skin?
● Tough, dry, scaly (keratin), impermeable to water
● Frog skin is permeable to water while reptilian skin is not
5. Distinguish between a snake and a lizard.
● Lizards: have eyelids, external ear opening, can regenerate a tail
● Snakes: cant do any of the things above
6. What is the function of Jacobson's organ in snakes and lizards?
● smell
7. What's the function of the "pit" of pit vipers? (Rattlesnakes, copperheads)
● Senses heat
8. What is the difference in the structure & location of the fangs of a rattlesnake or gaboon viper, a
cobra and an African boomslang?
● Rattlesnake-front fangs, moveable fangs, have a heat sensing pit
● Gaboon viper-front fangs, moveable fangs, no pit
● Cobra-front fangs, fangs fixed
● Boomslang-rear fanged
Chapter 27 Birds
Characteristics: feathers, beak, 4 heart chambers, endothermic, oviparous, amniotic eggs.
1. List special adaptations of birds for flight: feathers (feather anatomy), skeleton, muscles and where
they attach, wing structure & turbulence reduction structures.
● Feathers anatomy
○ Epidermal derivative
○ Barbs come off the rachis (main shaft), distal and proximal barbule. The barbosils hook
the barbules together. This makes a sturdy surface on the feathers. When the bird preens
itself, it rehooks the barbosils.
○ Contour feathers on the surface of the bird
○ Down feathers are soft and under the contour feathers, used for insulation
● Bones are pneumatized, so the bones have a lot of air spaces.
● Has a sternum with a large keel, which the flight muscles are attached to
○ Pectoralis muscle is attached to humerus, so it pulls the wing down
○ The supracoracoideus muscle attaches to the top side of the humerus, so it pulls the wing
up
● Wing
○ ⅔ of the lift is from the top side of the wing. The top side is convex, and the bottom side
is flat. The distance the air has to travel is more along the top of the wing. The air flow is
faster on the top side, so there is less pressure on the top. So there is more pressure on the
bottom of the wing, so the bird can fly.
○ Turbulence destroys the lift, the bird then drops.
○ Wing slots and slender tips minimize turbulence.
■ Wing slots: directs fast-moving air over wing surface
■ Slender tips: makes the air flow linearly
2. Describe respiratory adaptations in birds with specific reference to the counter current (cross
current) method of oxygen extraction (air sacs/parabronchi) including the breathing cycle of a bird.
● Blood and air flows in opposite directions.
● Always exposing blood to air with higher concentration so that the oxygen will want to diffuse
into blood
● Allows from continuous air flow through the lungs
○ Inhalation 1: the bird inhales, the air is going primarily to posterior air sac and a little bit
of air to the parabronchi
○ Exhalation 1: the air in the posterior air sac moves uniformly through the parabronchi
○ Inhalation 2: the air from inhalation 1 goes to the anterior air sacs and the air from
inhalation 2 goes to the posterior air sacs. . The air does not mix
○ Exhalation 2: air in the posterior air sacs go through parabronchi, and the air brought in
during inhalation 1 is finally exhaled.
3. Some facts discussed in class about the ruby-throated hummingbird, bald eagle, peregrine falcon
and arctic tern.
● Ruby-throated hummingbird:
○ Wing beats: 40-80 per second, average about 52
○ Respiration: 250 per min
○ Heart rate: 250 beats/min resting, 1200 beats/min when feeding
○ Most migrate in the winter to mexico or central america an 18-20 hr flight across the
caribbean
● Bald eagle:
○ Wingspan is between 1.8-2.3m
○ Mass normally between 3-6.3kg
○ Lives in canada, alaska, and contiguous united states
○ Late 20th century, brink of extirpation in continental united states because of pesticides
○ Populations recovers because of using less ddt
○ Nest near large bodies of water
● Peregrine falcon:
○ It can dive super fast
○ Dives at speeds from 200-250 mph
● Arctic tern:
○ It flies 25,000 miles per year.
○ From the arctic to the antarctic and back
○ Breeds in the arctic summer
Chapter 28 Mammals
1. List characteristics of modern mammals.
● Hair: epidermal derivative
○ Guard hair and underhair
● Mammary glands: milk producing glands used to feed offspring
● Teeth
○ diphyodont: deciduous (baby teeth) to permanent
○ Heterodont: different types of teeth
■ Incisors: snipping
■ Cancine: piercing
■ Premolars: slicing
■ Molars: grinding
■ 3rd molars: wisdom teeth
● Head stuff:
○ Horns: unbranched, not shed, bony core, both gender
■ Pronghorns are an exception, they shed
■ Rhino horns, keratinized hair cemented together, bone core
○ Antlers: branched, shed, solid bone, only males (except with caribou)
● Reproduction
○ Monotremes: found in australia, lay eggs
○ Marsupials: pouched, embryo erodes depression in uterus gestation short, kangaroo,
wallaby, found in australia (opossum in the USA)
○ Placental: babies stay in the wombs for a longer amount of time, the mom and fetal
circulatory system are different, large babies.
2. What is distinctive about each of the following: horns of antelope, horns of rhinoceros, antlers of
deer.
● Horns of antelope-unbranched, not shed (except in pronghorns), bony core, both genders have
them
● Antlers-branched, shed, solid bone, only males (except with caribou)
● Rhino horn-keratinized hair cemented together over top of bony core
3. Define the terms "diphyodont" and "heterodont" and explain how both terms apply to mammalian
dentition.
● Diphyodont-2 sets of teeth (deciduous and permanent)
● Heterodont-teeth are of various kinds
4. Describe the three reproductive patterns of mammals (oviparous monotremes), marsupials, and
placental mammals.
● Placental-large babies, birthing is a much bigger deal, stay in placenta
● Marsupials-tiny babies, pouched, embryo erodes dep in uterus, short gestation
● Oviparous monotremes-platypus, lay eggs, spiny anteater (echidna)
5. Distinguish between the fetal and adult blood circulation patterns in placental mammals (know the
fetal shunts).
● Slide 19: adult
● Slide 20: fetal
Chapter 32 Digestion & Nutrition
1. List the parts of a typical mammal and bird digestive system.
● Mammal
○ Mouth - foods goes in, chew, mucus, amylase breaks down complex carbs
○ Esophagus - epiglottis and peristalsis, stratified squamous epithelial tissue, not
keratinized
○ Stomach - digestion
○ Small intestine
○ Large intestine- water absorption and solids formation (fiscal formation), ileocecal valve,
regulated flow of material from small to large intestine, lots of bacteria
○ Rectum - short term fecal storage
○ Anus
● Birds
○ Mouth
○ Esophagus
○ Crop (some birds not all) - short term storage structure, pick up extra food
○ Stomach - two parts
■ Proventriculus - digestive enzymes (chemical)
■ Gizzard - grinding (mechanic)
○ Small intestine
○ Large intestine -
○ Cloaca - urinary, fecal wastes and gametes
○ Vent (anus)
Absorption of food - blood capillaries. Food stuff goes from the lumen of the small intestine to blood in
capillaries via active and passive means then to the liver via hepatic portal vein. (fats to lymph system via
lacteals).
2. Describe in the parts and functions of the mammalian digestive system including
a) mouth (function of chewing, amylase, and mucus), what peristalsis is and the role of the epiglottis)
● Chewing: teeth
● Amylase: enzymatic breakdown of complex carbs to simple carbs
● Mucus: lubricate the food
● Peristalsis: circular muscles that contract and push food further down through esophagus into the
stomach.
● Epiglottis: folds over glottis and prevents food from going down into respiratory system
b) early digestion (stomach sphincters, parietal and chief cells, mucin and what is chyme)
● Stomach sphincters - (cardiac sphincters) - blocks content from stomach from going into
esophagus
● Parietal cells - produce HCL, which drops pH of stomach, this dissolves extracellular matrix of
food that was consumed, activates pepsinogen
● chief cells - produces pepsinogen
Parietal cells activate the pepsinogen that the chief cells produce
● Mucin: released by cells and makes mucus, this helps protect the lining of the stomach.
● Chyme: pyloric sphincter - regulates movement of food from stomach to small intestine
c) digestion and absorption – small intestine (folding, villi and microvilli), pancreatic enzymes and
bicarbonates, membrane enzymes and bile (how is fat emulsified and absorbed),
● Folding, vili, and microvilli: increase the surface area (200 square meters)
○ Four levels of folding
1.) Looping
2.) plicae
3.) vili
4.) microvilli
● Pancreas releases enzymes and bicarbonates into small intestine (duodenum via pancreatic duct):
○ trypsin/chymotrypsin - continue enzyme breakdown of proteins, polypeptides to amino
acids
○ Lipase - break down lipids
○ Amylase - carb breakdown into monosaccharides
○ Lactase - break down lactose (some stop producing this)
○ Nuclease - break down nucleic acids
○ Membrane enzymes (sucrase) - break down sucrose, embeded into the membrance of
small intestine
● Bile
○ Helps breakdown of fats
○ Hydrophobic end (lipophilic)
○ Hydrophilic end (lipophobic)
○ Helps increase surface area so that fat droplets separate into smaller droplets. Emulsify
the fat.
○ The lipophilic part will attach itself to the droplet of fat and the lipophilic will stick out.
d) water absorption and solids formation – lg. intestine (valve, effect of too little or too much water
reabsorption).
● Ileocecal valve regulates the flow of material from the small to large intestine.
● If too much water is absorbed you are constipated
● If too little water is absorbed, you have diarrhea
Your large intestine has 10x more microorganisms than the amount of cells. High anxiety is linked to
more microorganisms in the gut. (mice)
3. List the functions of the mammalian liver.
● All blood from digestive system goes to liver via hepatic portal vein
● Nutrients are stored in the liver
● Toxins can be inactivated in the liver
○ Metabolic wastes are converted, ammonia to urea
● Bile synthesis
● Phagocytosis of RBC
● Make plasma proteins, blood clotting (fibrogen).
4. Define a vitamin. What are water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins?
● Vitamins are a compound required for a specific cellular function.
○ Water soluble (ex. B and C). take vitamin C when sick. If you take more than what your
body needs, your body excretes it. Vitamin C deficiency causes a disease called scurvy
(limeys - thought limes could cure)
○ Fat soluble (ex A, D, E, K). high doses are toxic.
5. What is an essential nutrient?
● Nutrients you need to get from your diet, that you cant synthesize yourself.
6. Describe the effect and interactions between the hormones of the digestive system (gastrin, cck,
secretin).
● Gastrin: release when food is in the stomach. Stimulates release of HCL from the peridal cells
that line the stomach. It also causes pepsinogen to be released from chief cells. When pepsinogen
hits low pH, it gets converted to pepsin, this helps break down proteins to polypeptides.
● CCK - release triggered by undigested fats and proteins. Released from intestine mucosa, causes
the release of bile and digestive enzymes in the duodenum. Negative feedback so that not too
much food is passing at one time.
● Secretin - the cells that make up intestine produce secretion, this causes bicarbonate to be released
by the pancreatic duct into duodenum which helps neutralize the acid.
7. Describe a negative and positive feedback loop.
● Negative (gastrin and HCL): pH is lowered, and it has a negative effect on the release of
gastrin. Gastrin levels are high, going to cause the stomach to produce HCL from the
parietal cells. so it's going to cause the HCL to go up, pH in your stomach goes down.
This inhibits the gastrin levels, as gastrin levels go down, not as much hcl released so pH
goes up. Negative feedback.
● If it was positive feedback, there would be increased gastrin, increased hcl, which would
cause pH to lower and burn holes in the stomach. (graph would be a straight line)
Chapter 35 – Immunity
1. Distinguish between nonspecific and specific defenses.
● Nonspecific- innate, not specific to a specific pathogen
○ Skin plus its acidic secretions pH 3-5
○ Lysozymes in tears, saliva destroy cell walls of bacteria
○ Mucus
○ Gastric juices of stomach (low pH)
○ Inflammatory response-happens when you get a splinter
● Specific-adaptive
○ Humoral immune response-generate antibodies
1.) Macrophage encounters antigen (any kind of nonself)
2.) Antigen is phagocytized
3.) Piece of antigen is expressed on the surface of the macrophage with class
2 MHC protein
4.) When helper T-cell with receptor fits the class 2 MHC protein, the
macrophage releases a cell to cell signaling molecule (cytokine)
5.) Cytokine activates helper t-cell, so helper t-cell releases its own cytokine,
that causes it to clone.
Steps 1-5 are activation phase
6.) B-cell encounters the same type of antigen
7.) B-cell phagocytizes antigen
8.) Piece of antigen is expressed on the surface of the macrophage with class
2 MHC protein
9.) Helper t-cell comes and docks on b-cell
10.) T-cell release cytokine that causes b-cell to proliferate and differentiate
into plasma cells and memory cells.
a.) Proliferate: plasma cells secrete antibodies that tag and coat the
antigen, so macrophages can phagocytize the antigen.
○ Cellular immune response-destroying virus and cancer cells
○ Immune system can develop and adapt, and produce antibodies
2. Distinguish between antigen and determinant.
● Antigen-a toxin or other foreign substance which induces an immune response in the body,
especially the production of antibodies.
● Antigenic determinant-part of the antigen recognized by the immune system (by antibodies, t
cells or b cells) and is the specific piece of the antigen to which the antibody binds
3. Describe the structure of antibodies.
●
● Constant region-embedded in membrane of t cell
● Variable region-expressed on the surface
4. Distinguish between natural, artificial, and passive immunity.
● Natural immunity-expose to antigen, develop memory cells that can last for decades (chicken
pocks)
● Artificial immunity- introduce antigenic molecules or whole pathogen (live or attenuated),
develop memory cells (vaccine-tetanus shot)
● Passive immunity- innoculation with specific antibody, body does not have time to make
antibodies for the antigen (rattlesnake bite)
5. Why is a lag phase lacking when exposed to the same antigen the second time?
● Antigen can bind to memory t-cells and they can start pumping out plasma cell production and
antibodies immediately
● Response is faster and greater
6. Why are tissues/organs rejected?
● Look back at video
● MHC’s are unique
● Blood type
7. What are autoimmune diseases and how might you get these diseases.
● Autoimmune disease-condition in which your immune system mistakenly attacks your body
● Can get from 2 ways
○ Clonal deletions fail-check out your B and T cells before you release them, destroy those
that bind to your antigenic determinants, otherwise B or T cells against self (basically,
your body does not destroy t and b cells that should be destroyed)
○ Encounter antigens with determinants (proteins) similar to yours-you develop antibodies
which then attack your cells (basically, antibodies attack your good cells after they
destroy bad ones
8. What cell does HIV infect and how does this affect your immune system?
● Affect helper t cells (Th) and Antigen presenting cells (APCs, macrophages)
● Reverse transcription which integrates into host DNA which then translates into viral proteins and
then buds out. This weakens the immune system of the person
9. What are the ABO blood types (surface proteins and plasma antibodies of each blood type) and be
able to fill out the blood transfusion table we did in class.
● A: proteins=A, antibodies=anti-B
● B: proteins =B, antibodies=anti-A
● AB: proteins= A and B, antibodies=none
● O: proteins=none, antibodies=anti-A and anti-B
10. Describe Rh factor and how it relates to erythroblastosis fetalis. Be able to determine for different
Rh factor genotypes whether they should be concerned about erythroblastosis fetalis.
● Rh factor-another membrane protein on RBC
● Erythroblastosis fetalis-occurs if mom is RH- and first baby is RH+ which Rh+ blood gets into
moms blood. Then if second baby is Rh-, anti-Rh antibodies cross placenta and attach to RBC
which makes baby’s blood clump
11. Describe how you may develop an allergic response to pollen which results in histamine being
released.
● Hypersensitivity
● Plasma cells produce IgE’s instead of IgD’s
● Attach themselves to basophils
● 1st exposure is no big deal, 2nd exposure causes degranulation of basophil to release histamine
12. Describe the cellular immune response and list the cells involved.
● No antibodies produced
● Class 1 MHC proteins and Tc (cytotoxic t cells) involved
● Class 1 MHC proteins are unique to each individual
● Cytotoxic t cell comes when something new is on the infected cell and Cd8 proteins on cytotoxic
recognizes class 1 protein which activated t cells.
● Activated t cells find other diseased infected cells which bind and can causes lyse or release
porferin that breaks down the cell membrane which causes cell death or causes them to split
13. Describe the inflammatory response.
● Degranulation of mast cell or basophils release histamine
○ Histamines cause capillaries to dilate and leak which causes the sensation of heat and
redness
● Increased blood flow to region makes blood warmer and redness
● Complement is released (not the same as histamine): multiple blood proteins tag and destroy
invaders (attach themselves to bacteria)
● Dead cells form pus
14. Define benign and malignant tumor and metastasis.
● Benign-non cancerous
● Malignant-cancerous
● Metastasis-emigration to new areas by malignant tumors
Old Stuff
Chapter 8 Principles of Development
1. Know the key events of animal development - fertilization, cleavage (blastula), gastrulation,
organogenesis).
● Fertilization
● Cleavage
● Gastrulation
2. Compare the developmental characteristics of the two bilaterally symmetrical metazoans, the
protostomes and the deuterostomes (for example radial vs spiral cleavage, mosaic and regulative).
3. Name three primary germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm) and their derivatives in
vertebrates.
● Ectoderm: layer of skin
● Endoderm: will form the lining of the gut, the liver, and the lungs.
● Mesoderm: Muscular, Skeletal, Cardiovas., reproductive systems
4. Discuss the process of fertilization including events in the egg membrane and how polyspermy
is it prevented (fast and slow block)?
1. Sperm go through jelly-like coat around egg
2. Egg recognition proteins on head of sperm have to fit into sperm binding receptors on surface of
the egg
3. Sperm binding receptors outside of vitelline enelope docks with sperm successfully
4. When the sperm successfully docks, sodium channel opens and sodium flows into the egg.
Polarity accross the membrane of the egg becomes less polar. (depolarizes membrane).
5. The shape of the sperm binding receptors changes so that other sperm cant dock
FAST BLOCK - 2 seconds after sperm binds, lasts 60 seconds.
1. The sperm that successfully docked is drawn into the egg by contractile protiens
2. Cortical granules discharge hypertonic fluid (with enzymes) into space between egg membrane
and vitelline envelope. (becuase hypertonic, water flows into space and other sperm are lifted off)
3. Vitelline envelope hardens bc of enzymes
SLOW BLOCK - starts 60 seconds after successful docking.
Chapter 11 The Animal-Like Protista
1. Define autotroph and heterotroph.
● Autotroph: feeds itself
● Heterotroph: eats other things for energy
2. Describe and compare the structure and function of flagella and cilia (including sliding microtubule
hypothesis for flagellar movement).
● Cilia - power stroke, recovery stroke, numerous, shorter
● Flagella - Undulates, single or small number
Dynein arms can move, crawl up the peripheral doublet, dynein arms use energy from ATPase to climb up
the doublet. Doublets climb up eachothers backs using dynein arms.
If nexin and radial spokes are not there, it would have elongated.
Chapter 14 The Acoelomate Bilateral Animals
1. List the general characteristics of platyhelminthes.
● Triploblastic (have endo, ecto, and mesoderm)
● protostomes (first opening becomes the mouth), bilaterally symmetric (only one plane breaks into equal
halves)
● head like structure
● don’t have respiratory or circulatory or skeletal system
● they are monecious (have male and female parts but can’t self fertilize)
● Parasitic
● acoelomate body plan (area around organs is filled with tissue called parenchyma)
2. How do become infected with the beef tapeworm.
●If you eat meat of an infected cow
● Eggs from gravid proglottids are released (in feces), a cow eats the grass, so it eats the eggs. The cow then
develops cysts in muscle, invaginated cysticercus evaginates and now has a scolex which allows it to attach
itself to the intestinal wall to start producing proglottids.
Chapter 15 Pseudocoelomate Animals
1. Explain the difference between a true coelom and pseudocoel.
● True coelom: a true coelom completely lines the body cavity with peritoneum
● Pseudocoel: the body cavity is only partially lined with peritoneum
2. How are humans infected by each of the following: Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis
(pinworm), Trichinella spiralis.
● Ascaris lumbricoides: ingesting roundworm eggs from the soil, if you don't wash your vegetables
well.
● Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm): poor hygiene, typically children get it
● Trichinella spiralis: undercooked pork, or undercooked meat
Chapter 16 - The Molluscs: Phylum Mollusca
1. List general features of phylum mollusca.
● Diverse
● Eucoelomate (space around heart)
● Protostome
● All organ systems
● Open circulatory system (lacking big capillaries between arteries and veins
● Head-foot body plan
● mantle
2. How do cephalopods differ from other molluscs?
● Cephalopods don't have an exoskeleton
Chapter 19 Trilobites, chelicerates, and myriapods
1. List characteristics of the phylum arthropoda?
● Jointed foot
● Phylum with greatest diversity
● Bilateral
● Protostomes-blastopore becomes mouth
2. How are members of the subphyla chelicerata, crustacean, myriopoda and hexapoda distinguished
from each other (think about antennae and number of legs)?
● Chelicerata-no antennae, 6 pair appendages, 4 pair walking legs
● Myriopoda-many legs, 2 pair legs per segment except first segment
● Crustacea-2 pair antennae
● Hexapoda-6 legs
Chapter 20 Crustaceans
Nothing here
Chapter 21 Hexapods
1. Describe the three tagmata (head, thorax, abdomen) of insects and the major function of each tagma.
● Head- sensory information
● Thorax-locomotion
● Abdomen-has the ovipositor in females to lay eggs
2. Explain the difference between direct development, holometabolous, and hemimetabolous
metamorphosis of insects including the stages of each.
● Holometabolous - goes through egg, larva, pupa, adult stages
● Hemimetabolous- goes through egg, nymph(larve), adult
● Direct - juvenile similar to adult but smaller
Chapter 23 The Chordates
1. List characteristics that describe the Phylum Chordata.
● Notochord
● b. Dorsal tubular nerve cord
● c. Post-anal tail
● d. Pharyngeal pouches/slits (becomes part of middle ear/eustachian cavity)
● e. Endostyle or thyroid gland-can become very different kinds of structures so
have different genes
Chapter 24 - The Fishes
1. Explain the purpose and function of swim bladder in bony fish. How is gas volume adjusted in the
swim bladder.
With swim bladder, has neutral buoyancy
b. Gas is adjusted descending by adding gas to get back to neutral by capillary loop and
gas gland produces lactic acid (makes hemoglobin let go of oxygen more easily)
c. Gas is adjusting ascending by removing gas and opens valve to ovale where gas
diffuses to blood
2. Describe the terms: oviparous, viviparous, and ovoviviparous and correctly associate the terms
gravid and pregnant to oviparous, viviparous, and ovoviviparous.
● Oviparous- lays eggs (gravid)
● Viviparous- have a placental contact between baby in womb and mother (pregnant)
● Ovoviviparous- retains eggs in a shell and keep in body until eggs are ready to hatch
● gravid-eggs inside before laid (gravid)
● Pregnant-placental contact
3. Compare concurrent and countercurrent flow in fish gills. Be able to illustrate how in countercurrent
systems you maintain a concentration gradient that favors movement of oxygen from the water to the
blood throughout the gill lamella.
● Fish have countercurrent flow in gills. Water flows in the opposite direction than blood in gills of
lamellae to get maximum oxygen saturation.
● If fish had concurrent flow, blood would go in the same direction as water. The blood would only
be able to get 50% saturated with oxygen.
Chapter 29 Support, Protection and movement
1. Review all steps for the muscle contraction.
● Step 1 (caused by calcium)
○ Troponin connection to actin weakened; troponin and tropomyosin move off
active sites on actin
○Myosin head in high energy state, used energy from ATP bound in last
contraction to do this (ATP→ ADP + P; from step 5; ADP + P bound to one
site on head; other site on head free to bind to actin)
○ Heads are in high potential energy state
○ Ca is initiator for contraction
● Step 2
○ Actin binding site on myosin head (cross bridge temporary chemical bond) binds
to active site on actin
● Step 3
○ Myosin head drops to low energy state (swivels toward M line) while attached to
actin, pulls (slides) actin filament toward M line, sarcomere shortens; ATP
binding site freed up because ADP + P released
○ Low energy to state (potential energy converted to kinetic energy)
○ Trigger pulled by release of ADP+P
● Step 4
○ ATP binds to freed myosin ATPase site
○ Myosin breaks bond with actin
○ When head breaks bond (off), there are other heads still attached
● Step 5
○ATP→ ADP + P (hydrolyzed), recocks myosin head to high energy state
because of energy from ATP
○ Role of titin-helps sarcomere go back to original length
● Extra information
○ Know the release of Calcium from the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
● Reversible binding-most interactions between biomolecules are reversible (weak
temporary bonds)
○ Calcium and troponin bond
Chapter 30 Homeostasis: Osmotic regulation, Excretion, and Temperature regulation
1. Contrast osmoregulation in a freshwater fish, saltwater fish, and shark.
● Freshwater fish: hyperosmotic regulator (keep and get salt) and (eliminate water). Body fluids are
saltier than surroundings. The solutes get pumped in the cells from the gills.
● Salt water fish: hypoosmtotic regulator (keep water, eliminate salt). Body fluids are less salty than
the surroundings. Solutes get pumped out of the cells in the gills.
● Sharks are hyperosmotic: they retain urea in the blood so that solute concentration is higher in the
body than surroundings. Urea is not associated with salt. Conc. only the solute conc.
2. Define the following terms homeothermy, ectothermy, endothermy, hypothermia.
● Poikilotherms- different name for ectotherms, has to use basking or burrowing to regulate its
body temperature
● Homeothermy-endotherms, maintains a stable internal internal body temp regardless of external
fluids, internal body temp often higher than surroundings
● Ectothermy - aka cold blooded heat energy comes from an external source. These creatures can
bask and burrow to regulate temp.
● Endothermy - warm-blooded. heat exchange through 4 processes in question above. Produces
heat mainly through metabolism but also can through muscle contraction
● Hypothermia - small birds and mammals. Some animals allow their body temp to drop to
conserve energy
3. Review the material associated with the nephron.
1. Renal corpuscle: fliuds are pushed out of blood into capsular space. Rapid filtration of
blood (water, urea, ions, nutrients) into capsular space.
2. Proximal convoluted tubule: fluids from capsular space go here. Variable reabsorption of
water ions and all nutrients. Made out of simple cuboidal epithelial tissue.
3. Loop of henle:
a. Water reabsorption (descending portion)
b. Nacl reabsorption (ascending portion)
4. Distal convoluted tubule: simple cuboidal epithelium. Variable reabsorption of Nacl
(under hormonal control)
5. Collecting ducts: goes from simple cuboidal to simple columnar. Variable reabsorption of
water.
a. Stuff that comes out of the collecting duct goes into calicles to the ureter, to the
bladder, to the urethra, then exits.
Chapter 31 Internal Fluids
1. Distinguish between open and closed circulatory systems and single vs double circulation.
● Open: no capillaries between arteries and veins
● Closed: have capillaries between arteries and veins
● Single circulation-blood exits the heart through capillaries then the blood goes systemically back
to the heart to exit. (blood does not come back to the heart without going through the whole
process first). Pressure drives the movement of blood and the ventricle and atrium are not divided
(fish)
● Double circulation-blood pumps through systemic system with oxygen. Then drops it off and then
goes through pulmonary back to the heart. Ventricle and atrium are divided. (mammals, birds,
crocs)
● Amphibians have a divided atrium but not ventricle
2. Determine, given an oxygen saturation curve for hemoglobin, how much oxygen would be delivered
for a particular scenario. What is the Bohr Effect and how does it affect the saturation curve? If given
saturation curves for other pigments like myoglobin, etc. determine which has the highest affinity.
● Oxygen delivered = difference in percentage between two given percentages or PO2’s.
● Bohr Effect-decrease in pH causes Hemoglobin to have reduced affinity for oxygen (makes the
curve decrease)
● Highest affinity-at a given PO2, which line is the highest (has the highest percentage)
○ Highest to lowest affinity: myoglobin, llama, human fetal, human maternal
3. Be able to trace blood flow through the heart including how valves preventing backflow and how
contraction is initiated and propagated through heart muscle
● Valves prevent backflow by being one way
● Contraction (SA node) is myogenic (contracts without an impulse from the nervous system)
● SA node has specialized muscle fibers that do not contract but rather initiate depolarization, the
depolarization spreads quickly so that both sides of the heart contract at the same time
● The atria: contract from the top down
● The ventricles: contract from the bottom up.
● SINGLE CIRCUIT
○ Blood exits the heart and goes through capillaries associated with structures that need
oxygen, blood goes systemically and back to the heart. Once blood exits the heart it
doesnt go back until it goes through the whole body.
● DOUBLE CIRCUIT
○
4. Be able to interpret the graph on the pressures (hydrostatic and osmotic) involved in movement of
materials out of and back into a capillary. Know why materials move out and then back into the
capillary and which substances are moving.
● Materials are pushed out when bp is higher than osmotic potential (electrolytes, hormones, water)
● Materials exit the arteriole side and return through the venule side
● What exits (arteriole side-what cell wants to keep): electrolytes, hormones, water)
● What returns (venule side-what cell wants to get rid of): CO2
● Exchange based on osmotic potential (due to retained proteins in the blood) and hydrostatic
pressure (pushing water out so volume of water declines)
5. Describe hemostasis.
●The process of forming a clot. When clotting factors are released, the inactive form of
prothrombin is converted to an active form called thrombin. Thrombin converts fibrinogen in the
blood to fibrin. Fibrin forms the meshwork.
6. Describe the basic anatomy of the respiratory system – mouth/nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli.
● Glottis-slit like opening on the floor of the pharynx, a valve that controls airflow in and out of the
respiratory passages which opens directly into the larynx
● Epiglottis-leaf shaped flap of cartilage located behind the tongue at the top of the larynx. Seals off
the windpipe during eating so that flood is not accidentally inhaled
● CO2 primarily controls the desire to breathe
● Muscles associated with breathing: diaphragm (inhale makes it contract, exhale makes it relax)
Chapter 33 Nervous Coordination
1. Review the all of the steps associated with the neuron action potential and synapse.
● Step 1: RMP pump, open K+ channel
● Step 2: some Na gates open so Na flows in, depolarization to threshold
● Step 3: AP, lots of Na gates open and spike of AP
● Step 4: Na closed (cant open), reached plug K+ open which repolarizes/hyperpolarizes. Pump is
kicking out sodium
● Step 5: return to resting membrane potential (RMP) by pump
2. Know the functional unit of a nervous system (neuron) and define three kinds of neurons (sensory;
motor, and interneurons)
● Neuron-nerve cell
3. Know the parts of a neuron (dendrites, cell body, axon).
4. Describe how the CNS integrates information.
5. List components of a reflex arc.
6. Name the major functions associated with the following brain structures: medulla, cerebellum,
hypothalamus, and cerebrum.
● Medulla- subconscious activity, involuntary functions, regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel
function, digestion, sneezing, swallowing
● Cerebellum-modifies; receives info from sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of the
brain and then regulates motor movements (voluntary)
● Hypothalamus-in the forebrain, ADH production, sets body temperature
● Cerebrum- in the forebrain, motor and sensory areas, higher thought processes
7. What are the 2 divisions of ANS, how are they distinguished from each other, and what activities do
they perform?
8. How do sensory receptors transmit their information - action potential or release of neurotransmitter
followed by an action potential?
9. Briefly describe each major type of receptor and what it responses to (chemoreceptors,
mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors, electroreceptors, itch receptors and
magnetoreceptors).
10. Outline place hypothesis of pitch discrimination in the human ear in distinguishing between sounds of
difference frequency (FM) as well as the basis of how the ear detects loudness of sound.
11. How is “intensity” of a sensory signal sent to the CNS? That is, how would your CNS distinguish a
warm temperature signal from a hot temperature signal?
Chapter 34 - Chemical Coordination
1. Define the following: hormone, endocrine, exocrine, target cell, 1st messenger, 2nd messenger.
● Hormone: chemical messenger that affects the target cell
● Endocrine: travels through bloodstream
● Exocrine: secrete products not hormones via ducts (sweat and saliva)
● target cell: the cell that’s affected by signal
● 1st messenger: An extracellular substance that binds to a receptor on the surface of the cell and
initiates a cellular activity.
● 2nd messenger: Intracellular signaling molecule released when the 1st messenger binds to the
receptor.
2. Distinguish between local and circulating hormones.
● Local: Hormones that do not circulate throughout the blood. Typically produced by nerve or
gland cells and bind to neighboring cells or the same type of cell. (histamine)
● Circulating: Hormones that go through the circulatory system (ADH, epinephrine)
3. Distinguish between water soluble and fat soluble hormones and their modes of action.
● Water soluble (polar) hormones - 1st messenger
○ Peptides/proteins
○ Don't cross the membrane easy because its polar
○ Bind to receptors on target cell surface, second messenger affects process in target cell.
○ Ex. Epinephrine
● Lipid soluble hormones (steroids)
○ Pass through the membrane
○ Bind w/ proteins in cytoplasm
○ Activate gene
○ Ex. Estrogen
○ 4. Describe the hormonal regulation of blood glucose levels and the maintenance of the
flight or fright response thru norepinephrine, epinephrine and cortisol.
● Beta cells - insulin
●Alpha cells - glucagon
●ABSORPTIVE PHASE - Increase in blood glucose: stimulates pancreas to secrete insulin, to the
body takes in glucose and decreases blood glucose
●POSTABSORPTIVE PHASE - decrease in blood glucose, stimulates pancreas to secrete
glucagon, increases circulating glucagon, breakdown of glycogen in the liver, release of glucose
to the blood.
● Fight or flight
○ 1st 5 minutes
■ the sympathetic NS releases norepinephrine, then the adrenals innervated
by the ANS release epinephrine (adrenaline)
■Then the adrenals innervated by the ANS release epinephrine (adrenaline)
■epinephrine/norepinephrine
■Goes into medulla and causes epinephrine and a little norepinephrine to be
released which keeps you in fight or flight (heightened) for 5 minutes
○ Beyond 5 minutes
■Cortisol (from adrenals) released, similar to epinephrine, blocks immune
response short term
