Research Paper: Hallucinations Hypothesis
Final Submission
Arrie Elizabeth Harlan
APOL 610: Miracles
August 13, 2023
Contents
I. Introduction .......................................................................................................................1
II. Hallucination Hypothesis..................................................................................................1
A. History of Hallucination Hypothesis.............................................................................1
1. They saw Jesus.........................................................................................................2
a. The Women and the Empty Tomb.....................................................................2
b. The Disciples’ Claims........................................................................................3
c. The Road to Emmaus.........................................................................................3
d. The Five Hundred..............................................................................................3
2. They were experiencing hallucinations...................................................................4
a. The disciples had experiences they believed to be the risen Jesus....................4
b. The record of the Holy Scriptures......................................................................4
c. Paul’s conversion...............................................................................................5
d. James’ conversion..............................................................................................5
B. Major Proponents of the Hallucination Hypothesis.......................................................6
1. David Friedrich Strauss............................................................................................6
2. Jack Kent..................................................................................................................6
3. Michael Goulder......................................................................................................7
4. Gerd Lüdemann.......................................................................................................7
C. Tenant of Theory............................................................................................................8
1. Psychological hypotheses/thesis..............................................................................8
a. Group hallucinations..........................................................................................8
b. Conversion Disorder..........................................................................................8
ii
2. Physical Theories.....................................................................................................9
a. “Swoon” theory..................................................................................................9
b. Theft...................................................................................................................9
c. Wrong Tomb......................................................................................................9
III. Analysis of Theories/Hypotheses in Light of Minimal Facts ........................................9
A. Jesus’ death via crucifixion............................................................................................9
1. Jesus never really died on the cross.........................................................................9
2. There is nothing in the Scriptures to discredit the crucifixion of Jesus.................10
B. Paul’s Conversion........................................................................................................11
1. According to the New Testament, Saul/Paul was not a follower of Jesus
and did not know him before his crucifixion.........................................................11
2. The Acts of the Apostles say that Paul’s conversion experience was an
Encounter with the resurrected Christ....................................................................11
C. James’ Conversion.......................................................................................................11
1. James had no religious link with his brother during Jesus’ lifetime......................11
2. Historian Josephus.................................................................................................12
IV. Conclusion........................................................................................................................12
V. Bibliography.....................................................................................................................15
iii
1
I. Introduction
The Resurrection of Jesus Christ is one of the five essential doctrines of the Christian
Faith revealed in the Scriptures. Without the Resurrection, there would be no Christianity.
Through the years, skeptics have discounted the fact of Resurrection by claiming that the
disciples and other eyewitnesses were hallucinating, going so far as to allude that the first
Christians experienced hallucinations of the risen Christ in one form or another. This paper will
argue that the hallucination theory cannot account for the resurrection sightings of Jesus Christ.
II. Hallucination Hypothesis
A. History of Hallucination Hypothesis.
The case for the historical Resurrection of Jesus will be defended in this paper by
considering the psychological hypotheses that the disciples and other witnesses were
hallucinating and whether or not there are theorists today that are capable of making statements
regarding the mentality of people from the first century.
There have been opponents of the Christian faith since it came into existence. Many
skeptics have posited various theories to disclaim the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. There was the
"stolen body theory" proposed by the Jewish religious leaders in Matthew's Gospel to the "swoon
theory" discussed by Habermas,
A similar natural explanation for the resurrection of Jesus was also given such a
natural explanation. For Paulus, Christ did not die on the cross. He was taken
down before death overcame him and later resuscitated gradually in the grave.
According to this conjecture, usually referred to as the “swoon theory” of the
resurrection, Paulus plainly conceived of this event as one operating by natural
processes. There was no Supernatural intervention involved. Thus Jesus was not
believed to have risen from the dead.1
1 Gary R. Habermas, Risen Indeed: A Historical Investigation Into the Resurrection of
Jesus. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2021. Accessed August 10, 2023. ProQuest
Ebook Central.
2
1. They Saw Jesus.
a. The Women and the Empty Tomb
The first eyewitnesses to the empty tomb were women, but there are several
conjectures about who those women were and how many were at the Empty Tomb. The Gospel
of Matthew indicates that Mary Magdalene and the other Mary go to the tomb near dawn on
Sunday (perhaps between 6:00 and 6:15 a.m.). Mark records that Mary Magdalene, Mary the
mother of James, and Salome buy spices after the Sabbath (Saturday night) and go early on
Sunday morning to the tomb to anoint Jesus's body in keeping with Jewish burial customs. Luke
records that Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary, the mother of James, and at least two other
unnamed women go to the tomb at early dawn on Sunday with the spices they had prepared.
John records that Mary Magdalene goes to the tomb while it is still dark Sunday morning, sees
the stone rolled away, and flees the scene to report what she has seen to the disciples.
Skeptics of Christianity have often denounced accounts of the Resurrection as
being contradictory. Even though the accounts of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John may not be
exactly alike, they do not contradict each other. Eyewitness accounts of unexpected and
supernatural events are what might be expected. The differences only serve to affirm the
truthfulness of the Resurrection. "If the disciples had stolen the body and created a conspiracy to
deceive the masses, they surely would have created more uniform accounts, and they most
certainly would not have posited women as the first eyewitnesses. In first-century Palestine, the
testimony of women was easily dismissed and carried little weight."2
b. The Disciples' Claims
2 Andreas J. Köstenberger and Justin Taylor, The Final Days of Jesus: The Most
Important Week of the Most Important Person Who Ever Lived, (Wheaton IL: Crossway
2014), 175-176.
3
The original disciples and many other eyewitnesses made multiple claims of
seeing the risen Jesus. Naturally, evangelical scholars take the relevant New Testament texts at
face value. The earliest of these is 1 Corinthians 15:3–8, in which Paul writes:
3 For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: that Christ
died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, 4 that he was buried, that he
was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures, 5 and that he
appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. 6 Then he appeared to more than five
hundred brothers at once, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen
asleep. 7 Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. 8 Last of all, as to
one untimely born, he appeared also to me.
c. The Road to Emmaus
Scripture records many appearances of Jesus following his death: In Luke
24:34, he appeared near Jerusalem to Peter (aka Cephas). On the road to Emmaus, in both Mark
16:12 and Luke 24:13-31, it is reported that he appeared to two disciples that day. That evening
at Jerusalem, he appeared to all the apostles except Thomas, as written in Mark 16:14 and John
20:19-25. On Sunday evening, he appeared at Jerusalem to all the apostles, including Thomas
(John 20:26-29). These scriptural accounts of Jesus' appearance to the disciples and others
continue through the New Testament until finally Revelation 1:9-19 recounts his appearance to
John on the island of Patmos.
d. The Five Hundred
Prior to his ascension into heaven, he made an appearance to over 500 people
at one time. The report did not mention a location in 1 Corinthians 15:6. He appeared to his
brother, James, according to 1 Corinthians 15:7. Luke and Acts both report his appearance at the
Mount of Olives near Bethany at the time of his ascension. (Luke 24-50-51, Acts 1:6-12)
4
After his ascension, he appeared to Stephen the martyr (Acts 7:55-56), and
perhaps the most notable appearance was to Saul on the road to Damascus, as mentioned in Acts
7:55-56.
2. They were experiencing hallucinations.
a. The Disciples had experiences they believed to be the risen Jesus.
The fact that the disciples and other eyewitnesses believed they had
experiences with the risen Savior is almost impossible to refute. Dr. Habermas, quoting Reginald
Fuller, asserts, "'That the experiences did occur, even if they are explained in purely natural
terms, is a fact upon which both believer and unbeliever may agree.'"3 Why did the disciples
believe they had seen Jesus resurrected? Habermas tells us that claims of seeing the post-
resurrection Jesus were made from the earliest times. "James D. G. Dunn is even more forceful.
He thinks that 'it is almost impossible to dispute' that the first Christians had "visionary
experiences" that cannot be explained as less than the disciples' belief that they had experienced
actual appearances of the risen Jesus."4
b. The record of the Holy Scriptures
There are multiple Scripture references to the appearances of Jesus.
Licona discusses a chart provided by Allison that details sequential parallels between the four
canonical Gospels and the tradition in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7, namely Jesus' death, burial,
Resurrection on the third day, appearances to individuals, and appearances to the eleven or
twelve disciples. The
3 Gary R. Habermas, “The Resurrection Appearances of Jesus” in In Defense of
Miracles: A Comprehensive Case for God’s Action in History, ed. R. Douglas Geivett and
Gary Habermas (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1997), 262–263.
4 Ibid., 263.
5
appearances are detailed in Matthew 28:9-10, 16-20; Mark 16:7, Luke 24:13-35; 24:36-51; John
20:11-18, 20:19-22, and 1 Corinthians 15:5a, 7a, 8, 15:5b, 7b.5
c. Paul's conversion
Some would consider the conversion of Paul (formerly Saul) one of the most
miraculous appearances. Paul, a Roman Pharisee, was a persecutor of the followers of Christ. He
would go into the homes of the alleged followers, remove them to the outside, and torture them,
sometimes to their death. He had the authority of the Roman government to place them in jail.
The first mention of Paul/Saul is in connection with Stephen's death in Acts 7:58: "And they cast
him out of the city and stoned him. Furthermore, the witnesses laid down their clothes at the feet
of a young man named Saul." His confession is in his Epistles: 1 Corinthians 15:9, "For I am the
least of the apostles, who am not worthy to be called an apostle because I persecuted the Church
of God." Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus is in Acts 9. He subsequently became one of
the most prominent supporters of Jesus Christ and is considered by some to be the best Christian
who ever lived, second only to his Lord and Savior.
d. James's conversion
James was doubtful of Jesus. James was Jesus' half-brother. Moreover, (like
Saul of Tarsus) James did not believe that Jesus was the Messiah. Look at what John tells us
about Jesus' brothers: "Jesus' brothers said to him, "Leave Galilee and go to Judea, so that your
disciples there may see the works you do. No one who wants to become a public figure acts in
secret. Since you are doing these things, show yourself to the world. For even his own brothers
did not believe in him." (John 7:3-5) As far as James was concerned, Jesus' execution on the
5 R. Douglas Geivett and Gary Habermas, eds., In Defense of Miracles: A
Comprehensive Case for God’s Action in History, (Downers, IL: IVP Academic, 1997),
12.
6
cross proved he was a messianic pretender. A few years later. We find that something has
changed. James is now a firm believer in Jesus. Paul tells us that he was even a leader in the
church, ranked with the apostles: "Then after three years, I went up to Jerusalem to get
acquainted with Cephas and stayed with him fifteen days. I saw none of the other apostles —
only James, the Lord's brother." (Galatians 1:18-19) James experienced some radical
transformation in his attitude toward Jesus. 1 Corinthians 15:7 tells us what caused the
change. Jesus appeared to James after his Resurrection. That is, James had a private visitation
from Jesus.
B. Major Proponents of the Hallucination Hypothesis
1. David Friedrich Straus
Strauss replaced the rationalist method with a mythical strategy that
questioned many Gospel reports concerning the historical Jesus. He held that the Gospels were
mythological, depicting transcendental ideas in seemingly historical garb to articulate essentially
inexpressible truths. This mythical approach popularized by Strauss and others denied the
essential historicity of the Gospels. It also undermined earlier rationalist strategies since they
assumed the factual reliability of much of the Gospels.6
2. Jack Kent
According to Habermas, another believer, the hallucination theory explains the claims of
all the disciples and the Apostle Paul and James, the brother of Jesus. "Kent combines two
naturalistic theories to explain the resurrection appearances of Jesus. They experienced 'normal,
grief-related hallucinations."7
6 R. Douglas Geivett and Gary Habermas, eds., In Defense of Miracles: A
Comprehensive Case for God’s Action in History, (Downers, IL: IVP Academic, 1997),
12.
7 Gary Haberman, “Explaining Away Jesus’ Resurrection,” 107.
7
3. Michael Goulder
Habermas has this to say about Goulder. "Michael Goulder applies similar
reasoning to his hallucination theory, explaining the experiences of Peter, Paul, and some of the
others. It is his conjecture that the two men suffered from what he calls "conversion visions" or
hallucinations produced during times of great stress, guilt, and self-doubt. Peter, who had denied
Jesus, and Paul, the great Christian persecutor, experienced a new orientation to life – a
transformation leading to 'subsequent heroism and martyrdom.'"8
4. Gerd Lüdemann
One final proponent is mentioned because he is more modern to the theology
of the Resurrection. Gerd Ludemann in his book titled, The Resurrection of Christ: A Historical
Inquiry (2004), discusses how it is the man Jesus came to be thought of as God. Habermas
mentions Lüdeman in his book The Risen Jesus & Future Hope, Habermas says, “Even
Lüdemann states: “I do not question the physical nature of Jesus’ appearance from heaven Paul
… asserts that Christians will receive a transformed physical body like the one that the heavenly
man Christ has.”9
Lüdemann is an important and interesting scholar. He was a professor of New Testament
at Göttingen in Germany and, for a number of years, split his time between there and Vanderbilt
Divinity School in Nashville. He is a major figure in scholarship and is noteworthy for not being
a Christian. He does not believe Jesus was literally, physically raised from the dead, and he
thinks that apart from belief in Jesus’ physical resurrection, it is not possible for a person to be
Christian.
8 Ibid. 3.
9 Gary R. Habermas, The Risen Jesus & Future Hope, (Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2003), 157.
8
C. Tenet of Theory
1. Psychological hypotheses/theories
a. Group Hallucinations
The Group Hallucination Theory is the idea that argues sightings of Jesus by his
followers were not actual appearances but were rather mass hallucinations. David Strauss
popularized this theory in his book A New Life of Jesus, published in two volumes in 1879.
Doug Powell states, "The hallucination theory claims that in the midst of their profound grief, the
disciples and other followers of Jesus experience hallucinations in which they saw him raised
from the dead."10
b. Conversion Disorder
The theory of Conversion Disorder is "a psychological condition
characterized by such physical symptoms as blindness or paralysis in the absence of specific
neurological or medical causes."11 In 1 Corinthians 9:1, 1 Corinthians 15:8, and Galatians 1, Paul
writes saying he saw Jesus. A conversion disorder on Paul's part does not refute Jesus'
Resurrection for several crucial reasons. Among other things, Paul's character does not meet the
criteria for conversion psychosis. Second, conversion disorder cannot account for the empty
tomb. Even if the disorder were possible, it would not explain the disciples' accounts of the
appearance of Jesus.12
2. Physical Theories
a. "Swoon" theory
10 Doug Powell, Holman Quick Source Guide to Christian Apologetics (Nashville, TN:
Holman Bible Publishers, 2006), 278.
11
Gary Habermas, “Explaining Away Jesus’ Resurrection,” 3.
12 Ibid., 114.
9
Literature is full of claims that the Resurrection of Jesus did not occur because
he was still alive when he was removed from the cross and was only pretending to be dead.
These allegations are known as 'the swoon theory' because every assertion shares the same
theme. Jesus was not dead; he was in either an unconscious state or a coma.
b. Theft
Some critics have claimed that someone stole the body of Jesus from the
tomb after it was placed there.
c. Wrong Tomb
Finally, some allege that the women and others went to the wrong tomb and
found it empty.
III. Analysis of Theories/Hypotheses in Light of Minimal Facts
A. Jesus' death via crucifixion
1. Jesus never really died on the cross.
Either they thought he was dead and took him down, or they intentionally took
him down before he died. Strauss claims that "the historicity of Jesus' Resurrection cannot be
objective but instead subjective. Paul's testimony cannot be trusted because it is not concise
enough."13
Strauss further states, "But in fact, the testimony of Paul, which is intrinsically
consistent and is otherwise most important, is so general and vague, that taken by itself, it does
not carry us beyond the subjective fact, that the disciples were convinced of the resurrection of
Jesus…."14 further, Strauss asserts, "and in general their account of the life of Jesus after his
resurrection is not one which has connection and unity, presenting a clear historical idea of the
13 David F. Strauss and George Elliot, The Life of Christ, Critically Examined,
(Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 365.
14 David F. Strauss and George Elliott, The Life of Jesus, 365.
10
subject, but a fragmentary compilation, which presents a series of visions, rather than a
continuous history."15 Strauss' use of the term 'visions' is his way of emphasizing what he
considers as contradictions in the Gospels; Strauss alleged that it was only myths and that nature
could explain them away.
2. There is nothing in the Scriptures to discredit the crucifixion of Jesus. The death
of Christ was a traumatic event, but crucifixions were very common during Roman oppression,
so would the disciples be traumatized by the sight? Also, the disciples' visions must have been
compelling to cause others to believe what they saw. In a forensic study of the crucifixion of
Jesus, Frederick Zugibe comments, "A large, square, spikelike, rusty nail made of iron and
measuring about 12 centimeters (about 4 ¾ inches) was nailed through the palm of the hand just
below the bulge at the base of the thumb and into the crosspiece."16 Regardless of where one
believes the wounds of Jesus' hands, this case has a testimony of the disciples validating those
wounds! John depicts an instance where the apostle Thomas denies the Resurrection of Jesus and
proclaims that he would need to see the wounds in his master's hands before he could believe the
news. John 20:27 states, "Then He said to Thomas, "Put your finger here and observe My hands.
Reach out your hand and put it into my side. Do not be an unbeliever, but a believer."
15
Ibid.
16
Frederick Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus, Completely Revised and Expanded:
A Forensic Inquiry (New York, NY: M. Evans & Company, 2005), 66.
11
B. Paul's Conversion
1. According to the New Testament, Saul/Paul was not a follower of Jesus and
did not know him before his crucifixion.
The first chapter of Paul's epistle to the Church in Corinth is the classic
chapter on the Resurrection. In it, Paul argues the whole subject of the Resurrection from the
dead—a teaching that some in the church at Corinth had been questioning. In his own words,
Paul writes, "For I am the least of the apostles, that am not meet to be called an apostle, because I
persecuted the church of God." (1 Corinthians 15:9)
2. The Acts of the Apostles say that Paul's conversion experience was an
encounter with the resurrected Christ.
The Acts of the Apostles say that Paul's conversion experience was an encounter with
the Resurrected Christ. "Saul's later recollections of this event include additional conversations
with Jesus, and at some point during their discourse, Jesus physically manifested Himself to Saul
(Acts 9:17, 27). It is from this revelation of the risen Lord that Saul will later derive his claim to
apostolic authority (1 Cor 9:1). Luke succinctly ends this monumental encounter with Jesus
commanding Saul to go into Damascus as planned and await further instruction."17
C. James' Conversion
1. James had no religious link with his brother during Jesus' lifetime.
Even though the New Testament does not explicitly state that James was a
non-believer of Christ, in John 7:5, it is revealed that "For neither did his brethren believe in
him." Galatians 1:19 refers to James as "the Lord's Brother."
17 Steven Ger, Acts: Witnesses to the World, ed. By Mal Couch and Ed Hindson,
(Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers 2004) 136.
12
2. Historian Josephus
According to the gospels and historians, Josephus was the brother of Jesus
Christ. He was also radically converted after allegedly witnessing the risen Jesus. Paul indicates
in 1 Corinthians 15:7, referring to the risen Jesus, that "After that, he was seen of me also."
James is identified as the leader of the Christian community in Jerusalem. Considering all of this
scripture, most scholars believe that James is the Lord's brother, that he did not believe in Jesus
during his lifetime but was converted when he experienced the appearance of Jesus after his
crucifixion.18
IV. Conclusion
In conclusion, enough evidence is provided to lay waste to the hallucination theory.
History and credible witness accounts prove that the Resurrection of Jesus is true. No other
vision theories can withstand the historical evidence coupled with the disciples' testimony. Kreeft
and Tacelli list thirteen arguments that refute the hallucination theory and, as argument two, state,
"These witnesses were simple, honest, moral people who had firsthand knowledge of the
facts."19 In defense of the disciples, Dr. Gary Habermas explains,
When alternative explanations fail to explain the known data, the impressive
evidences that established the disciples' experiences as firmly as anything in the
New Testament now become impressive evidence for the Resurrection
appearances themselves. So given a reasonable explanation, the disciples'
experience in light of the failure of alternatives indicates that the disciples were
vindicated: they witnessed the Resurrection appearances of Jesus.20
The hallucination theory would only serve to explain the appearance of the risen Jesus.
The theory could never explain the empty tomb; the stone rolled away, and the lack of a corpse.
18 Michael Martin, The Case Against Christianity, (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University,
1991), 91-92.
19
Peter Kreeft and Ronald K. Tacelli, Pocket Handbook of Christian Apologetics,
(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 74.
20 Gary R. Habermas and Antony G. N. Flew, ed. John F. Ankerberg, Resurrected?: An
Atheist and Theist Dialogue, 2005), 93.
13
As far as we know, these are not hallucinations as they actually occur; arguably,
the hallucinations that would occur if the perceptual system and brain were
stimulated in just the way they are stimulated in genuine perception, but directly
and not by the usual external objects. This would give, it is supposed, a
hallucination indistinguishable to the subject from the corresponding perception,
which is not the case, at least in general, for hallucinations as they occur.21
The disciples and other early followers believed Jesus had died on the cross. He did rise
from the dead and was seen by his disciples. Paul's testimony is enough evidence to substantiate
the claim beyond any doubt. The first Christians confidently believed that Jesus died, was indeed
buried, and arose from the dead and appeared to his disciples. The testimony of Paul alone is
sufficient to convince us, beyond any reasonable doubt, that these facts were supported by the
testimonies of the eyewitnesses, the best authority imaginable. (1 Corinthians 15:14-15, 17 NIV)
And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless, and so is your faith.
More than that, we are then found to be false witnesses about God, for we have
testified about God that he raised Christ from the dead. But he did not raise him if,
in fact, the dead are not raised. For if the dead are not raised, then Christ has not
been raised either. And if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile; you are
still in your sins.
J.P. Moreland observes, "Remember, they believed in the existence of hell and the God of
the Old Testament, and they were not about to lie in this way. People often die for mistaken
beliefs, which is not what we have here. We have people dying for something they saw, heard,
and physically touched. That is very different."22
The evidence submitted may not prove that God raised Jesus from the dead according to
"historical-critical" methods. However, we Christians can believe it without lessening our
intellect or moral integrity. "Today, Christians do not simply worship Jesus out of sentimental
memory or religious admiration, but out of a committed belief that he is alive and that we who
21
Fiona Macpherson and Dimitris Platchias, eds. Hallucination: Philosophy and
Psychology, (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2013), 313.
22 J. P. Moreland, Love your God with All your Mind, Revised and Updated, (Colorado,
CO: NavPress 2012), 137.
14
are united to him by faith will enjoy the resurrections of our own, just like his."23 It is an easy
choice to stand firm in our faith, in all the promises of God, or we can choose to listen to false
prophets who only want to kill, steal and destroy.
23
Jared C. Wilson, Unparalleled: How Christianity’s Uniqueness Makes it
Compelling, (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2016), 161-162.
15
V. Bibliography
Geivett, R. Douglas, and Gary Habermas, eds., In Defense of Miracles: A Comprehensive
Case for God’s Action in History, Downers, IL: IVP Academic, 1997.
Ger, Steven, Acts: Witnesses to the World, ed. by Mal Couch and Ed Hindson,
Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers 2004.
Habermas, Gary R., “The Resurrection Appearances of Jesus” in In Defense of Miracles:
A Comprehensive Case for God’s Action in History, eds. R. Douglas Geivett and
Gary Habermas Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1997.
Habermas, Gary R., The Risen Jesus & Future Hope, Lanham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2003.
Habermas, Gary R., Risen Indeed: A Historical Investigation Into the Resurrection of
Jesus. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2021. Accessed August 10, 2023.
ProQuest Ebook Central.
Habermas, Gary R., and Antony G. N. Flew, ed. John F. Ankerberg, Resurrected?: An
Atheist and Theist Dialogue, Los Angeles, CA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers
2005.
Köstenberger, Andrew J. and Justin Taylor, “The Final Days of Jesus: The Most
Important Week of the Most Important Person Who Ever Lived,” Wheaton IL:
Crossway 2014.
Martin, Michael, The Case Against Christianity, Philadelphia, PA: Temple University,
1991.
Macpherson, Fiona and Dimitris Platchias, eds. Hallucination: Philosophy and Psychology,
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2013.
Moreland, J. P., Love your God with All your Mind, Revised and Updated, Colorado, CO:
NavPress 2012.
Powell, Doug, Holman Quick Source Guide to Christian Apologetics Nashville, TN: Holman
Bible Publishers, 2006.
Strauss, David F., and George Elliott, The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined Cambridge,
MA: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Wilson, Jared C., Unparalleled: How Christianity’s Uniqueness Makes it Compelling,
Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2016.
16
Zugibe, Frederick, “The Crucifixion of Jesus, Completely Revised and Expanded: A Forensic
Inquiry,” New York, NY: M. Evans & Company, 2005.
