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MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES FOR CULTURE-BASED
INLAND WATER FISHERIES AND FRESHWATER
PROTECTED AREAS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
WPC 480 - STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
SPRING 2024
Introduction:
Inland fisheries is a sector that contributes importantly to people's lives, especally in
fulfilling food needs and family income. Research conducted by Abell et al. (2007) and
Mcintyre et al. (2016) revealed that the level of nutritional dependence of the population on
inland fisheries in developing countries (with a gross domestic product (GDP) of less than
US$4,800 per year) is 81%. For developing countries, inland fisheries contribute to
maintaining food and economic security, especially in rural communities due to the small-
scale and rural nature of inland fisheries (Fisher et al. 2017; Lynch et al. 2017). Countries in
Asia and Africa, including Indonesia, are major producers of fish caught from inland waters.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in The State of Fisheries and Aquaculture
(SOFIA) 2022 reported that the contribution of fish catch from inland waters in the Asian and
African continents in 2020 was 91% (FAO 2022). Indonesia ranks 6th in the world with a
contribution of 4% in the production of inland water fish catches. Based on fisheries statistics
in 2010-2018, the main provinces producing inland fish in Indonesia are: South Sumatra,
South Kalimantan and North Sumatra, which contributed 17%, 14%, and 14% respectively
(KKP 2020). Most Indonesians consume fish as the main source of animal protein that is
cheap, high quality and easily accessible, especially for rural communities.
Inland waters also play a crucial ecological role and serve as ecosystem buffers.
Covering less than 1% of the Earth's surface, they harbor about 18,000 species of fish, or
about 51% of all identified fish species (Fricke et al. 2018). A decline in fish biomass in
inland waters will have a cascading effect on other organisms, including terrestrial animals
and plants, which will ultimately reduce the overall productivity of the ecosystem. Inland
waters influence the downstream flow of critical materials, which are important sources of
feed and nutrients for agriculture in a broad sense (Allan et al. 2005; Estes et al. 2011; Garcia
et al. 2012). Fisheries activities in the inland waters of peat swamps are important in
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preventing forest and land fires. FAO (2016) reported that the implementation of the "Beje
aquaculture and inland fisheries on tropical peatland of Indonesia" activity in Kalimantan
has proven successful in maintaining peat wetness so as to prevent and limit the spread of
fires on peatlands.
Ogan Komering Ilir (OKI) is a district in South Sumatra Province where inland
fisheries contribute 20% of the province's total production. The area of OKI Regency, which
is mostly lowland (70% of the total area), makes inland waters have multiple functions, used
as a means of transportation, irrigation, agriculture, and settlement. Communities in the OKI
district have long depended on fisheries from inland waters as an important source of food
and income from fishing activities.
The pattern of inland fisheries management in South Sumatra Province, especially in
OKI District, is carried out by means of auctions, which provide exclusive f i s h i n g rights
on an object to the highest bidder. The local government of OKI District considers auctions to
be a means of fisheries management that is able to reduce conflicts over resources over
common property resources as well as a source of income for the region from auction
proceeds. The auction is known as the lebak lebung and river auction (L3S). Auction
activities are carried out at the end of each year to determine the winner of the auction who
has the right to monopolize the capture of the auction object for the following year.
The L3S system in practice has resulted in several ecological and social problems.
Various reports state that the decline in fish resources is increasingly massive, as seen by the
decreasing catch of fish, the size of the fish decreases and some species are already difficult
to catch (Giesen 1994; Utomo and Samuel 2017; Nurdawati et al. 2019; Husnah et al. 2020).
Economic drivers have led the L3S to change fisheries governance from a traditional system
to a more commercial and exclusive mechanism, resulting in declining fish resources and
reduced community access to resources. Interventions in fisheries management in L3S
regimes are needed to address the resulting problems.
Culture-Based Fisheries (CBF) and Freshwater Protected Area (FPA) features are
considered suitable for integration in the L3S system. CBF and FPA are sustainable inland
fisheries management strategies. CBF combines aquaculture techniques with natural
fisheries, where fish raised in hatcheries are released into public waters to increase fish
stocks and production (De Silva 2015). FPAs are conservation zones in freshwater that aim to
protect biodiversity and ecosystems (Suski and Cooke 2007). CBF and FPA, which have
been successfully implemented in various countries (especially developing countries), can
increase fish production and biodiversity, while ensuring that local communities continue to
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have access to and benefit from aquatic resources (Srinoparatwatana and Hyndes 2011; Nurul
Islam et al. 2014). CBF will play a role in restocking fish resources through the stocking of
community-reared fry. FPAs will focus on protecting fish habitats and species, providing
space for them to breed and grow naturally. The two approaches are complementary, with
CBF focusing on increasing fish production and FPA on protecting fish habitats and species,
maintaining a balance between resource utilization and environmental conservation.
Problem Formulation
The decline of fish resources in OKI District has been a serious concern in recent years.
OKI District is an area that is mostly inland waters, which relies on fisheries as one of the
main sources of food and income for the community society. This decline in fish resources is
not only an economic issue, but also a social and cultural one. Fish is not only a source of
income, but also an important part of the diet and culture of local communities. Losing access
to fish resources means losing part of a local community's identity and traditions (Yenrizal
2017).
The phenomenon of declining fish resources in inland waters is a problem caused by
many factors (Arlinghaus et al. 2002; Zhang et al. 2020), including herbicide pollution of
waters (Jubaedah et al. 2015; Bojarski and Witeska 2020; Yang et al. 2021), land conversion
for plantations and industrial forests (Martin and Winarno 2010; Miettinen et al. 2016; Austin
et al. 2017; Kusratmoko et al. 2017), climate change (Lorenzen 2014; Ruiz-Díaz et al. 2020),
and invasion of alien species (Cambray 2003). In addition to the above causes contributing to
the decline of fish resources, the practice of the L3S system has played a significant role in
exacerbating the situation in OKI District. The L3S system, which grants exclusive fishing
rights to auction winners, indirectly encourages overfishing and destructive fishing practices
(Pramoda 2011; Prianto et al. 2013; Setiawan 2014). Auction winners, in an effort to
maximize profits from their exclusive rights, often use destructive fishing gear and
overexploit fish stocks.
The problems of declining fish resources and loss of access for communities in OKI
need to be addressed with strategic interventions that take into account complex ecological,
social and economic dynamics. The long-entrenched L3S system in the region requires a
sensitive and inclusive approach, given the resistance that may arise from changing
management regimes. It is important to further examine the dynamics, practices and actors
within L3S, particularly those driving social-ecological damage and risk. A deeper
understanding of the ecological characteristics and dynamics of inland fisheries in OKI is
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needed to ensure appropriate interventions.
The process of refining the inland fisheries management model in OKI District was
carried out by accommodating various interests and aspects (ecological, economic, and
social), including maintaining the auction system that is the hallmark of inland waters
management in OKI. The auction system is considered acceptable by important actors at the
kabupaten, kecamatan and local community levels. Community acceptance is key to the
implementation of resource management rules/institutions (Prasetiamartati et al. 2006). In
addition, the fishing regulations and access rights stipulated in the L3S Perda will be
appropriate and can be implemented in conjunction with stock enhancement efforts using the
CBF system and conservation in the FPA system. CBF allows fish stock enhancement
through planned restocking involving the community, while FPA provides sanctuary for fish,
especially during the spawning and nurturing cycles.
Farming patterns such as CBF in inland waters can make a significant contribution to
catches and can be practiced in a sustainable manner sustainable and mutually supportive with
conservation efforts (FPA) (Rab et al. 2006; Silvano et al. 2009; Musinguzi et al. 2019).
Different from other aquaculture activities that strictly control the environment (container),
CBF is an aquaculture pattern to increase the production of natural waters by releasing fish in
public waters to develop utilizing natural food until harvested at a specified size (De Silva
2015). CBF and FPA are fisheries resource recovery plans with two methods, namely through
stocking and natural recruitment. This approach will lead to an increase in fish abundance
and diversity, which will have multiple effects. For fishing right holders, this improvement
will increase catches. Communities will get a share by producing fry and other features in
CBF and FPA. For the government, there is an opportunity for increased local revenue from
auction proceeds due to increased catches (Figure 1).
Aquaculture plays a role in sustainably increasing fish production, which is vital given
the increasing pressure on aquatic fish stocks (wild fish) due to overfishing and
environmental change. Aquaculture systems allow fish production to be maintained or even
increased without putting additional burden on wild fish populations through intensification
of fishing. The combination of aquaculture and conservation is expected to create a balanced
approach between production and protection. This not only supports the sustainability of
inland fisheries, but also ensures that the economic and environmental needs of local
communities are met (Arlinghaus et al. 2002). The combination of CBF and FPA helps in
building inland fisheries systems that are more resilient, adaptive, and able to meet future
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challenges, including climate change and increased demand for resources. Aquaculture and
conservation are part of the principles of fisheries management in inland waters listed in "Ten
Steps to Responsible Inland Fisheries" (FAO and MSU 2016).
. Inland Waters:
Inland waters are waters that do not belong to individuals and/or corporations, which
are measured from the line of the lowest tide of sea water to land. The term inland waters is
used in the Regulation of the Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (Permen KP)
Number 9 of 2020 concerning the State Fisheries Management Area of the Republic of
Indonesia in Inland Waters (WPPNRI-PD). Before the Permen-KP on WPPNRI-PD was
issued, the term widely used was inland public waters (PUD). The term PUD was agreed
upon at the General Waters Forum II scientific meeting in 2005 in Palembang, to homogenize
the term that refers to the translation of "inland waters" (Kartamihardja et al. 2009;
Prisantoso and Muthmainnah 2016). In addition to inland waters and PUD, other terms also
used are inland waters and public waters. The term inland waters first appeared in the Basic
Agrarian Law, article 1 paragraph 5, which reads: "The definition of water includes both
inland waters and the sea of the Indonesian territory". The term inland waters is not further
explained, but is a distinction of waters from the sea (RI 1960; Satria 2010). Meanwhile,
public waters is a term used to refer to water bodies located on land. This definition can be
seen in the tasks and functions of the Public Waters Fisheries Research and Fisheries
Extension Agency (BRPPUPP), which focuses on inland public waters (BRPPUPP, 2020).
Indonesia's inland waters cover about 53 million hectares, consisting of swamps, rivers,
lakes, reservoirs, lagoons, canals and dams (Muthmainnah et al. 2019). The connection
between rivers and swamps in lowland areas is very high. During the rainy season, rivers
overflow and create floodplains (known as flooded swamps) and during the peak of the rainy
season, swamps are usually connected. During the dry season, the water dries up, creating a
land barrier between the river and the swamp, so fish that are carried away during floods or
migrate to travel are trapped in the flooded swamp.
The distribution of fish in inland waters follows the distribution pattern of the Wallace
and Weber lines which divide based on the Sunda Exposure area, the Wallace area and the
Sahul Exposure. Examples of fish in the Sunda Shelf flood swamp are gabus (Channa spp),
lais (Kryptopterus spp), belida (Notopterus spp), sepat (Trichogaster spp), tambakan
(Helestoma spp), betok (Anabas spp), and catfish (Clarias spp). Fishes that inhabit inland
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water habitats consist of whitish and black fish groups. Putihan fish, as the name suggests, are
brightly colored and inhabit swamp waters only for spawning. During the rainy season, when
river waters flood and inundate the lowlands around the river, putihan fish migrate to swamps
with lots of vegetation such as kumpai and bushes. These vegetated waters are the spawning
ground and nursery ground for the fish. Blackfish (such as gabus, betok, catfish), on the other
hand, inhabit swamps for their entire life cycle. Migration Blackfish migrate laterally, from
flooded swamps to deep lebak swamps and occasionally to mainstream rivers (Welcomme
2001). Fish abundance will increase during the shallow water season in forested swamps,
deep lebak (lebung) and rivers. This is due to the influence of increasing density of fish in the
water due to decreasing water volume, fish trapped due to the emergence of land during low
tide and the influence of fish migration from swamp to river. Whereas in the open swamp
type, the season has no effect due to the predation factor, where in the open swamp there are
many predatory fish that affect the abundance of fish.
Fish resources in flooded marshes are predominantly species with high mortality and
slow growth (Pianka 1970). The annual flood cycle allows the biota of flooded marshes to
increase production with additional range space and essential nutrients brought by run-off for
spawning and rearing needs and to decrease mortality rates with a wide choice of inundated
habitats to explore, as they have better water quality conditions, more abundant food, and
means of hiding from predators (Bayley 1995).
Culture-Based Fisheries (CBF)
CBF is a fisheries management approach that integrates aquaculture principles in
capture fisheries with community-based natural resource management. It is designed to
increase fish production in natural ecosystems such as lakes, reservoirs, rivers, or swamps
where fish are stocked and allowed to grow in their natural environment (De Silva 2015). In
contrast to more controlled traditional aquaculture, CBF utilizes natural habitats for fish
growth, often with little or no artificial feed inputs. CBF involves stocking fish fry that have
been selected and adapted to the local ecosystem. Management in CBF includes species
selection, timing of fry stocking, and monitoring of fish health and growth. This approach
aims to achieve sustainable growth of fish populations that can be harvested by local
communities or fishers.
The main benefits of CBF include a significant increase in fish production, especially in
less productive inland waters, as well as support for ecosystem sustainability. CBF also
provides economic and social benefits to local communities, such as increased food sources
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and income, especially from various features within the CBF. Community can get involved in
activities hatcheries to produce fry, their management and management, as well as
monitoring activities to ensure that the rules are implemented by all stakeholders. The main
challenge in CBF is to ensure a balance between fish production and ecosystem
sustainability, as well as a good understanding of local ecology and fish population dynamics.
Community-based management in CBF has proven to yield encouraging ecological,
economic and social benefits. Factors such as clear ecological boundaries, involvement of
local actors, and awareness of the local ecosystem are important community about the
declining state of the fishery, as well as harmonious relationships between communities,
authorities and academia are key to success (Gutiérrez et al. 2011; Gianelli et al. 2018).
Community-based management strengthens community ownership of fish resources and
encourages responsible fishing.
Globally, the implementation of CBF has been successfully implemented in many
countries. In Bangladesh, community-based fisheries management has been implemented
since 1995, demonstrating that this management pattern can be practiced in almost all types
of waters (Thompson et al. 2003; Rab 2009; Nurul Islam et al. 2014). Local communities
have practiced sustainable fisheries management by creating sanctuaries, protecting fish from
illegal and destructive fishing, and stocking extinct native fish.
Integrating the principles of aquaculture, capture fisheries and community-based
management, CBF offers a holistic solution to the problems of overfishing and habitat
degradation, while improving the welfare of fisheries-dependent communities. The CBF
approach underscores the importance of involving local communities in fisheries resource
management, ensuring resource sustainability, and strengthening the economic and social
well-being of local communities (Berkes 2007).
Freshwater Protected Area (FPA)
FPAs are conservation zones intended to protect freshwater ecosystems and their
associated biodiversity. FPAs cover various types of freshwater environments, including
rivers, lakes, swamps and wetlands. The main objectives of FPAs are to conserve freshwater
habitats that are important for the survival of various species, maintain water quality, and
ensure the sustainability of ecosystem functions. Conservation areas provide protection for
fish, especially during spawning and rearing cycles. The protection provided by conservation
areas allows enough fish resources to replace the fish that die and are caught by the
community.
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The fish resource conservation approach is carried out through ecosystem conservation,
fish species conservation and fish genetics conservation. Conservation of fish resources is an
effort to protect, preserve and utilize fish resources, including ecosystems, species and
genetics to ensure their existence, availability and sustainability while maintaining and
improving the quality of the value and diversity of f is h resources. Conservation ecosystem
is efforts protect, preserve, to protect, conserve, and utilize ecosystem functions as a habitat for
aquatic biota life support at present and in the future. Conservation of fish species is an effort
to protect, conserve, and utilize fish resources, to ensure the existence, availability, and
sustainability of f i s h species for present and future generations. Fish genetic conservation is
an effort to protect, conserve, and utilize fish resources, to ensure the existence, availability,
and sustainability of fish genetic resources for present and future generations.
Ecosystem conservation can be done by establishing marine protected areas. The
definition of marine protected areas based on Government Regulation No. 60/2007 on Fish
Resources Conservation is "protected water areas, managed with a zoning system, to realize
sustainable management of fish resources and the environment". The management of marine
protected areas is carried out with a management plan that contains the zoning of the area.
Zoning of marine protected areas consists of core zones, sustainable fisheries zones,
utilization zones, and other zones. Marine protected areas can be carried out in all types of
waters, both at sea and inland public waters.
FPAs are partitions of inland water areas that are established to minimize disturbance
and allow for natural processes in the ecosystem. FPAs are defined as "clearly defined
geographic spaces that are recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other
effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem
services and cultural values" (IUCN 2008). Inland marine protected areas are key to
balancing conservation, economic and social activities (Hannah et al. 2019). According to the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), FPAs can be divided into seven
(7) management categories, based on the activities that can be carried out in the area. These
categories are:
Category: Nature Reserves. Human access is strictly controlled with the aim of
conserving biodiversity and/or protecting landscape/waterscape features.
Category Ib: Forest Area. Generally applied to areas with low to no anthropogenic
impact. Limited human access to preserve natural conditions.
Category II: National Park. Applied to large areas to preserve large-scale ecosystem
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processes and features. Human activities are permitted under regulatory guidelines.
May contain areas of strict protection resembling Categories 1a, 1b.
Category III: National Monuments or Features. Applied to specific locations that
represent significant natural or cultural features or monuments to preserve the country.
Human traffic is regulated, but generally high volume.
Category IV: Habitat/Species Management Areas. Applies to local areas that are
protected to promote the restoration, conservation of calls or maintenance of specific
species or habitats. Human traffic is generally uncontrolled.
Category V: Protected Landscapes / Seascapes. Applies to land and marine areas with
distinct scenic and cultural features where traditional land uses have played a role in
maintaining the integrity of the system. Maintenance of current human uses is the goal
of this category.
Category VI: Protected Areas with Sustainable Resource Use. Applies generally to
large, natural areas with the objective of maintaining sustainable use of natural
resources sustainable and low-level industrial use. Human traffic is usually
uncontrolled. It is advisable to use "do not take" zones.
Determining effective FPA areas is one of the keys to success, including looking at fish
migration patterns and supporting habitats. The meeting point of the majority of fish is the
most effective area to be used as an FPA area (Bower et al. 2015). Co-location scenarios or
joint use between interests in one zone/area, can be a solution to accommodate various
interests and minimize trade-offs between these interests (Yates et al. 2015).
The failure of protected area implementation in various studies is mainly due to socio-
political issues that are not accommodated proportionally. Failure is seen in unprotected fish
migration, unimproved ecological conditions mainly due to the absence of changes from the
influx of external flows (both aquatic and terrestrial pollution and anthropogenic practices) to
the absence of notable differences in fish resources between PA and non-PA zones including
fish biomass, fish species, fish size and density (Saunders et al. 2002; Srinoparatwatana and
Hyndes 2011; Hermoso et al. 2016). Research looking at the effects and impacts of well-
implemented FPAs has shown to reduce threats to at least the following: invasive alien
species, dam or canal blocking, global warming, water management, eutrophication,
acidification, UV radiation, air pollution, abrasion and sedimentation from run-off and
tailings (Suski and Cooke 2007).
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ECOLOGICAL DYNAMICS OF INLAND FISHERIES:
Abstract
The study on "Ecological Dynamics of Inland Fisheries in Ogan Komering Ilir
Regency" investigates the unique ecosystem of inland water in South Sumatra, Indonesia,
emphasizing its ecological diversity and the impact of environmental changes on fish
habitats. Conducted across different seasons in 2019, this study utilized a cross-sectional
survey design, focusing on five diverse ecological stations influenced by natural and
anthropogenic factors. Water quality parameters, including temperature, pH, and dissolved
oxygen, were meticulously measured, revealing significant seasonal variations and their
influence on fish behavior and habitat selection. This study highlights the dynamic nature of
this ecosystem, influenced by both seasonal changes and human activities, and underscores
the importance of understanding these factors for sustainable inland fishery management. The
results indicated substantial seasonal variations in all measured parameters. The water quality
showed patterns of changing concentrations of COD and BOD5, indicating increased organic
activity, especially during the transitional period. A total of 31 fish species from 14 different
families were identified, exhibiting varied distributions and abundances across seasons.
Biodiversity index analysis highlighted significant species diversity at some stations, which
decreased at others, depending on seasonal conditions. The study concluded that inland water
exhibits complex ecological dynamics, influenced by seasonal changes that affect water
quality and fish resources. These changes have significant implications for the management
and conservation of wetland ecosystems. This study provides valuable insights for a deeper
understanding of the interactions between ecological factors in floodplain wetland
ecosystems and the importance of considering seasonal aspects in natural resource
conservation efforts.
Introduction
The inland aquatic ecosystems of Ogan Komering Ilir (OKI) District, South Sumatra
Province, consisting primarily of floodplain swamps and rivers, are rich and complex
environments. A typical flood swamp ecosystem, it plays an important role in the ecology
and socio-economy of the region. The resources derived from lebak lebung and rivers not
only support local food and economic needs but also form part of cultural heritage and
tradition. This makes the preservation and management of lebak lebung and river ecosystems
critical to the sustainability of local communities.
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Lebak are flood swamps formed in lowlands and river banks, where freshwater collects
and stagnates for certain periods, especially during the rainy season. Lebung is the deepest
part of the lebak that remains waterlogged throughout the year, making it an important area
for biodiversity and as a spawning ground for many species Fish. The river, as the main water
source, plays a crucial role in shaping and maintaining the lebak lebung ecosystem. Rivers
not only supply water and nutrients to lebak lebung, but also carry sediments and small
organisms that support the ecosystem's food chain. During the rainy season, rivers overflow
and cause floods that bring new fish, water and nutrients. In the dry season, river flow
decreases, affecting water availability and habitat conditions in the lebak lebung. The
interactions between the river, lebak lebung and lebung create complex environmental
dynamics. Seasonal changes affect fish migration, spawning patterns, and the availability of
resources such as food and shelter (Muslim 2012).
The diverse fish species that inhabit these ecosystems reflect various trophic levels,
ranging from basic to high-level consumers. Individual species such as gabus fish (Channa
striata), tembakang fish (Helostoma temminckii), broom fish (Loricariidae family), and sepat
siam (Trichogaster pectoleris), play a vital role in maintaining ecosystem balance
(Kartamihardja et al. 2009). Some fish species in flood swamps migrate between rivers and
swamps, such as baung (Hemibagrus nemurus) and lais (Kryptopterus cryptopterus). Their
migration is important for spawning and also helps in the transfer of nutrients between
different parts of the ecosystem.
Water quality in these ecosystems experiences significant fluctuations throughout the
year, influenced by the wet and dry seasons. During the wet season, overflowing rivers carry
nutrients and sediments, which increase aquatic productivity but can also lead to higher
turbidity and changes in the chemical composition of the water. During the dry season, lower
water levels can increase water temperature and thicken nutrient concentrations, affecting
aquatic life (Jubaedah 2015). Previous studies have shown how seasonal changes affect fish
species composition and abundance, with changes in water parameters such as temperature,
brightness, pH, dissolved oxygen, and nutrient and habitat availability (Sulistiyarto et al.
2007). These factors affect migration patterns, spawning, and fish survival on fish community
structure and overall biodiversity (Mosepele et al. 2017).
This study aims to analyze ecological dynamics, including aspects of water quality, and
fish composition during the dry, rainy, and transitional seasons and the relationship between
water quality and fish resources. The results of the study are expected to assist in the
development of more effective resource management strategies, as well as provide important
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a
insights for a broader scientific understanding of inland aquatic ecosystems.
4.4.2 Pattern of Distribution and Abundance of Fish in the Research Location
The study found 31 fish species belonging to 14 families. Red-eye, Siamese,
Kemuringan, Betok and Sepatung are the most common fish species found in the study site.
The fish caught in the fish abundance study is highly dependent on the fishing gear used, the
fishing season, and biological factors such as fish habits and fish size. Catch data shows bias
towards fish species, size and species. Catch bias needs to be considered so that the data
generated can be adjusted to how the fishing conditions are carried out (Fischer and Quist
2014). Complete fish catch data during the study can be seen in Table 2.
The dynamics of fish catch showed interesting patterns reflected in the total catch data
per species at each station. Betok (Anabas testudineus), Siamese sepat (Trichopodus
pectoralis) and red-eye sepat (Trichopodus trichopterus) dominated the catch with significant
numbers, reaching a total of 218, 254 and 381 individuals, respectively. Dominance betok
fish, Siamese sepat and red-eye sepat, due to their strong adaptation to various swamp
conditions and their characteristics that are easier to catch in large numbers as well as their
economic value among fishermen (Nurdawati et al. 2019). Most of the betok fish were caught
at stations 3 and 4, while Siamese sepat and red-eye sepat were predominantly caught at
station 5, indicating favorable habitat or high capture preference at these sites. While
Bagroides melapterus was only found at station 2, with a limited catch of 11 individuals,
suggesting specialized habitat or environmental conditions favoring this species.
The two species of the Cyprinidae family, Barbichthys laevis and Barbonymus
gonionotus, barely appeared in the catch records, with only one and four individuals
respectively. These low catches suggest either declining populations in the wild or behaviors
that make them difficult to catch. Barbonymus schwanenfeldii was recorded more frequently,
especially at stations 2 and 4, suggesting that conditions at these stations were more suitable
for the species' needs and the fishing gear used. Species and numbers caught can be seen in
Figure 32.
The catches showed good species condition. This can be seen from the finding of
Notopterus notopterus or Javanese belida or locally called putak fish, which is a protected
fish species. Some of the species caught also show high economic value, such as gabus fish,
river catfish, lais, tambakang and several types of fish for the main consumption of the
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community. Diversity level The trophic level of fish caught also shows a good balance
between trophic levels in the water.
The total catch in an ecosystem is highly dependent on a variety of ecological and
anthropogenic factors that interact to influence fish abundance. The key to understanding
why certain species are more or less caught is to explore these interactions, particularly in
relation to seasonal cycles and species' biological adaptations. Some fish species have
adaptations that allow them to survive or even thrive under certain conditions. Species that
are able to use atmospheric oxygen or that can survive in mud, such as betok fish, tend to
have greater abundance and are therefore caught more often during the dry season. This is
because they can survive in the shallower, warmer waters that are typical in the dry season.
As for species that require highly oxygenated water or cooler water temperatures, they may
decline during the dry season (Akbar 2014).
Drastic seasonal changes in water volume alter marsh habitats significantly. During the
dry season, a decrease in water volume causes the habitat to become more fragmented and
concentrated. This makes species such as betok fish and catfish easier to catch due to their
reduced habitat and surface behavior that makes them visible. Whereas in the wet season, an
increase in water volume allows species more room to spread out and reduces their chances
of being caught.
Human fishing practices also play an important role. During the dry season, fishers
target holes or areas that still have water, where fish congregate. The fishing techniques used
can also be more effective as the fish have less places to escape. However, during the wet
season, when fish are more dispersed, fishers adapt their fishing techniques or experience a
decrease in catch due to more dispersed fish.
4.4.3 Dynamics of fish species and families in seasonal and station variations The number of
fish species found in the lebak lebung swamp from each season and station.
This study was conducted at three stations during three seasons: dry, transitional and rainy,
showing the influence of season and station on the fish species caught. Data were obtained
from five different observation stations, each of which recorded the diversity of fish species
in each season.
During the dry season, the highest number of species was recorded at station 2 with a
total of 19 species, followed by station 4 with 7 species. The transitional season showed
similar diversity with station 2 still having the highest number of 20 species, and station 4
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showing an increase to 13 species. The wet season, on the other hand, saw a general decrease
in the number of species with stations 2 and 4 having a reduced number of species to 7 and 3
species, respectively.
The variety of fish species found included putak (Notopterus notopterus), gabus
(Channa striata), lais (Kryptopterus bicirrhis), tembakang, and other fish species (Helostoma
temminkii), and many more, demonstrating the richness of the biodiversity and potential of
fish resources in lebak lebung swamp.
Monitoring fish species and families at the study site revealed dynamic patterns
influenced by season, habitat and biological interactions. The data collected showed that fish
species composition varied not only by season but also between observation stations. During
the dry season, stations with limited access to other water bodies experienced a significant
decrease in the number of fish species. This indicates that reduced habitat limits biological
diversity. In contrast, the wet season brings an increase in the number of fish species as
habitat expansion allows for species dispersal and colonization of new areas.
From a family perspective, the variety of fish caught indicates high genetic and
ecological diversity within the swamp. Certain fish families show strong habitat preferences,
such as Cichlidae are more common in stations that have stable water quality throughout the
year. Whereas other families such as Cyprinidae may be more diverse and widespread across
different marsh habitats (Ayyub et al. 2019).
The interaction between the number of fish species and families illustrates the
complexity of the lebak lebung swamp and river ecosystem. Stations that are directly
connected to the main river or have a consistent water source, species and family diversity
tend to be higher. This reflects more diverse resources and a more stable environment that
supports a variety of aquatic life. On the other hand, stations with more extreme conditions or
affected by human activities show different patterns. Some fish species and families may be
more resilient to environmental changes or stresses, while others may be reduced or
completely lost.
During the dry season, there were some families that had a presence at almost all
stations, such as Anabantidae due to their ability to survive in suboptimal water conditions.
Cyprinidae were recorded most abundantly at Station 2, reflecting a preference for more
stable water or larger areas for f o r a g i n g . Osphronemidae also showed a wide
distribution, but with greater abundance at certain stations. This distribution may indicate
habitat preference or higher fishing pressure.
15
An increase in diversity at some stations, such as Station 2 with the families Bagridae
and Cyprinidae was observed during the transitional season. The increase suggests that the
change in water conditions during the transition from dry to rainy season creates optimal
conditions for fish species. Osphronemidae and Pristolepididae were recorded at several
stations in all seasons, which could indicate their adaptation to environmental fluctuations
that occur during seasonal transitions. The seasonal distribution of families at each station can
be seen in Figure 34.
The rainy season brings a significant decrease in the number of families at some
stations. For example, the families Channidae and Clariidae were not caught during the wet
season. This could be due to the dispersal of fish to wider habitats due to flooding, or changes
in fishing techniques used by fishers. However, some families such as Osphronemidae and
Pristolepididae were consistently caught, indicating their adaptability to various water
conditions.
Abundance Index
Analysis of the abundance index in the ecosystem shows a diverse pattern of species
distribution at various stations and seasons. At the study site, fish abundance experienced
significant dynamics influenced by season and the characteristics of each station. During the
dry season, Station 1 showed limited fish abundance, with only 8 individuals from several
families such as Anabantidae and Bagridae. Station 2 had a higher abundance with 93
individuals from the Bagridae and Cyprinidae families, indicating more favorable
environmental conditions for the species. Station 3 showed the highest abundance with 227
individuals, dominated by slender species from the Cyprinidae family. Stations 4 and 5, the
abundance was 31 and 5, respectively 425 individuals, with Station 5 having the highest
abundance. Station 5 was influenced by anthropogenic activities or special environmental
conditions. During the transitional season there were variations in fish abundance at each
Station 4 stood out with the highest abundance, reaching 490 individuals. The high
abundance suggests the influence of changing environmental conditions during seasonal
transitions that affect fish distribution. Station
1 to 3 show diverse abundances, reflecting how the different ecological conditions at each
station affect the presence of fish.
The rainy season saw a general decrease in abundance at all stations. Station 5 had only
21 individuals, a decrease compared to the dry season. This could be due to the wider waters
16
allowing fish to spread out more and reducing the concentration of fish in certain areas.
Diversity Index (H')
The aquatic ecosystem at the study site experienced significant changes during the dry
season. Stations 1 and 3 showed moderate diversity, with H' values of 1.906 and 1.089. This
diversity condition can be caused by limited water resources and increased competition
between species. Station 2 with an H' value of 2.556 showed moderate, but slightly higher
diversity. This difference may indicate more available habitat or greater habitat variation.
Stations 4 and 5 showed low diversity (1.534 and 0.870), suggesting strong dominance of
certain species due to more restricted habitat conditions or anthropogenic influences.
In the transitional season there are ecological changes where some species begin to
adapt to new conditions. Stations 1 and 3 had moderate diversity with H' values of 1.690 and
1.239. Station 2 showed a higher medium diversity (2.226), reflecting the adaptation of
species to variable environmental conditions. Stations 4 and 5 were at low diversity (1.855
and 0.809), which may be related to habitat characteristics or environmental stress.
The rainy season brings more significant changes to the ecosystem. All stations showed
moderate, but variable, diversity. Stations 1 and 3 (1.218 and 1.134) experienced increased
water resources and habitat, while station 2 (1.664) was at a moderate state of diversity.
Stations 4 and 5 with lower H' values (0.411 and 0.594), may have experienced more extreme
environmental changes or greater pressure from anthropogenic factors.
Index of Uniformity (E')
The uniformity index indicates the degree of distribution of individuals among different
species. During the dry season station 3 had low uniformity due to the dominance of
Striuntius lineatus. The other stations showed a more even distribution. Low uniformity can
signify ecosystem dependence on certain species, which can increase vulnerability to
ecological disturbances (Loreau et al. 2001). In the transitional and wet seasons there was no
strong dominance by any particular species. The absence of dominance indicates better
uniformity, which can be an indicator of a healthier ecological balance (Jost 2006).
The diversity of fish species in the study site varied at each station. Uniformity in the
dry season at Station 1 showed high uniformity (0.980), indicating a stable community with
an even distribution of populations among species. Station 2 also had high uniformity
(0.868), indicating a somewhat stable community. Station 3, with a value of 0.454, had
moderate uniformity, indicating a more labile community due to more varied environmental
17
conditions. Station 4 (0.789) showed high uniformity. Station 5 (0.486) had moderate
uniformity, which may be related to external factors such as human activities.
Species diversity underwent significant changes in the transitional season. Stations 1, 2,
and 4 had high uniformity (0.769, 0.743, and 0.723), indicating a relatively stable community
with fairly even population distribution. Stations 3 and 5, with values of 0.637 and 0.584,
showed moderate uniformity, indicating a labile community. This may be influenced by
seasonal transitions that affect species distribution and available resources.
Station
The rainy season brings important changes in fish species uniformity. Stations 1 and 3
had relatively high uniformity (0.680 and 0.705), indicating a fairly stable community despite
habitat changes with seasonal changes. Station 2 showed very high uniformity (0.855),
indicating a very stable community with even distribution. Station 4 (0.374) had little
uniformity, indicating a stressed community, possibly due to more extreme habitat changes.
Station 5 (0.541) showed moderate uniformity, reflecting a labile community.
Dominance Index (D')
The dominance index measures how dominant one or more species are in an ecosystem.
During the dry season, the strong dominance of kemuring fish at station 3 reflects certain
ecological conditions that favor this species. Such dominance could be an indicator that the
current ecological conditions are very favorable for the species. In the transitional and wet
seasons, dominance was less extreme, indicating a better balance between species in the
ecosystem.
Observations of the dominance index showed that species dynamics changed
significantly between seasons and stations. Dominant or prominent species, such as Striuntius
lineatus during the dry season, or Trichopodus trichopterus during the wet season, provide an
insight into ecological interactions and adaptations in the ecosystem at the study site. During
the dry season, station 1 showed low dominance (0.156), indicating good species diversity.
Station 2 also had low dominance (0.099), reflecting balanced species diversity. At station 3,
there was moderate dominance (0.530), indicating the presence of some dominating species.
Stations 4 and 5 also recorded Low dominance with values of 0.282 and 0.470.
Relationship between Water Quality and Fish Resources
Principal component analysis (PCA) is a statistical method useful for identifying
18
patterns in data and expressing those data in a way that highlights similarities and differences
(Jolliffe and Cadima 2016). PCA is used to understand the relationship between water quality
and fish resources. Various studies have shown that water quality, which includes several
parameters such as NH3-N, total phosphate, and dissolved oxygen, significantly affects
aquatic ecosystems and fish biodiversity (Vörösmarty et al. 2010).
In the PCA analysis for the combined data from all seasons, there was a strong
relationship between fish abundance and parameters such as COD and BOD5. The
relationship between abundance and water quality suggests that water quality affects fish
abundance (Jackson et al. 2016). The relationship between uniformity, NH3-N, and water
temperature confirms the importance of water conditions in determining the distribution of
fish species (Peñuelas et al. 2012).
The variation between species is the result of fish adaptation, especially to
environmental conditions. The strong relationship between fish abundance and BOD5 and
COD during the wet season indicates the influence of organic pollution on fish populations.
Conversely, the negative relationship between abundance and water depth illustrates the
changing habitat preferences of fish during the wet season (Jorgensen and Fath 2008). PCA
graphs in the transitional season showed fish dominance correlated with NH3-N, BOD5 and
total phosphate, indicating the influence of nutrients and pollutants on species competition
(Dudgeon et al. 2006). Fish abundance contrasts with water pH, indicating species sensitivity
to changes in water acidity. In the dry season there was a negative relationship between fish
diversity and dissolved oxygen, suggesting that hypoxic conditions can affect species
diversity. The positive relationship between dominance and NH3-N indicates the influence of
nutrients on the dominance of some species.
PRACTICE OF LEBAK LEBUNG AND RIVER AUCTION
MANAGEMENT
Abstract
Fishery management of Common-pool resources (CPRs) has received significant
attention over the last decades. The management of CPRs is mainly carried out to address the
collapsing resources due to over-exploitation and destructive fishing and the community's
marginalization in accessing resources due to unequal competition. The adoption and success
of any intervention program are based on the stakeholders acceptability. Consequently, it is
19
essential to assess how stakeholders consider these two designs and their motivation to
perform suitable roles. This study aimed to describe the dynamics of fisheries management
managed by a privatization system and to identify the stakeholders, their interests, and their
influence. Also, to analyze the linkages between stakeholders and their participation in
implementation plans in Ogan Komering Ilir Regency, Indonesia. The study identified twenty
stakeholders and their respective influences and interests. They can be categorized into three
groups: policymakers, users, and professionals. Four quadrants of stakeholders are mapped,
including key players, context setters, crowds, and subjects. Conflict exists between the
authority and the user, complement exists between institutions/stakeholders with subordinate
relationships, and cooperation exists between equal stakeholders. The increasing fishery yield
from this intervention could provide opportunities for increased community access rights. A
participatory approach is a powerful tool for defining and enforcing rules, making
accountable and accessible procedures for conflict resolution, and setting up input channels
for the community to revise regulations.
Introduction
South Sumatra is the main province producing fish caught from inland waters in
Indonesia. Based on statistical data on fish catches from inland waters in 2010-2018, South
Sumatra contributed 17% of national production (KKP 2020). Ogan Komering Ilir (OKI) is
one of the main districts producing capture fisheries from inland waters in South Sumatra.
Inland waters in OKI district cover more than 75% of the entire area. Communities in OKI
district rely on the inland fisheries sector as an important source of food and household
income.
Fisheries management in Kabupaten OKI is conducted using an auction system, known
as lebak lebung and sungai (L3S). L3S is a fisheries management system that grants fishing
authorization for one year to the winner of the auction. Through an open auction mechanism,
the government transfers management rights in order to limit competition for resource
allocation (subtractability). The government considers auctions as a means of fisheries
management that can reduce conflicts over common property resources as well as sources of
local revenue. Revenue from auction proceeds is an important local own-source revenue
(PAD) for the district.
The implementation of inland fisheries management through L3S has not gone well.
The practice of the deep auction regime has been widely criticized, especially because it is
considered to encourage overfishing, the use of destructive fishing and, the issue of
20
marginalizing communities from the right to access fisheries resources. Auction winners are
considered prone to overexploitation in order to profit from the costs incurred in obtaining
exclusive f i s h i n g rights. Criticism of agrarian inequality also occurs because natural
resources, which are common property and social functions, become private goods through
privatization carried out by the government. The community at large is excluded by the
government from benefiting from fish resources in the waters. The distribution of benefits
from resource allocation is considered socially unjust for existing classes in society and for
future generations (Lélé 1991; Langhelle 2000; Loos et al. 2014).
The process of improving the management model of inland fisheries in OKI needs to be
carried out by accommodating various interests and aspects (ecological, economic and
social), including maintaining the auction system which is the hallmark of inland water
management in OKI district. The practice of auctions, which has been carried out since the
17th century, has made the institutional auction very rooted and created path dependence, so
replacing it with another system is considered ineffective and requires disproportionate effort
and cost (Mahoney 2000; Pierson 2000). The auction system is considered acceptable by key
actors at the district, sub-district and local community levels. Community acceptance is key
to the implementation of resource management rules/institutions (Jaeger 2005;
Prasetiamartati et al. 2006).
The study used qualitative analysis to understand the dynamics of the L3S and
stakeholder analysis to understand governance and assess stakeholder buy-in to the
intervention plan. The stakeholder analysis was conducted by identifying key stakeholders
and their interests and influence in the system (Grimble and Chan 1995). The stakeholder
analysis was conducted in three stages (Reed et al. 2009), namely:
1. Identifying stakeholders. The study identified stakeholders by asking respondents an open-
ended question: "who influences and is influenced by the activities/policies in the
privatization regime and implementation plan?" (Grimble and Wellard 1997). Stakeholders
were classified into policy makers, public organizations, and communities.
2. Classification of stakeholders according to their importance and influence. The influence-
interest matrix was used to categorize stakeholders into: key players, subjects, crowns, and
context settlers. The categorization makes it easier to formulate the approach to be used with
stakeholders. In determining the level of importance and influence of stakeholders, this study
used the following considerations:
21
3. Develop a stakeholder linkage matrix. This matrix helps explain the trade-offs that occur, as
well as categorize the pattern of relationships between stakeholders (Biggs and Matsaert
1999).
Stakeholder FGD:
FGDs were conducted at the community (village), government and joint levels. FGDs
are designed with participants who have equal power. This is done to prevent conflict or
debate in the discussion due to differences in interests or the dominance of powerful
individuals and patronage (Eeuwijk and Angehrn 2017). Village and government-level FGDs
are also preconditions for FGDs that bring together all stakeholders. A description of the
FGDs conducted is as follows:
4. At the village community level, in Bangsal Village, Pampangan Sub-district, OKI District.
FGDs were conducted three times at the village level with participants including: Village
Head, community fisheries monitoring group (POKMASWAS), director of the Village-
Owned Enterprise (BUMDES), community leaders, fishers, and auction winners. The first
FGD explored the current state of village fisheries, including fish stocks and diversity, fishing
gear and harvesting times, number of people involved, and the number of fishermen in
fisheries, arrangements between different users in managing inland fisheries resources, the
impact of privatization and the dynamics of auction mechanisms, constraints and conflicts
between stakeholders, and conflict resolution mechanisms. The second FGD discussed
options for intervention programs, as well as community perspectives and readiness. The
third FGD aimed to validate the information obtained from government officials at the OKI
District Level.
5. At the government level, the FGDs were held at the Office of the OKI District Fisheries
Service. FGD participants came from the OKI District Fisheries Office, which included the
Head of the Office, the Secretary of the Office, the Head of the Catch and Cultivation
Division, fisheries extension workers, and researchers from the university. The FGDs
analyzed the data collected from the village-level FGDs, including the condition of the
fisheries, the conflict situation, and the implementation plan for the intervention. The FGD
also aimed to validate information from the Bangsal Village community.
6. The final FGD involved a wider range of stakeholders. The FGDs were attended by the
following groups: (1) OKI District officials (District Fisheries Office and Regional Planning
and Development Agency); (2) academics from South Sumatra Province (Sriwijaya
22
University, Muhammadiyah University of Palembang, OKI Islamic University, and the
Research Center for Marine Resources Conservation and Inland Fisheries at the National
Research and Innovation Agency); Non-governmental organizations (South Sumatra
Muhammadiyah Environmental Council, South Sumatra Watershed Forum, South Sumatra
Peat Monitoring Node); and village-level stakeholders (Village Head, Director of Village-
Owned Enterprises, leaders of fishing communities). The purpose of the FGDs was to discuss
three main issues: the state of fisheries in OKI District, auction practices, and options for
intervention strategies. Regarding auction practices, the FGDs outlined the auction
mechanism and how it affects resources and communities, the roles of each stakeholder, and
areas for improvement.
Semi-structured Interview
Semi-structured interviews were conducted using a list of questions and deepening the
answers given by the interviewees. Conducted with stakeholders involved in the L3S system.
There were 40 respondents, including local fishers, bid winners, government representatives,
academics, NGOs and community leaders. The interviews were designed to extract
perspectives on the socio-ecological sustainability of the L3S system and to identify potential
conflicts or collaborative approaches among stakeholders.
Direct Observation
Direct observation sessions were conducted to witness operations and interactions
within the L3S framework. This involved observing auctions, fishing activities, and
interactions between various stakeholders. These observations aim to provide a real-world
context for the information that is collected during interviews and to identify discrepancies
between stated practices and actual behavior.
5.3.2 Data Analysis
Data from FGDs, interviews and observations were transcribed and analyzed using
thematic analysis. This method facilitated the identification of recurring themes, patterns and
insights related to the socio-ecological implications of the L3S system. The results of this
analysis were then compared and contrasted to identify areas of consensus and differences
among stakeholders.
23
Results and Discussion
5.4.1 History of L3S Implementation in OKI District
The practice of auctioning waters has been carried out in South Sumatra since at least
the 1630s, where the rules for the implementation of auctions were recorded in "Oedang-
Oendang Simboer Tjahaja", a written customary rule during the Palembang Darusallam
Sultanate era. The management of the lebak lebung auction was carried out by the clan
government in South Sumatra as an income for the clan treasury (Muslim 2012). Clan
government is a traditional government that originates from kinship relations (genealogical
ties) and/or a combination of several adjacent hamlets (landscape similarities) (Santun et al.
2010; Adhuri 2014; Muhidin 2018). The auctions conducted at that time were limited to the
boundaries of the designated fishing areas, and still provided access for the community to
fish. The fish resource protection zone is regulated by the establishment of rimbo larangan
and lubuk larangan, which are parts of the deep swamp that do not dry out throughout the
year so that they function as a refuge for fish, especially during the dry season (Pramoda and
Nasution 2011; Oktaviani et al. 2016). The lubuk larangan zone is a protected zone and a
forbidden area for fishing activities, even in some places it is prohibited to enter.
During the clan administration, traditional communities were regulated through the
customary law institutions of the clan administration; lebak lebung auction was a customary
right (custumary land) that regulated the utilization of products from rivers and swamps to
take the results. Some important points of lebak lebung auction management in the clan
government include (Hamid 1999; Collins 2007):
- The clan government determines the areas that can be used for auctions, where the
proceeds are used for the operation of the clan government and the lives of the families
of its officials;
- There are arrangements to establish fish conservation areas in the form of rimbo larangan
and lubuk larangan;
- Recognition of auction lebung areas on individual land;
- There is a regulation of the area that can be used by the community to take fish; and
- Recognition of community rights to fish in the auction area for family consumption (with
some restrictions).
According to the communal land perspective, land belongs to the community. The
customary landowner holds the management rights. When the land is not managed, it returns
to the community. Transfer of rights can only be done by inheritance (ability to bequeath)
24
and within the community (Hamid 1999; Reed et al. 2009). After the clan government was
dissolved through the Village Government Law No. 5 of 1979, which was followed by the
decision of the Governor of South Sumatra No. 142/KPTS/III/1983 concerning the Abolition
of the Clan Government; then the Decree of the Governor of Sumatra No. 705/Kpts/II/1982
concerning the Delegation of the Authority to Implement Lebak Lebung Auction to the
Regional Government of Level II in the Province of Regional Level I of South Sumatra, the
authority of clan land including the authority to implement lebak lebung auction was taken
over by the regional government. Law No. 5/1979 on Village Administration dissolved the
clan administration and replaced the dusun with a village. The village became an autonomous
region under the sub-district. The clan area, which was originally as large as a sub-district or
a combination of several sub-districts, then shrank to the size of a village. The shrinking of
the management area and the autonomy received by the village, made auction activities that
were initially limited to certain objects then used to maximize village income. One of them is
by auctioning lubuk larangan and waters that could previously be utilized by the community.
The utilization of lubuk larangan for auction activities causes the loss of protected habitat for
fish that will spawn and fish nursery areas. The loss of community access to utilize fish
resources in the area around where they live is a serious threat to resource justice and
community access rights to enjoy their natural resources. In addition, community awareness
has also begun to erode due to the loss of access to fishing, which makes monitoring and
protection of fish habitats and populations ineffective.
L3S has long been a source of local revenue for OKI district. The high dependence on
L3S proceeds has led the government to make efforts to optimize auctions. In 1995, the
contribution of auctions to OKI's own-source revenue (PAD) amounted to 37.1%. In 1998
and 1999, revenue from auctions amounted to 40% and 66.30% of total PAD or Rp.3.7
billion of the 5.7 billion PAD in 1999. The contribution of auction proceeds to OKI's PAD
has been decreasing since 2014 due to a significant increase in OKI's PAD (an increase of
more than 200% from the previous year), mainly due to the massive opening of oil palm and
HTI plantations that provide income for the district. Since 2014, the contribution of lebak
lebung auctions has been between 4-5% to the PAD of OKI District (Bahri, 2011; DP Kab
OKI, 2019; Gusti, 2001; Nizar, 2005; OKI District Government, 2019; Usman et al., 1999).
The lebak lebung auction management model that has been carried out since the clan
government era is actually natural resource management that gives management rights to the
community which will increase the effectiveness and equity of natural resource benefits
rooted in community traditions (Satria and Matsuda 2004). Although The management model
25
of the auction system carried out during the clan government era can be learned from. The
auction system allows the community to still make limited use of natural resources while still
providing ownership rights in the form of access, utilization, management, exclusion and
transfer rights to the government (Ostrom and Schlager 1996; Gammanpila et al. 2019).
5.4.2 Theoretical conception of L3S management
Management with an auction system is part of inland fisheries management to avoid
damage to resources and recovery efforts so that resources are sustainable. Garrett Hardin, in
an article in the Science Journal in 1968, argued that there are conditions in which resources
belonging to the commons are exploited excessively in the absence of a responsibility
mechanism from those who take advantage. This condition occurs because there is no
mechanism that regulates the behavior of each individual in utilizing resources. The main
recommendation proposed by Hardin in managing the commons is to be regulated by the
state, where the state (government) regulates the use of natural resources in such a way that
benefits can still be taken in a sustainable manner. Apart from being managed by the state
itself, another alternative management proposed is privatization. The state grants monopoly
management rights accompanied by various obligations to preserve these resources to
individuals or groups.
The auction system used in the management of inland waters in South Sumatra adopts a
privatization model in natural resource management. The state gives management power and
binding obligations to the winner of the auction, to take advantage of resources as well as
efforts to control damage and maintain sustainability (Perda number 8 of 2010 concerning
Lebak Lebung and River Auctions (L3S) as amended by Perda number 14 of 2015
concerning Amendments to Perda number 8 of 2010 concerning Lebak Lebung and River
Auctions).
Hardin's theory of the tragedy of the commons becomes the tragedy of enclosure in
practice. The tragedy of enclosure is described as a situation when the spirit to protect
common property resources becomes a humanitarian disaster by limiting people's rights to
access natural resources (Cox 1985; Frischmann et al. 2019; Arthur et al. 2022). Communal
communities already have knowledge and rules that allow for the regulation of their natural
resources, so there is no need for privatization and regulation by the state (Dolsak & Ostrom
2003; Ostrom 1990, 2010; Ostrom et al. 1994; Werthmann et al. 2010). Furthermore, Cox
(1985) argues that the shepherd's field conditions illustrated by Hardin in his article do not
26
actually exist. Cox referred to the system that prevailed in medieval England, the location of
the pastures in Hardin's article, where land at that time was private property, controlled by
landlords and royalty. This condition made It is not possible for just anyone to do grazing.
Cox's second thesis in his article is that, as economic beings, pastoralists will not increase
their livestock when the carrying capacity of the land has reached its saturation point.
Opening up the space for Hardin's antithetical argumentation is important enough to raise
doubts and encourage further discussion on proper management. Without doubting the
established doctrine, privatization will always be the preferred choice and generality of the
state's preferred management of CPRs.
The rationale for privatization is usually based on the economic principle that resources
need to be allocated efficiently, and that private management is more efficient than public
management (Sheshinski and López-Calva 2003). However, efficiency as an economic
objective often overshadows other objectives, especially the social aspects associated with
resource use. Such as public welfare, preservation of natural resources, or general economic
improvement of local communities. The effectiveness of privatization should be
conceptualized more broadly than more efficient resource use, especially to look at goals that
result from the interaction of social and ecological systems that prevail and are desired by
more parties.
In addition to the issue of social justice in terms of access to the utilization of natural
resources, there is also the issue of ownership of these natural resources. The study of natural
resource management cannot be separated from the determination of the rights to these
natural resources. The study of property rights leads to actors and management mechanisms.
However, in the context of L3S, the study of property rights becomes complex because there
are overlapping rights holders of fish resources that become economic objects. In particular,
private property is also auctioned off by the government. The basis used by the government
is that the fish carried onto the land during flooding are not the rights of the landowner, so
they can be auctioned by the state. This condition is a disregard for land ownership rights by
the state. In practice, the activities of auction winners to catch fish often lead to conflicts with
landowners who use their land for agricultural and livestock activities.
Traditionally, lebak lebung was part of the clan's communal land which was later
institutionalized by the state (as explained above). The activities of indigenous peoples to
restore (what they claim as their rights recognized by the state) have been carried out for
more than several decades both through formal channels (lawsuits and meterial testing to the
Constitutional Court), as well as through mass action and other non-formal approaches
27
(Collins 2007). The recognition of customary rights is important because in practice, although
customary rights are recognized in the land and legal system, they are only normative and do
not give indigenous peoples the right to manage their customary land (Ma'ruf 2020).
5.4.3 L3S Attributes that Drive Ecological Risks and Social Conflict The L3S series of
activities begins with the bid preparation period.
Preparation for the auction was carried out by the district fisheries office to inventory
and determine the object and the base price value of the object. After all objects have been
inventoried, a large committee is formed involving district government employees from
across agencies to serve as a committee to implement and supervise the auction, which is held
simultaneously in all subdistricts (18 subdistricts). The auction is usually held in November
to determine the winner who will receive monopoly fishing rights for one year, from January
1 to December 31 of the following year. The auction bidding system is conducted openly
using cash, with the highest bidder being declared the winner. Once the highest bidder is
declared the winner, he or she must immediately pay in cash plus 5%+5% of the bid value for
retribution (5%) and seed restocking fee (5%). The restocking fee is used for seed purchase
and stocking operations. While holding the exclusive fishing rights, other than the bid winner
is prohibited from fishing without the permission of the bid winner. Fish caught are then
reported to the Fisheries Service and/or fisheries extension workers on the type, quantity and
fishing gear used. After the fishing rights period ends, the object is returned and then the L3S
implementation cycle begins again.
Efforts to balance economic, social and ecological interests have been regulated in
Local Regulation No. 14/2015 on the amendment of Local Regulation No. 8/2010 on the
Management of Lebak Lebung and River (L3S). The main points of regulation related to
social and ecological interests are regulated in several crucial articles as follows:
1. Article 20 regulates the distribution of auction proceeds where 20% is intended for the
parties (committee, supervisor, coach, village head and sub-district head incentives),
50% for the village treasury, and 30% for the region;
2. Article 21 regulates the types and requirements of fishing gear, types and sizes of fish,
seasons or fishing times in certain areas, and the establishment of fisheries reserves;
3. Article 23 regulates the establishment and authority of community watch groups
(POKMASWAS);
4. Article 24 regulates the prohibition of fishing without the permission of the auction
28
winner and for the owner of the rice field/land that is the object of the auction, it is
allowed for food purposes and not for sale;
5. Article 26 regulates the village's authority to prohibit the capture of spawning fish,
protect spawning grounds and prohibit the capture of fish fry;
6. Article 28 stipulates the obligation of the auction winner to deposit an additional 5% of
the auction value for restocking;
7. Article 30 prohibits any person from fishing from the auction object without the
permission of the auction winner, except the landowner to the extent of reasonable
necessity;
8. Article 31 prohibits people from making artificial ponds in the L3S area.
The regulation of the above articles is intended so that the exploitation activities carried
out by the auction winner still refer to the signs of sustainable utilization. The use of fishing
gear, fishing time and types of fish allowed are intended to maintain the sustainability of fish
resources in the auction object. The distribution of auction proceeds and the involvement of
village governments are part of the resource benefit distribution strategy. Community
involvement is also carried out with the formation of POKMASWAS, which is a community
group tasked with overseeing the implementation of the utilization of the auction object
carried out by the auction winner in accordance with the regulated signs. The obligation to
restore resources by restocking or releasing fish in waters is also intended as a means of
increasing abundance and diversity to help natural recruitment of fish.
In reality, despite the detailed regulations, overfishing and destructive fishing practices
a r e still widely practiced in the auction object. Some of these practices are the use of stun
and poison fishing gear, tuguk (bagged nets that are installed permanently, facing the fish's
raya), and the use of fire to burn bushes and shrubs to find fish beds in dried up swamps
(Syafei 2005; Pramoda 2011; Setiawan 2014; Nilar et al. 2015; Satria and Mony 2019). This
practice of burning has become one of the causes of forest and peatland fires in OKI District.
Pressure on inland waters also comes from overfishing, water pollution, habitat degradation,
invasive species and flow modification (Dudgeon et al. 2006). In addition to overfishing and
destructive fishing practices, catches from inland waters in OKI District are potentially much
larger than reported. Based on data collected from the OKI District Fisheries Office, the catch
from inland waters from 2004 to 2019, which has remained constant for 16 years, looks quite
dubious (Figure 44). Doubts about catch data are caused by the fact that at least since the
early 2000s, there has been a conversion of swamp land into oil palm plantations, industrial
timber estates (HTI) and rice field printing programs on swamp land, amounting to at least
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500 thousand hectares (Martin and Winarno 2010; Miettinen et al. 2016; Austin et al. 2017;
Kusratmoko et al. 2017). The conversion alone will at least shrink the fisheries area.
Meanwhile, the derivative effects of plantation and HTI activities have the potential to pollute
the environment which adds to the burden on waters (Husnah 2008; Harrison et al. 2020). So
if we use linear logic, then the conversion and the increase in pressure on the waters should
be followed by a decrease in catches.
Statistics on the production of capture fisheries from the public waters of Kabupaten
OKI, as shown in Figure 44, show that since 2004, capture production has tended to remain
constant. The trend appears to be slightly downward due to anomalies in 2016 and 2017,
which experienced a decrease in catches. In 2016-2017 there was a weather anomaly, the la
nina phenomenon, which made the dry months wetter. The turbulent water made it difficult
for auction winners to catch fish because the peak fishing time was during the dry season.
Doubts about the catch data are also evident from various studies conducted. The World
Bank, in collaboration with FAO and the WorldFish Center, revealed that small-scale inland
water catch data reported by 17 developing countries tended to underestimate by 70% (World
Bank 2012) The results of research by Fluet-Chouinard et al. (2018), confirmed that hidden
harvests in developing countries reached 40% of what was reported. Research conducted by
Lymer et al. (2016), catches from inland waters can be up to 6.5 times greater than reported.
The catch data obtained from the auction winner's report is also suspicious considering that
this catch data will later become the baseline for determining the base price of the auction
object. So there is a tendency to report low catches, so that the base value of the auction
object does not increase in the following year (Setiawan 2014). The size of the catch area
makes it difficult for local Marine and Fisheries Service authorities to control fishing
activities and there tends to be a lot of unreported catch data (Welcomme 2001). It is
important to disclose catch and potential data from inland waters to inform policy decisions
and mainstreaming of inland fisheries. However, there are concerns that disclosure of catch
data in some cases (where economic species are abundant) may lead to more intense conflicts
over resources (through auctions) and ultimately lead to overexploitation and destructive
fishing (Tulloch et al. 2018).
The abuse of L3S practices occurred because the location of the auction object was in a
remote area, and there was minimal community involvement. Supervision by
POKMASWAS was ineffective. Communities and village officials tend not to want to
engage in confrontation with the auction winner (Rab 2009; Firdaus and Shafitri 2013; Mony
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et al. 2017; Rezeky et al. 2018). This is understandable, given that the auction winners are
usually community leaders who have financial, cultural, religious and political influence. The
authority attached to POKMANWAS cannot balance the power relations with the auction
winners. Therefore, the practice of exploitation tends to go unmonitored. This practice of the
absence of supervisors makes the tendency for fraud to occur.
A summary of crucial issues from the L3S implementation stages and their impacts to
provide an overview of practices and conditions on the ground. We summarize L3S practices
that encourage ecological risks in Table 5 below:
The implementation of L3S was then analyzed using Ostrom's eight principles of CPRs
management (Ostrom 2009). Elinor Ostrom's principles of natural resource management:
1) Establishing clear management boundaries. This principle emphasizes the importance of
having clear boundaries in natural resource management. This includes physical
boundaries of the resource as well as social boundaries, such as who has the right to
access and use the resource. Boundary certainty helps in avoiding over-exploitation and
conflict.
2) Design regulations that are congruent with local conditions. This principle underscores
the need to design regulations and management rules that are appropriate to local
ecological and socio-economic conditions. Effective rules should take into account local
characteristics and the specific needs of the communities managing the resources.
3) Rules are made jointly and participatively. This principle emphasizes the active
participation of all affected parties in the rule-making process. This helps ensure that the
rules are fair, respected and more likely to be followed.
4) Accountable monitoring of resource conditions and user behavior. This principle
underscores the importance of effective and accountable monitoring of the condition of
resources and the behavior of their users. This monitoring should ideally be carried out
by the resource users or other trusted parties, to ensure compliance with the rules and
sustainability of resource use.
5) There is a sanction mechanism at each level. This principle emphasizes the importance of
having a sanctioning system in place to deal with violations.
rules. These systems must be clear, fair and consistently applied, to prevent violations
and ensure compliance.
6) Develop conflict resolution mechanisms that are effective and accessible to all parties.
This principle underscores the importance of having effective and accessible mechanisms
to resolve conflicts. Fair and timely conflict resolution helps to sustain cooperation and
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avoid conflict escalation.
7) Recognition of authority over the existence and rules made by local-level organizations.
This principle emphasizes the importance of recognizing the authority and power of local
organizations in the creation and application of rules. This helps in ensuring that the rules
are relevant and accepted by the local community.
8) Development of an integrated system between lower and higher levels. This principle
underscores the importance of integration and coordination in natural resource
management among different levels, from local to regional or national. This integration
helps ensure consistency and effectiveness in overall resource management.
L3S, when viewed from formal institutional rules, fulfills the eight principles of CPRs
management. However, when viewed from its implementation, there are things that cannot be
implemented or are not in accordance with what was planned. This mismatch between
conception and implementation is also considered to be the cause of ecological and social
issues that occur.
Stakeholder Classification and Categorization:
The identified stakeholders were then grouped in an importance and influence matrix.
The data processing results obtained a matrix chart that divides stakeholders into four
quadrants based on their level of influence and importance (Figure 45).
Key players are groups that are critical to the success and intervention of the program.
As such, the program must ensure that these groups collaborate and are fully engaged. The
District Fisheries Service is at the top of the matrix, both in terms of importance and
influence. As the mandated holder of inland fisheries affairs in the district, the Fisheries
Service is responsible for the implementation of L3S with the burden of increasing district
PAD (economic interests) and the interests of fisheries sustainability (ecological interests). In
practice, there is a trade off between these two interests where economic interests often trump
ecological interests. The interventions carried out, including efforts to protect, restore and
increase stocks in public waters using the CBF and FPA methods, are expected to restore and
improve ecological aspects while encouraging the improvement of economic aspects.
Another actor that is a key player is the BUMDES in the research village. BUMDES is
important because in its capacity it will establish a hatchery or business unit for community
hatcheries (UPR) which is the key to CBF activities (if this intervention is implemented). The
BUMDES management, which are youth leaders in the village, are expected to increase their
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engagement and ultimately their concern. The village head is the key player regarding village
policies. The intervention absolutely must have the support of the village head as the head of
government at the village level. Another factor is that the intervention activities need to be
supported by a budget sourced from village funds and a legal umbrella in the form of village
regulations. The sub-district head is a key player because he is responsible for auction
activities at the sub-district level. In addition, the village head's policies on budgeting and
regulations issued must be approved by the camat.
Subjects are stakeholders with low influence but high dependency on the program. This
group is a weak group that needs assistance and builds alliances with other groups that have
higher influence. Weak communities require intense engagement strategies, as they actually
need interventions to improve their quality of life, but tend to be resistant to change (Warnaen
et al. 2013; Wijayanti and Ihsannudin 2013). Other subjects in this group are extension
workers, bidders, POKMASWAS, rice field owners and fish farmers. Extension workers are
the front line of the government, but with very limited capacity and resources. Bidder is the
bidder during the auction. To prevent uncontrolled bidding during the auction, there is
usually an agreement between fellow bidders and the auction winner. The agreement can be
in the form of compensation from the winner of the auction or dividing the auction object into
smaller lots. The bidder has a high interest because they have usually invested in fishing gear
that will lose money if it cannot be used. Pokmaswas has a supervisory mandate, but in
practice it is difficult to carry out its duties. POKMASWAS tend not to want to engage in
confrontation with the winning bidder, who is usually a local oligarch (Rab 2009; Firdaus and
Shafitri 2013; Mony et al. 2017; Rezeky et al. 2018). The rice field owner has an interest in
his land rights, but these rights overlap with the auction winner's power to fish on his rice
field.
Context setters are stakeholders who have a high degree of influence but low interest.
Context setters are considered to have the power to make changes but low interest because
they do not have an interest, so they need to be informed and involved in the dynamics of the
program. This group can be a way out of the deadlock faced, especially in encouraging key
players to break through the obstacles and problems they face. This group includes the
Provincial Marine and Fisheries Office, BRIN, NGOs, DPRD, and academics. The roles of
academics, BRIN and NGOs are important, as they serve as catalysts to help unravel issues
and find solutions. However, because their concern is voluntary, their importance is low.
Crowds are actors who are engaged with minimal resources. This group of actors
requires some ongoing communication about the progress of the project but may have the
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least of all stakeholders. Under certain conditions, this group can be involved in tactical
alliances to push the interests of vulnerable groups to be accommodated and heard by key
actors. There are buffalo herders, water transportation users and the PMD Office. Buffalo
herders and water transportation users are communities with an interest in a mechanism that
allows them to utilize resources. The PMD office, on the other hand, needs to be involved
because it has the authority to approve budgeting and policies taken in the village.
5.4.4 Relationship between stakeholders
Stakeholder decision-making is a complex mechanism, especially in relation to their
engagement with natural resources and other stakeholders. Mutual interests between
stakeholders must be considered to map potential conflicts, complementary relationships, and
cooperation that can be established between stakeholders (Herremans et al. 2016; Moallemi
et al. 2020; Coppa et al. 2021). This potential can become a strategy developed in
implementation to align with the interests and patterns of st a k e ho l d e r relationships.
Based on the identification results, there are categories where potential cooperation and
complementarity can be exploited, and potential conflict can be prevented. Cooperative and
complementary relationships need to be strengthened and maintained to increase stakeholder
interest in participating (Zanetell and Knuth 2004). The detailed matrix of relationships
between stakeholders can be seen in Figure 46.
5.4.5 Improved Information Disclosure, Program Acceptance, and Joint Implementation in
the Action Arena from Stakeholders
Stakeholder participation in policy processes and implementation improves the quality
of problem identification and resolution (Grimble and Wellard 1997). Stakeholder
engagement must be carefully executed and take into account existing conditions and
interests (Jolibert and Wesselink 2012). This study found that important stakeholders tend to
be less open and normative about their agenda. On the other hand, marginalized stakeholders
often do not have a voice and therefore may not be accommodated in policies. This result is
consistent with Manetti's (2011) research, which states that there is an increasing trend of
awareness in stakeholder engagement in various matters. However, it is still on formal
matters, not touching the fundamentals of distributing authority and increasing collaboration
between stakeholders.
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Key players tend to have their own agenda in the auction management system.
Stakeholders are reluctant to discuss unfair circumstances that favor them. The study found
overlapping ownership of property rights. Authorities believe that fish entering farmers' land
belong to the state because they come from overflowing rivers and are carried by flood
exposure. Although the land is privately owned with legal ownership, control of the fish on
the land is still left to the auction mechanism. At the same time, farmers assume that the
condition is "given" and consider it an insurmountable problem (Zanetell and Knuth 2004).
Landowning farmers only hope that when the auction winner operates on their land, it will
not damage their rice crop.
Regular face-to-face informal discussions can build trust among stakeholders. Through
constructive mechanisms that assure stakeholders that the researcher has no hidden agenda.
Acceptance from stakeholders to researchers is useful for building trust so that stakeholders
can be open on various issues. The openness of information provided is useful so that various
interests can be brought to the surface to build conventions (Damian and Zowghi 2002).
Enforcement is key to ending overfishing and destructive fishing regimes. However, in
practice it is difficult to ascertain and monitor fishing activities. The location of auction
objects is in remote areas, making it difficult for authorities to reach and community
involvement is low. POKMASWAS tends to avoid confrontation with auction winners, who
are usually local oligarchs. These conditions suggest that the acceptance and willingness of
the auction winner to implement regulations and improve the bargaining position of the
community is important.
Summary
The practice of managing fisheries resources through the L3S system in OKI District
has a long history and high complexity. Fishing monopolies and dominance of power by
auction winners are often the drivers of overfishing and destructive fishing practices, as well
as causing social injustice. Conflicts between landowners, auction winners and local
communities are a major issue, indicating a mismatch between policy design and
implementation on the ground.
Conflicts, cooperation, and complementary relationships between stakeholders
demonstrate the complex dynamics of natural resource management. Active involvement of
all stakeholders is required to achieve a balance between economic, ecological and social
interests.
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The dynamics between stakeholders highlighted the need for information disclosure,
program acceptance, and joint implementation in the action arena from stakeholders.
Participatory approaches that strengthen cooperation and reduce conflict between
stakeholders are key. This includes planning and designing the implementation of
interventions as solutions that can improve the sustainability of fisheries resources, while
increasing access and equity for local communities.
Conclusion:
Based on the findings and discussion that has been carried out, it can be concluded:
1. The importance of inland waters in OKI for ecological sustainability and biodiversity.
Inland waters play a vital role in supporting aquatic and terrestrial life, as well as
providing livelihoods for local communities.
2. Culture-Based Fisheries and Freshwater Protected Areas have proven effective in
increasing fish stocks and maintaining ecosystem health. The combination of CBF and
FPA supports sustainability goals by addressing both economic and ecological needs.
3. Auction systems have potential as efficient management tools, but require adjustments to
ensure equity and sustainability. The research highlights the need to integrate the
interests of local communities in the auction system.
4. The active involvement of local communities in the management of inland waters is key
to achieving sustainability.
