STRESS WORK
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
SOC 324 - SOCIOLOGY OF WORK AND ORGANIZATIONS
SPRING 2024
Introduction:
Job stress occurs in almost all employees, both leadership employees and non-
leadership employees. Working conditions that are not in a good environment have the
potential to cause stress for employees. Work stress experienced by employees can have a
positive impact and even a negative impact on the employees concerned and on the
organization. It all depends on the psychological and social conditions of an employee, so the
reaction to each stress condition is very different.
Stress in the work environment is unavoidable, but work stress can be reduced or
managed so that it does not interfere with work. Job stress if managed properly can be a
driver and increase work intensity, while if not managed properly job stress will cause
problems that have a negative impact on individuals and organizations.
This chapter will discuss the definition of stress, sources or causes of stress, the
impact of stress, and managing work stress.
Definition Stress
Stress as an adaptive response, mediated by individual differences, that is a consequence of
any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person (Gibson, et.al, 2012:
195).
(Stress as an adjustment response, mediated by individual differences, that is a consequence
of any action, situation, or even event that places specific demands on a person).
The same definition is put forward by Ivancevich et.al (2005: 281) that, stress as an adaptive
response, moderated by individual differences, that is a consequence of any action, situation,
or event that places special demands on a person.
(Stress as an adjustment response, mediated by individual differences, that is a consequence
of any action, situation, or even event that places specific demands on a person).
Job stress as "a condition arising from the interaction of people and their jobs and
characterized by changes within people that force them to deviate from their normal
functioning" (Luthans, 2011: 279).
(Job stress as a condition that arises from the interaction between humans and their work and
is characterized by human changes that force them to deviate from their normal functions).
In Figure 7.1 the causes of stress (stressors) in the workplace come from: individuals,
groups, organizations, and factors outside the work environment. Furthermore, stress has an
impact on behavioral, cognitive, and psychological outcomes but the impact is not directly
but moderated by individual differences, such as heredity, age, gender, social support, and
personality. This means that the ability of each individual to deal with stress in the workplace
is highly dependent on individual differences. Stress in essence is not always bad or negative,
but also has a positive side. As an example of the impact of stress on performance, when
stress is low or there is no stress, people generally work at the level of performance they are
achieving at that time. So there is no drive to perform more than what has been done so far.
Several studies have found that low to moderate levels of stress indicate that
employees are motivated to improve their performance. In this case, stress at a certain level
acts as a stimulus or encouragement to act. When stress increases to a high level,
performance decreases significantly. This condition occurs because people will use more
energy and thoughts to fight stress than to do work.
Causes of Stress from Individuals
Causes of stress that originate from individuals such as role conflict. Role conflict
occurs when a person is faced with meeting expectations about work and also meeting
expectations from other jobs. Employees who experience conflict show lower job satisfaction
and higher work-related strain.
Every employee must have experienced what is called overload. There are two
different types of overload, qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative overload occurs when an
individual feels that they do not have the skills needed to perform a task complete their work
or the standard of results demanded is too high. On the other hand, if individuals have too
much to do or not enough time to complete a job, it is quantitative overload. Excessive
workload can lead to decreased motivation and increased absenteeism. However, this still
needs to be studied for proof.
To do a job well, employees need information on whether they are expected to do or
not do something. So employees need to know their rights and obligations. Role ambiguity is
a person's lack of understanding about their rights and obligations in doing a job. Employees
who experience role ambiguity can result in low job satisfaction.
Causes of Stress in Groups and Organizations
Group characteristics can be a strong stressor for some individuals in the group, such
as norms group, leadership, and hierarchical position. Behavioral scientists consider that
improving good relationships among work group members is a major factor in the life of
good individual behavior. Group stressors can include a lack of group cohesiveness,
especially at lower levels of the organization. If employees do not experience togetherness
opportunities due to work design, supervisors forbidding or limiting them, or because group
members exclude other employees, then the lack of cohesiveness will cause stress.
Employees are strongly influenced by the support of cohesive group members. If group
support diminishes for the individual then the situation will be stressful. One of the problems
in examining stressors at the organizational level is identifying which sources are most
important. A major part of work for some individuals is participation in decision-making.
Participation refers to the extent to which a person's knowledge, opinions and ideas are
included in the decision process. This kind of participation can contribute to the onset of
stress. Another stressor is organizational culture. Organizational culture is the personality of
the organization that is broadly shaped by the top executives. Political behavior at the top
level of the organization can be a source of stress for many employees. Lack of career
opportunities is an aspect of the organizational environment that affects a person's perception
of the quality of their career development.
Impact of Stress
The effects of stress are many and varied, some of which can be positive, such as self-
motivation, stimulation to work harder, and increased inspiration for a better life. However,
many of the effects of stress are disruptive and potentially harmful. Stress can affect work
behaviors such as job satisfaction levels, performance levels, absenteeism, and employee
turnover. Effects on cognitive aspects such as inability to make decisions, lack of
concentration, inattention, and mental blocks. Psychological effects such as increased
pressure blood, and various dangerous diseases. Job stress can have both positive and
negative impacts on individuals and organizations. Work stress that has a positive beneficial
impact is expected to spur employees to get the job done as well as possible. Employee job
stress that has a positive impact on the organization, among others:
1. Have high work motivation. Work stress experienced by employees becomes a
motivator, driver and trigger for future performance.
2. The stimulation to work hard, and the inspiration to improve your life and have a longer
career goal,
3. Having a stronger need for achievement makes it easier to perceive targets or tasks as a
challenge rather than a pressure.
Some of the negative impacts caused by work stress can be in the form of decreased
levels of employee productivity which in turn can have an impact on the lack of effectiveness
of the organization, problems with the workplace, and a decrease in the level of productivity
of employee job satisfaction, and increased absenteeism.
Managing Stress Work
Stress can have a positive or negative impact, so it needs to be intervened to reduce
the negative impact. Managing stress can be done individually or organizationally. Some
specific techniques used by individuals to reduce or manage stress (Luthan, 2011: 298) are:
exercise, relaxation, behavior control, cognitive therapy, and networking. Organizational
strategies for coping with stress are based on the source of stress. In other words, each
stressor will be considered to eliminate or reduce work stress (Luthan, 2011: 300).
GROUPS AND TEAMS :
Every organization in its development will form certain groups, either by management
or by the mutual awareness of some of its members. Groups whose formation is regulated by
management are called formal groups. In addition to the formation of formal groups, there are
also groups that are initiated by certain people because of common interests or because of
friendship, called informal groups.
This chapter discusses the definition of organization, reasons for group formation,
theories of group formation, types of groups, stages of group formation, definition of work
teams and types of work teams.
Definition Group
Group as a collection of individuals in which the behavior and/or performance of one
member is influenced by the behavior and/or performance of other members (Gibson et al.,
2012: 230).
Group as a collection of individuals where the behavior and/or performance of a member is
influenced by the behavior and/or performance of other members.
Group as two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together
to achieve particular objectives (Robbins & Judge, 2013: 272) Group as two or more
individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular
objectives.
Based on these two definitions, a group must have the following characteristics:
1) Consists of at least 2 (two) people,
2) They interact and depend on each other,
3) Their behavior and performance influence each other,
4) There are certain goals that they want to achieve.
Luthans (2011: 340), if a group exists in an organization, then its members:
1) Motivated to join,
2) Accept the group as a unified unit to interact with,
3) Contribute in some way to the group process (i.e. some people contribute more time or
energy to the group than others),
4) Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction.
Reason for forming Group
People form groups for many reasons. Gibson et al. (2012: 232) suggests four reasons
people form groups as follows:
1) Need Satisfaction
Every human being has needs that must be satisfied. However, there are some needs that
cannot be satisfied on their own, unless they join a group. The desire to get satisfaction for
what is a need is a strong motivating force in group formation. Some needs that can be met
through groups:
a) Security
Individuals who are in a group can reduce the insecurity of being alone. Individuals will
feel stronger, more confident and resistant to threats.
b) Social
The desire to belong to a group and to be a member of a group and contribute to it
demonstrates the social needs of all people.
c) Award
In certain environments, a group with high prestige or reputation will attract people to
join it.
2) Proximity and Attractiveness
Proximity is the physical distance between employees carrying out work, while attraction
shows the attraction of people to one another. People who perform work activities in physical
proximity will allow them to be attracted to each other and form groups because they
understand each other's attitudes, views and personalities.
3) Group Objectives
To achieve group goals and complete tasks requires the cooperation of several people. There
is a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power to get the job done.
4) Economic Reasons
Economic motives lead to the formation of groups, as they perceive that they will gain greater
economic benefits of their work, if they form groups.
Theory of Group Formation
Luthans (2011: 341) suggests several theories related to the dynamics of group
formation as follows:
1) Propinquity Theory
According to this theory individuals affiliate with each other due to spatial or
geographical proximity. The theory would predict that students who sit next to each other in
class are more likely to form groups than students who sit at different ends of the room. In an
organization, employees working in the same factory or office area or managers with offices
in close proximity to each other would be more likely to form groups than those who are not
physically co-located. This theory ignores the advancement of technology that is able to
transcend spatial and physical boundaries.
2) Classic Theory of George Homans
This theory is based on three elements: activities, interactions, and sentiments. These
three elements are directly related to each other, but the main element is interaction. The
more activities people have, the more interactions they have and the stronger their sentiments
(how much the other person is liked or disliked); the more interactions between people, the
more activities and sentiments they share; the more sentiments people have for each other,
the more activities and interactions they share.
3) Theodore Newcomb's Classic Balance Theory.
This theory states that people are attracted to each other on the basis of similar
attitudes and values towards relevant objects and goals. Once these relationships are
established, participants strive to maintain a symmetrical balance between attraction and
general attitude. If an imbalance occurs, efforts are made to restore the balance. If the balance
cannot be restored, the relationship will be dissolve. Proximity and interaction play a role in this
theory of balance.
4) Exchange Theory
Group exchange theory is based on reward-cost outcomes (reward-cost) interaction.
A minimum positive level (rewards greater than costs) of an outcome must be present for
attraction or affiliation to occur. can occur. rewards from interaction satisfies needs,
whereas costs cause anxiety, frustration, embarrassment, or fatigue. Proximity, interaction,
and general attitude all have a role in this exchange theory. In addition, Robbins and Judge
(2013: 273) put forward the following formation theory group formation theory that
called:
1) Social Identity Theory According to this social identity theory, people have a reaction to
emotional reactions to failure or success of their group because their self-esteem is linked to
group performance. The reactions that arise in a person are as follows:
a. When your group does well, you enjoy the glory and your self-esteem increases.
Conversely, if your group performs poorly, you may feel bad about yourself, or you may
even reject that part of your identity. Social identity also helps people reduce uncertainty
about who they are and what they should do.
b. People develop multiple identities throughout their lives. You may define yourself in
terms of the organization you work for, the city you live in, your profession, your
religious background, your ethnicity, or your gender.
Types of Groups
Groups are a natural phenomenon in organizations. Its spontaneous development is
unavoidable and is needed by members as a means to an end. Moreover, it is dynamic in its
development to respond to demands and changes environment. An organization essentially
has various types of groups in it. either formed due to management arrangements or due to
the initiative of its members. Groups in organizations can be divided into two types, namely:
1) Formal group (Formal group) and 2) Informal group (Gibson et al. 2012: 231; Robbins &
Judge, 2013):
1. Formal groups are groups created by managerial decisions to achieve stated organizational
goals. This formal group occurs because of the organizing process through division of labor
and departmentalization. This formal group can be divided into two types, namely:
a. Command groups are groups defined by the organization chart, consisting of
subordinates who report directly to a particular supervisor. The existence of this group is
more permanent, unless restructuring occurs. This group organization can disband. For
example, Management Lecturers and the Head of the Management Study Program are a
command group in the Faculty of Economics and Business UNSRAT.
b. Task groups are groups formed to complete a specific task or project. For example, the
FEB Dies Committee, UNSRAT New Student Admission, Student Management
Training Work Team, and others.
2. Informal groups are groups that arise from individual effort and develop around shared
interests and friendships rather than deliberate design. These informal groups arise naturally
to respond to the social needs of their members. Individuals who may not be members of the
same command group or task group may affiliate with these informal groups Informal groups
can be divided into two types:
a. Interest groups are groups formed at the initiative of individuals based on common
interests, goals or interests. The existence of this interest group can be unrelated to the
purpose of the organization but specific to each group. For example, some students who
wish to work in foreign companies form a group to learn English together.
b. Friendship groups are groups that are formed on the initiative of individuals because they
have something in common, such as age, gender, political beliefs, desire to play the same
sport, or ethnic background. These friendship groups often extend their interaction and
communication to activities outside of work. For example, some Japanese graduate
lecturers formed a group to strengthen the relationship between them.
Stage of Development Group
Luthans (2011: 342) and Gibson et al. (2012: 234), put forward a five-stage model in
understanding group development as follows:
1. Forming stage. This initial stage is characterized by uncertainty over goals, structure and
leadership. Members consider what type of behavior is appropriate and acceptable. This
stage is completed when members feel part of the group.
2. The storming stage. As the term (storming) indicates, this stage is characterized by
conflict and confrontation among members. They are still suspicious of each other
because they are not familiar with each other's traits and behaviors. When this stage is
complete there is structural certainty.
3. The norming stage. This stage the structure becomes solid, cohesiveness is high,
differences become cooperation.
4. Performing stage. At this stage the structure is functional and focused on task
completion. For a permanent working group, performing is final stage. For teams,
committees, task forces and the like, there is a dissolution stage.
5. Dismissal stage (adjourning). For team projects or tasks with a specific goal, when the
goal is achieved the group will disband or have a new composition and the stage starts
over.
The Punctuated Equilibrium Model
The Interrupted Balance model shows group development as a three-stage concept.
The first stage occurs when the group defines tasks, sets goals, and considers ways to execute
the steps of the plan or project. Then things are not changed very easily, due to a process of
systematic resistance to change. At some midpoint, the second stage begins. This stage begins
when group members suddenly realize that if they do not change tactics, the group's goals or
mission will not be achieved. This "mid-life crisis" in the group's existence is indicated by the
change of that are performed in tactics are followed by bursts of activity and energy designed
to accomplish the task. The name of the model comes from the equilibrium that exists in the
Teams are a special type of task group, consisting of two
or more individuals responsible for the achievement of a
goal or objective (Ivancevich et al. (2008).
first half of the group's life and the interrupted effort and behavior modification in the second
stage. While there has been only preliminary research into the interrupted equilibrium model,
it has considered intuitive appeals based on the common experiences most people have in
working on group projects.
Team Definition Work
Organizations that want to do their jobs better often form work groups or work teams.
Work groups and work teams are two concepts that are not the same. Experts give the
following definition of work teams:
Based on the two opinions above, it turns out that work teams are a special type of
task group. Work teams generate positive synergy through coordinated effort. Individual
efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of the individual's inputs.
This is different from work groups. A work group is a group that interacts primarily to share
information and make decisions to help each member perform within his or her area of
responsibility (Robbins & Judge, 2013: 309). Work groups do not have the need or
opportunity to engage in collective work as a joint endeavor. So
Their performance is simply the sum of each group member's individual contributions. There
is no positive synergy to create an overall level of performance that is greater than the sum of
the inputs.
Technological advances, global competition and various other changes in people's
lives today, require organizations to collaborate among their people in a cross-departmental
A team is a special type of work group, consisting of two
or more individuals who are responsible for the
achievement of a goal.
Work team is a group whose individual efforts result in
performance that is greater than the sum of the individual
inputs.Robbins and Judge (2013: 309),
Work teams are groups whose individual efforts result in
performance that is greater than the sum of individual
inputs.
or cross-skill team in doing their work. In essence, the mind of many will be better than the
mind of one person alone. Team building is the process of selecting, developing, facilitating,
and training a work group to successfully achieve a common goal. It involves motivating
members to take pride in carrying out their group tasks. The team builder must be able to
meet the demands of the task (quality of results, on time, etc.), and fulfill the needs of the
group members (fairness, no conflict, etc.). Table 8.1 shows the differences between work
groups and work teams.
Table 8.1. Differences between Work Groups and Work Teams
Dimensions
Working group
Work team
Destination
Information
sharing
Collective
performance
Synergy
Neutral (can be
negative)
Positive
Accountability
Individual
Individual
and mutual
Skills
Random and
varied
Complement
each other
Work result
Individual
Collective
Leadership
Strong and
focused
Together
Team Types Work
Robbins and Judge (2013: 310) classify the four most common types of teams as
follows:
a) (Problem-Solving Teams,)
b) (Selfmanaged work teams),
c) Cross-functional Teams,
d) Virtual Teams.
1. Problem-solving teams
Problem-solving teams are formed to solve problems faced by the organization such
as quality improvement, efficiency, work environment and others. These teams generally
consist of 4 - 12 people from the same department, sharing ideas and offering suggestions to
solve the problem at hand. Rarely are these teams given the authority to unilaterally put their
suggestions into action. One known form of Problem-Solving Team is the Quality Circle.
2. Self-managed work teams
A team that can not only solve problems, but also take full responsibility for the
results. These teams generally consist of 10 to 15 people who take over responsibilities from
supervisors. These responsibilities include overall control of workplace accidents, job
grading, troubleshooting, and problem solving organization, and the collective choice of
inspection procedures. The team even selects its own members.
3. Cross-Functional Teams
Teams are made up of individuals from the same hierarchical level but from different
work areas (departments, fields or sections) to accomplish a task. These cross-functional
teams aim to improve communication and traceability of work records, which will lead to
increased productivity and client satisfaction. For example, still according to Robbins,
between 1999 and June 2000 IBM's senior management pulled 21 workers from its
approximately 100,000 information technology staff for advice on how the company could
quickly complete projects and bring products quickly to market. The 21 members were
chosen because they shared similar characteristics in that they had successfully led fast-paced
projects. The "Speed Team", as the team was dubbed, worked for 8 months sharing
information, testing the differences between the projects fast- and slow-moving projects, and
they were able to come up with recommendations on how IBM could speed up production.
4. Virtual Teams
Virtual teams are groups that use computer technology and information systems as
tools for coordination with physically separated people to achieve common goals. These
techniques allow people to work together through online methods, even if they are separated
by countries and even continents. Virtual teams can do more than other teams, especially in
terms of information sharing, decision-making, and work completion. They consist of
members from the same organization or the relationship of organizational members with
workers from other organizations such as suppliers or company partners.
Virtual teams differ from face-to-face teams in three ways: (1) the absence of verbal-
physical communication; (2) the limited social context, and (3) the ability to overcome time
and place barriers. In face-to-face communication, people using verbal roles such as tone of
voice, intonation, and volume as well as nonverbal ones such as eye movements, facial
expressions, hand gestures, and other body language. They further clarify communication,
but they are now absent in virtual teams. Virtual teams suffer from a lack of humanized social
reports due to little direct interaction among its members.
COMMUNICATION:
In organizations, communication is used to carry out organizational activities in
achieving organizational goals. Communication is the exchange of information, ideas, data,
feelings or thoughts between two or more people. If information is not sent and understood
by the other party, then the information is considered useless. Therefore, the ability of each
member of the organization to convey and receive messages is very important.
Communication in each organization is different referring to the various ways, strategies and
communication tools used by both leaders and members. Whatever activities in the
organization, whether it is planning, organizing, leading and monitoring, will be
communicated with and through others. This implies that the communication skills of each
member affect the entire process of organizational activities. The success and failure of an
organization can be influenced by communication.
Because organizations consist of various collections of individuals with different
backgrounds in education, culture, and so on. Understanding the communication process can
help manage the organization effectively and efficiently. Communication difficulties such as
unclear and poor communication can cause misunderstandings and negative impacts on
performance and even create conflict in the organization.
This chapter discusses the definition of the communication process, communication in
organizations, effective communication, types of communication, communication barriers,
and cross-cultural communication.
Process Communication
Almost all organizational activities involve various kinds and ways of communication
whether verbal, written, non-verbal, and other forms of communication. There are several
definitions of communication.
Schermerhorn (2012) defines communication as:
Communication is the process of sending and receiving symbols with attached meanings.
(communication as sending and receiving messages with related meanings)
Keyton (2011) cited from Lunenburg (2010), communication is:
Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting information and common
understanding from one person to another (Keyton, 2011).
(the process of transmitting information and general understanding from one person to
another)
According to the Big Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI, 2002), communication is the
sending and receiving of messages between two or more people so that the intended message
can be understood, relationship, contact. In general, communicating can be interpreted as
making communication, namely by sending and receiving messages in achieving a common
understanding. Two People looking at the same image can have different understandings
without the communication process.
The communication process involves several communication components, namely the
sender of information, the recipient of information, the media or means of communication,
and feedback on the information conveyed. If one of the components is missing, then
communication cannot take place. In the communication process, there is coding to translate
information and interference that disrupts the flow of information. In addition, the
information conveyed in the communication process will be understood equally or differently
by the recipient. If the information is understood correctly then the sender's intent is
achieved.
Figure 9.1 shows a simple communication model with the following communication
components:
- The main parties in the communication process are the sender and the receiver. The
sender is the source of information that initiates the communication process by sending
initial information. The receiver is the party that receives the information.
- There are two communication tools, namely information and media/channels.
Information is a message conveyed either events, data, or explanations. The message
conveyed will be adjusted to the level of understanding, interests, and needs of both the
sender and the recipient. Media is a communication channel that delivers messages from
sender to receiver such as oral, written, or electronic media.
- There are four components that constitute the communication function, namely encoding
and decoding, feedback, and interference. Encoding is the process of translating
information into the form of words, symbols, or images.
Decoding is the process of deciphering information into a form that is understood by the
receiver. Feedback is a response to information sent either negatively or positively. Feedback
shows a common understanding that will avoid communication errors. Interference is an
obstacle that disrupts clarity during sending and receiving information.
Communication in organizations has the same communication process as in Figure 1.
Although the communication model looks simple, the communication process can be
complex. The sender and receiver of the message depends on who is the subject and object of
communication. In general, there is two-way communication between leaders and employees,
employees and leaders, or between employees. A manager who has financial information will
share information about financial data to employees in the finance department and to other
related sections. Receiving information from the manager to the employee will go through the
process of listening or reading the information. Information that Information conveyed can be
in the form of orders, directions, or advice (leaders to employees); reports, problems, or
suggestions (employees to leaders); problems or thoughts (employees to employees).
Information conveyed both from and to leaders must be in accordance with what is needed by
employees or information disclosure will avoid information gaps between employees and
leaders. As a tool for written communication media are job descriptions, bulletins or memos;
oral media are face-to-face or meetings; and electronic media are email or telephone.
In decoding and encoding, there can be a mismatch in translating information that has
the opportunity to cause misunderstanding. Managers who will communicate with employees
in the finance department must understand financial terms, and vice versa. Feedback is a
control to see if the delivery of information has occurred properly because feedback is a
response to the information received such as performing the requested task or a change in
facial expression. Organizations assess employee performance as feedback from leaders to
employees. Communication breakdowns can be in the form of feelings, stress levels,
atmosphere, or inappropriate communication methods used that lead to the spread of
misinformation or other problems. Managers who are under high levels of stress may do
uncomfortable things to employees or say things that provoke employee anger.
Communication in Organizations
Mohammad (2007), cites several definitions of organizational communication such as
organizational communication is the sending and receiving of information in complex
organizations (Redding and Sanborn), and organizational communication is the flow of
information, exchange of information and transfer of meaning within an organization (Katz
and Kahn). In organizations, communication is used to convey information both internally
and externally to the organization in improving performance and supporting the making of
decisions organizational decisions. Internal information is information that comes from
within the organization such as consumer data while external information is information that
comes from outside the organization such as the state of the economy. These information
flows are used by organizational members, customers, suppliers, or shareholders. Lack of
information can make it difficult for organizations to control activities, resources, time and
costs; interfere with decision making; and difficult to survive against competitors.
According to Robbin (2003), communication has four main functions in a group or
organization: control, motivation, emotional expression, and information.
1. Communication acts to control member behavior in several ways. Every organization has
formal authority and guidelines that employees must follow. Informal communication
also controls behavior.
2. Communication strengthens motivation by explaining to employees what they should do,
how well they should work, and what they should do that can be done to improve
substandard performance.
3. Communication within a group or organization is the fundamental mechanism by which
members express frustration and satisfaction. Therefore, communication facilitates the
release of emotional feelings and the fulfillment of social needs.
4. Communication provides individuals and groups with the information needed to make
decisions through the delivery of data to recognize and evaluate alternative options.
Communication in organizations is carried out in the form of two-way interactions
that generally occur between superiors and subordinates. When organizational members can
interact well and the process of conveying information is effective, misunderstandings or
communication errors can be prevented. Good communication skills enable organizational
members to do and complete work in accordance with organizational standards so that the
level of performance is getting better. This is due to the information sent and received in
accordance with what is needed in completing a job. Pincus (1986) found communication
positively related to performance but not as strong as the relationship between
communication and satisfaction while Rodwell (1998) found communication negatively
related to performance.
Effective Communication
Every member of the organization needs to have good communication skills so that
organizational goals are achieved effectively and efficiently. Communication methods or
techniques must be adjusted to the situation when communication is carried out. Good
communication is effective communication. Effective communication is a two-way
information flow communication where the sending and receiving of messages conveyed can
be received and understood properly. In other words, communication is said to be effective if
someone understands the information well and responds accordingly.
The more effective the communication, the more efficient and productive the
organizational activities will be. In addition, effective communication increases productivity,
reduces employee turnover, and improves the atmosphere of the organization. According to
Griffith (2002), the effectiveness of communication will determine the success of the
organization both in the short and long term and in research by Nebo, et al (2015), found that
effective communication is a solution to effective and efficient employee management
performance in an organization.
Effective communication is necessary for both employees and managers. For
employees, communication is needed to relate and interact with others in doing a job. For
managers, communication is needed to perform the basic management functions of planning,
organizing, directing, and controlling. Communication is the basis for planning work and
responsibilities. Information obtained must be communicated to all members of the
organization.
The organization and organization of information is done so that each member of the
organization knows their respective job duties and responsibilities. Managers communicate
with employees so that organizational plans and goals are achieved and exercise control
through oral and written communication.
Type Communication
Communication in organizations refers to the type of communication that occurs in
organizations. There are several types of communication such as formal and informal
communication, vertical and horizontal communication, and interpersonal communication.
Schermerhorn (2012) argues that there are two types of information flow in
organizations, namely formal and informal communication channels. Formal communication
channels follow the organization's chain of command, in the form of official messages such
as policies, procedures, or other official announcements that follow the hierarchical level of
power in accordance with the organizational structure. Informal communication channels do
not follow the chain of command, they can be in the form of unofficial or informal messages.
Gossip / rumors (grapevine) that are conveyed by not following the hierarchical level of
organizational authority or cutting across division / department lines. Informal
communication has the advantage of being able to convey information quickly and efficiently
but the disadvantage is if the information conveyed is incorrect or not timely. Furthermore,
according to Agarwal and Garg (2012), in organizations where there is formal and informal
communication, there is communication in the organization that plays an important role in
structuring organizational activities, goals, policies and company strategies.
Robbin (2003) states that communication flow occurs vertically or laterally
(horizontal). The vertical dimension is divided into downward and upward communication
flows.
1. Downward flow communication is communication that flows from one level in a group
or organization to a lower level. Downward flow communication need not necessarily be
oral communication or face-to-face contact.
2. The upward flow of communication is communication that goes to a higher level in a
group or organization. It is used to provide feedback to people in positions of power, to
keep them informed of progress towards goals and to communicate current issues.
3. Lateral is communication that occurs between members of the same work group,
between members of work groups at the same level, between managers at the same level,
or between individuals who are horizontal equals. Horizontal communication is often
needed to save time and aid coordination even if the vertical communication of a group
or organization is effective.
According to Robbin (2003), interpersonal communication is classified into three
types, namely: oral communication, written communication, and non-verbal communication.
1. The primary means of gathering messages is oral communication. Speeches, formal one-on-
one discussions and groups, and rumors or informal grapevine are popular forms of oral
communication. The advantages of oral communication are speed and feedback. A verbal
message can be delivered and a response received in a relatively short time. If the receiver is
unsure of the message, the quick feedback allows for early detection by the sender and
therefore allows for early correction. The biggest disadvantage of oral communication that
arises in organizations is when the message has to pass through a number of people. The
more people the message passes through, the greater the chance of the message being
distorted.
2. Written communication includes memos, letters, electronic mail, fax transmissions,
organizational newsletters, board announcements, bulletins and other tools that communicate
information through written words or symbols. The advantage of written communication is
that it is tangible and can be proven or can be used as evidence. Generally, both the sender
and receiver have a record of the communication. Messages can be stored indefinitely. If
there are questions about the content of the message, it is physically available for future
reference. The disadvantages of written messages are that they take relatively longer and
feedback is received relatively later than oral communication.
3. Non-verbal communication such as body movements, intonation or emphasis on words, facial
expressions, and physical distance between the sender and receiver. Every body movement
has a meaning and no movement is unintentional. A soft, subtle tone creates a different
meaning than a harsh intonation with a strong emphasis on the last word. Facial expressions
also convey meaning. Facial expressions, along with intonation, can indicate arrogance,
aggressiveness, fear, embarrassment and other characteristics that would never be
communicated if one were to read a transcript of what has been said. The way in which
individuals distance themselves in terms of physical distance also has Meaning. What is
considered an appropriate distance depends largely on cultural norms. If one is closer than is
considered appropriate, it may indicate aggressiveness or sexual interest; if further away than
usual, it may mean disinterest or displeasure with what is being said.
Barriers Communication
Communication occurs when the receiver understands the message sent by the sender
and there is feedback that shows the similarity of understanding of the message. However, the
presence of communication barriers can lead to disruption of the communication process.
Robbin (2003), mentions several communication barriers namely filtering, selective
perception, information overload, gender style, emotion and language.
1. Filtering leads to the sender manipulating information so that it will appear more
favorable to the receiver. Number of levels in the organizational structure as a key
determinant of filtering. The more vertical the level in the organizational hierarchy, the
more filtering opportunities occur. Factors such as the fear of breaking bad news and the
desire to please superiors often cause employees to give information about what they
think their superiors want to hear, distorting upward communication.
2. Recipients in the communication process selectively see and hear based on their needs,
motivations, experiences, backgrounds and other individual characteristics. A
prospective interviewer who predicts that a female job applicant will place more
importance on her family than her career is likely to see that in the applicant, regardless
of whether the applicant feels that way or not.
3. Individuals have a limited capacity to process data. When the information available
exceeds the processing capacity, the result is information overload. When individuals
have more information than they can sort out and use then they will tend to ignore, skip,
forget the information, or delay further processing until the overwhelming situation is
over. Although the result is lost information and less effective communication.
4. Men and women use oral communication for different reasons. As a result, gender
becomes an obstacle to effective communication between the sexes.
5. How the receiver feels when receiving a communication message will affect how he or
she interprets the message. Similar messages received when angry or upset are often
interpreted differently than when happy. Extreme emotions such as excitement or
depression are most likely to hinder effective communication.
6. Words mean different things to different people. Age, education, and cultural
background are three of the variables that greatly influence the language that people use
a person uses and the definitions he or she gives to those words. In an organization,
employees usually come from a variety of different backgrounds. Grouping employees
into departments creates expertise in developing jargon or "technical language".
Communication is a complex process and can be difficult for both managers and
employees. Although individuals have an understanding of basic communication skills, they
often fail to apply them. Generally, communication between employees and managers will
run smoothly when it comes to job reporting because of standardized standards and
procedures. However, communication that does not follow the rules of the organizational
hierarchy can cause conflict and disrupt organizational communication. In addition,
employees who are reluctant to communicate complaints and suggestions formally, especially
matters outside of work, can cause communication barriers.
Some studies show the impact of communication barriers, such as: a lot of jargon
words used in daily communication becomes worthless when communicating ideas or
information so that it tends to have a negative impact on effective and efficient
communication in organizations (Patoko and Yazdanifard, 2014).
Cross-Cultural Communication
Organizations with an international business scope will always intersect with cross-
cultural communication. The communication process depends on cultural background and the
result of message interpretation can be different for each individual so that someone can
evaluate or act differently. Cultural differences such as language, behavior, habits, or customs
can affect cross-cultural communication so that individuals must always be careful when
engaging in cross-cultural communication.
Communication is considered a unifier of cultural differences but can be difficult if
there are dividing factors between one culture and another others. Schermerhorn (2012),
mentions the common problems that occur in cross-cultural communication are parochialism
and ethnocentrism. Parochialism is the assumption that one's cultural way is the only way to
do things. For Americans, English is the only language of international business and do not
feel it is important to learn other languages (monolingualism). Ethnocentrism is the tendency
to believe that one culture and its values are superior to those of others. This is accompanied
by an unwillingness to try to understand alternative viewpoints and a preference for taking
the values they represent seriously. Ethnocentrism can be seen when expatriates perceive that
the home organization's work culture is better and do not tolerate the work culture of local
employees. Jenifer and Raman (2015), found that cross-cultural communication barriers such
as anxiety, uncertainty, stereotypes, and ethnocentrism are caused by cultural knowledge
inadequate and lack of cross-cultural communicative skills.
With the globalization of markets, production, economics, and consumption activities,
cross-cultural communication becomes important in the process of organizational activities
such as in decision making, the process of reaching agreements, forming strategic alliances,
or creating joint ventures in several countries. Cross-cultural differences can cause conflicts
and misunderstandings among employees due to differences in values, beliefs, backgrounds,
and others. So multinational companies must take steps to overcome cross-cultural
communication barriers in order to achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently.
Multinational organizations can reduce problems in cross-cultural communication by
increasing each individual's awareness and understanding of other cultures or adequate
training for cross-cultural communication, and exposure to other cultures. He and Liu's
research (2010), shows that communication barriers come from the influence of national
culture on the workplace and the behavior of people with different identities, moreover,
culture also affects the way people think and behave and results in different understanding of
the company's vision and goals.
Furthermore, Robbin (2003), says that a better understanding of cultural barriers and
their implications in cross-cultural communication can be achieved by considering high and
low concept cultures. Cultures tend to differ in the importance with which context affects an
individual's meaning of what is actually said or written according to who the other person is.
High context cultures rely heavily on nonverbal and situational cues when communicating
with others. In this culture, one's official status, placement in society, and reputation play
more of a role in communication. High context culture countries are China, Vietnam and
Saudi Arabia. High-context culture is seen in decision-making inefficiencies, not oriented to
the cause of the problem, unable to decide in the negotiation process, and no separation
between personal and work issues.
Low context cultures rely on words to convey meaning. Body language or formal
titles are secondary to the spoken and written word. Low context culture countries are Europe
and North America. Low context culture can be seen in the speed of decision-making, focus
on the cause of the problem, speed of decision in the negotiation process and separation
between personal and work issues. Croucher et al (2012) found that high-context countries
(India and Thailand) prefer avoidant and obliging conflict styles more than low-context
countries (Ireland and the United States), while low-context countries prefer dominating
conflict styles more than high-context countries. However, the results of this study contradict
previous research that high-context countries favor a compromising style over a dominating
one low-context countries, and countries are mixed in their level of preference for integration
styles.
