BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND WORK BEHAVIOR
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
SOC 324 - SOCIOLOGY OF WORK AND ORGANIZATIONS
SPRING 2024
Introduction
Individual characteristics are very important in studying organizational behavior,
because they directly affect work behavior. Understanding individual behavior is very
important because each individual is unique, different from one individual to another. To be
able to understand individual behavior well, we must first understand the characteristics
inherent in the individual himself. When an individual enters the organization where they
work and interacts with the work environment, it will have an impact on individual work
behavior.
Organizational performance depends on individual performance, therefore a manager
cannot ignore the need to know individual characteristics both as subordinates and fellow
managers. Each individual is different in many ways, A manager needs to know how
differences affect the behavior and performance of his subordinates. To understand individual
differences, managers must observe and recognize differences, study the variables that
influence individual behavior, and find relationships among variables.
Individual characteristics include biographical characteristics, psychological
characteristics, abilities and skills. This chapter will discuss biographical characteristics
including age, gender, race, length of service, and marital status in relation to work behavior,
namely employee productivity, turnover, absenteeism, organizational citizenship behavior,
and job satisfaction.
Work Behavior
Work behavior is anything a person does in the work environment (Ivancevich et.al.
2005: 79). Talking to managers, listening to coworkers, inventing new methods to get the job
done are all part of work behavior increasing sales, documenting reports, learning new things,
etc. are all work behaviors.
Work behavior in organizations is very complex because it is influenced by various
work environment variables, non-work, and individual variables or it can be said that
individual behavior is a function of individual variables and environmental variables. Figure
3.1 provides guidelines on how to study individual behavior in organizations related to
relevant variables that affect human behavior in organizations.
Environmental variables consist of work environment variables and variables outside
the work environment. Individual variables consist of psychological variables, biographical
characteristics, abilities and skills. All of these variables will affect individual work behavior
for example in problem solving, thought processes, communication, observation, and
movement. Furthermore, this individual behavior will have an impact on the results in the
organization.
Work behavior will have an impact on the outcome, which can produce positive long-
term and short-term achievements, self-development, job satisfaction or vice versa, poor
long-term performance and lack of development. According to Robbins (2005: 26), the
outcomes of work behavior are productivity, turnover, absenteeism, job satisfaction, and
organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Robbins & Judge (2013: 25) work behavior
outcomes are attitudes and stress, task performance, citizenship behavior, and withdrawal
behavior.
Productivity:
Performance measures include effectiveness and efficiency. An organization is said to
be productive when it achieves its goals and does so by converting inputs into results at the
lowest possible cost. Therefore, productivity implies both effectiveness and efficiency issues.
Organizational productivity for example, a hospital is said to be effective when it successfully
meets the needs of its patients, and the hospital is efficient when it can meet the needs of its
patients at a low cost. Productivity from the perspective of an individual employee must also
take into account the sacrifices made to achieve a goal. For example, two students from the
same faculty graduate because they have completed their studies. The first student completed
his studies on time in four years but the second student completed his studies in seven years.
Both students are said to be effective because they have succeeded, but the student who
finished in four years is said to be efficient.
Turnover:
Employee turnover is the permanent voluntary or involuntary departure from an
organization. High employee turnover results in increased recruitment, selection, and training
costs. This certainly brings losses to the organization. However, if the employees who leave
the organization are poor performers, then employee turnover can actually be positive, as it
creates an opportunity to replace the poor performer with someone who is more skilled or
motivated, opens up more opportunities for promotion, and adds new ideas to the
organization. However, it is not uncommon for employee turnover to lead to the loss of
individuals that the organization would like to retain. If employee turnover involves high-
performing employees, it can be a disruptive factor that hinders organizational effectiveness.
Absenteeism:
Absenteeism, which is not coming to work without a report. Absenteeism is a huge
loss and disruption for employers, and it is difficult for an organization to operate smoothly
and achieve its goals when employees are absent.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior:
Organizational Citizenship Behavior, (OCB), is preferred behavior that is not part of
an employee's formal work obligations, but supports the effective functioning of the
organization. Successful organizations need employees who will go above and beyond their
regular duties who will deliver performance that exceeds expectations. In today's dynamic
world of work, tasks are increasingly done in teams and flexibility is essential. Organizations
need employees who will exhibit good citizenship behaviors, such as helping other
individuals in the team, volunteering to work in a team, or volunteering to work in a team do
extra work, avoid unnecessary conflict, and graciously tolerate the occasional work-related
losses and disruptions. Organizations want and need employees who are willing to do tasks
that are not listed in their job descriptions. Facts show that organizations with such
employees perform better than others.
Job Satisfaction:
Job satisfaction, a positive feeling about one's job that is the result of evaluating its
characteristics. Someone with a high level of job satisfaction has positive feelings about their
job, while someone who is dissatisfied has negative feelings about their job. In contrast to
previous work behaviors, job satisfaction describes attitudes more than behavior. Job
satisfaction is widely associated with performance factors, that employees who are satisfied
are more productive when compared to employees who are dissatisfied who are dissatisfied.
Although research results have not been consistent in supporting this relationship.
One's job demands interaction with co-workers and superiors, following
organizational rules and policies, meeting performance standards, accepting often less than
ideal working conditions, and so on. This means that an employee's assessment of how
satisfied or dissatisfied he or she is with the job is a complicated matter of a number of
different job elements. Five job dimensions have been identified to measure job satisfaction
(Luthans, 2011: 141), namely:
•
The work itself. In terms of the job providing interesting tasks, opportunities to learn,
and opportunities to accept responsibility
•
Salary. The amount of pay received and the degree to which this can be viewed as
appropriate compared to others in the organization.
•
Promotion opportunities. Opportunities for promotion within the organization.
•
Supervision. Ability supervisor to provide technical assistance and behavioral support.
•
Coworkers. The degree to which coworkers are technically proficient and socially
supportive.
Job Satisfaction and Performance:
Do satisfied employees perform better than less satisfied employees? Research results
regarding the relationship between job satisfaction and performance are still controversial
today. For example, there are studies that reveal that job satisfaction affects performance
rather than performance affecting job satisfaction. Research evidence also indicates that job
satisfaction may not necessarily result in individual performance development, but lead to
departmental and organizational level development.
Job Satisfaction and Turnover:
Does high employee job satisfaction result in low turnover? High job satisfaction will
not lead to employee turnover.
(turnover) is low, but this may be helpful. Conversely if there is job dissatisfaction, then
employee turnover may be high. There are several factors at play in this such as age, position
in the organization, and commitment to the organization. Some people do not have the
opportunity to work elsewhere, so they stay despite being dissatisfied. On the other hand,
even if they are satisfied, many people will want to leave if there is a more promising
opportunity.
Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism:
Research shows a weak negative relationship between job satisfaction and
absenteeism. As with employee turnover, many other variables are taken into consideration
for example, the degree to which people feel that their work is important. Research proves
that employees who believe their jobs are important have lower absenteeism than employees
who do not feel their jobs are important. In addition, it is important that high job satisfaction
does not necessarily result in absenteeism low, but low job satisfaction might lead to
absenteeism.
Job Satisfaction and OCB:
Job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employee's OCB. Satisfied
employees seem more likely to speak positively about the organization, help other
individuals, and exceed normal expectations in their jobs. In addition, satisfied employees
may be more apt to go the extra mile on the job because they want to respond to their positive
experiences. Some research suggests that job satisfaction affects OCB, but through
perceptions of fairness.
Job Satisfaction and Customer Satisfaction:
In service organizations, job satisfaction of frontline employees who interact directly
with customers is positively related to customer satisfaction. Many studies have proven that
satisfied employees can increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. Satisfied employees
tends to be more friendly, cheerful, and responsive to customers. However, the relationship
can work the other way around in that dissatisfied customers can increase an employee's job
dissatisfaction. Employees who have regular relationships with customers report that
customers who are rude, inconsiderate of others, or unreasonably demanding, affect
employee job satisfaction.
Characteristics Biography
Biographical characteristics, personal characteristics-such as age, gender, race, and
length of tenure-that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records (Robbins &
Judge, 2013: 45).
(Biographical characteristics are individual characteristics such as age, gender, race, length of
service, which are obtained easily and objectively from a person's personal file). These
biographical characteristics are often linked to work behavior as mentioned earlier.
As a person's age increases, their productivity tends to decrease. This of course
depends on the type of work one is engaged in. Age and productivity are not negatively
correlated; age-related declines are often offset by experience-related gains. When age is
linked to job satisfaction, some studies indicate a positive relationship, but this is not
consistent with other studies. However, when separated between professional and non-
professional employees, job satisfaction tends to increase among professional employees as
they age, whereas among non-professional employees job satisfaction decreases during
middle age and increases again in later years. The relationship between age and turnover can
be explained by the fact that the older a person is, the less likely they are to find another job
and thus turnover decreases. Older employees are less likely to resign when compared to
younger employees. Most studies show that age is also inversely related to absenteeism.
However, it can be explained that the relationship is partly a function of whether or not
absenteeism is avoidable. Generally, older employees have lower rates of avoidable
absenteeism than younger employees. But they have higher rates of unavoidable absenteeism,
perhaps due to poorer health associated with aging.
Gender. Do men perform better than women. This question is not supported by
research results. There is no consistent difference between men and women in terms of
problem-solving, analyzing, competitiveness, motivation, learning ability. What about
turnover and absenteeism? Some studies show that turnover is not significantly different
between men and women, while others show that women have higher turnover rates, so there
is not enough information to draw meaningful conclusions. However, absenteeism
consistently show that women have higher absenteeism rates than men. This is
understandable due to their nature as women.
Race. Race as a biological inheritance that individuals use to identify themselves, in
this case identifying their own race. Race has been studied in relation to employment
outcomes such as selection decisions, performance evaluations, and workplace discrimination
(Robbins & Judge, 2013:48). In employment situations, there is a tendency for individuals to
favor colleagues of their own race in performance evaluations, promotion decisions, and
salary increases. There is also often a dilemma, for example employers who use ability tests
for selection, promotion, training, and other decisions are concerned that the tests may have a
negative impact on ethnic groups.
Tenure. If seniority is defined as the length of time one has been in a particular job, it
can be said that there is a positive relationship between seniority and productivity (Robbins &
Judge, 2013:50). Thus tenure, expressed as work experience, appears to be a good predictor
of employee productivity. Research linking tenure to absenteeism consistently shows that
seniority is negatively related to absenteeism. This means that the longer one's tenure, the less
likely absenteeism is to occur. Tenure is also a strong variable in explaining employee
turnover. The longer a person is in the workforce, the less likely they are to resign. In relation
to job satisfaction, many studies prove that tenure and job satisfaction have a positive
relationship, meaning that the longer a person is in his job, the higher his job satisfaction.
PERSONALITY AND LEARNING
Introduction:
Personality is one of the psychological variables that is widely studied in relation to
work behavior. In the development of personnel management practices, such as effective
selection, the application of behavioral science is essential to discover (1) how to get people
who have the mental qualities best suited to the work they have to do, (2) under which
psychological conditions the greatest and most satisfactory output can be obtained from each
person's work, (3) how a company can influence workers in such a way that the best possible
results can be obtained from them.
Early studies in the history of management development that work environment
Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique
adjustments to his environment (Robbins & Judge 2013:
133). (Personality is the dynamic organization of
psychological systems within the individual that determines
his unique adjustments to his environment).
Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies
that determine commonalities and differences in people's
behavior (Gibson et.al, 2012: 107).
factors, working hour arrangements, and wages did not affect the level of employee
productivity but there were other factors in employees such as personality, attitudes, and
social relationships within work groups that play a role in increasing productivity. So it is
very important that we study personality in organizational behavior because it has a
significant impact on work results. This chapter discusses the definition of personality,
personality theory, personality characteristics, personality and work behavior, the definition
of learning, learning theory, and methods of behavior formation.
Definition Personality
Here put forward some definitions of personality:
Based on this definition, a person's personality is a relatively stable set of
characteristics, tendencies, and temperaments that are shaped in real time by heredity and
social, cultural, and environmental factors. These variables determine characteristics and
differences in individual behavior. In general, a person's personality is influenced by heredity
(Personality is a stable collection of characteristics and
tendencies that determine the general nature and differences
in a person's behavior).
Personality is a relatively stable set of feelings and
behaviors that have been significantly forme by genetic and
environmental factors (Ivancevich et.al, 2005: 88).
(Personality is a relatively fixed set of feelings and behaviors
that are significantly formed by hereditary and
environmental factors).
and environment. Heredity refers to the genetic factors of an individual. Such as physical
shape, face shape, temperament, etc., are traits that are considered to be partially or
completely influenced by our parents either biologically, physiological, as well as
psychological. The environmental factors we grow up in, the norms of our family, friends and
social groups all play a role in shaping our personality. Heredity provides us with innate traits
and abilities, but our full potential is determined by how well we adjust to the environment.
In addition, a person's personality, while generally stable and consistent, can change
depending on the situation they are in. That is, different demands from different situations
bring out different aspects of one's personality.
Theory Personality
There are three theoretical approaches to understanding personality, namely the trait
approach, the psychodynamic approach, and the humanistic approach (Gibson et.al. 2012:
108).
Trait theory. Trait theory is based on the premise that predispositions direct
individual behavior in consistent patterns. Gordon Allport is one of the most influential trait
theorists. In his view, traits are the bricks of a building, the reason for action, the source of
individual uniqueness. A trait is a presumed tendency that directs behavior in a consistent
manner and characterizes certain characteristics. Furthermore, traits produce consistency in
behavior, as they are continuing attributes and are broad in scope. Trait theory has been
criticized as not being a real theory because it does not explain how behavior occurs. The
identification of nothing more than a few traits such as strong-minded, conservative,
favorable, aloof, or friendly offers no insight into the development and dynamics of
personality. Furthermore, the trait approach is unsuccessful in predicting behaviors that fall
outside the spectrum of situations, due to the fact that situations are largely ignored in trait
theories.
Psychodynamic Theory. Sigmund Freud explained individual personality differences
by concluding that people have different underpinnings. To highlight these differences, he
It describes an ongoing struggle between the two parts of the personality, the id and the
superego, mediated by the ego. The id is the part of the personality that contains the impulse
to produce satisfaction and pursue pleasure. The id is likened to a boiling cauldron full of
desires that immediately want to be satisfied without considering whether or not these desires
if carried out violate norms. The superego is the repository of individual values, including
moral attitudes shaped by society. The superego, which is closely related to consciousness, is
often in conflict with the id. The id wants to do what feels good, while the superego insists on
doing what is right. The ego acts as the arbiter of the conflict. Part of the ego's job is to
choose actions that satisfy the urges of the id without having undesirable consequences. Often
the ego has to compromise, to try and satisfy both the id and superego. Of the three
components of personality, which component dominates a person. If the id component
dominates the personality If a person's personality is dominated by the superego component,
there is a tendency that a person's personality will be negative and his behavior will only
follow his heart without considering whether his actions violate the norms of society or not.
Conversely, if one's personality is dominated by the superego component, there is a tendency
that one's behavior will be positive or good. Therefore, in conducting the selection process, it
is necessary to include personality elements in determining graduation criteria, especially
those whose personalities are dominated by the superego component.
Humanistic Theory. The humanistic approach to understanding personality
emphasizes individual development and self-actualization and the importance of how a
person perceives their world and all the forces that influence them. Carl Rogers said that
listen to what people say about them and pay attention to the opinions and meanings of
people's experiences.
Characteristics Personality
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), is the most frequently used personality
assessment instrument. The assessment instrument contains 100 questionnaires that ask how
people usually feel or act in certain situations. Based on the answers given in the test,
individuals are classified as extraverted or introverted (E or I), sensitive or intuitive (sensing
or intuitive = S or N), thinker or feeler (thinking or feeling = T or F), and judging or
perceiving (J or P). These terms are defined (Robbins & Judge, 2013: 135) as follows:
•
Extraverted versus Introverted. Individuals with extraverted characteristics are described
as outgoing, sociable, and assertive; whereas individuals with introverted characteristics
are described as quiet and shy.
•
Sensing versus Intuitive. Individuals with sensitive characteristics are described as
practical and prefer routine and order. they focus on details. In contrast, individuals with
intuitive characteristics rely on unconscious processes and look at the "big picture".
•
Thinking versus Feeling. Individuals who fall under the thinker characteristic use reason
and logic to deal with various issues, whereas individuals with the feeling characteristic
rely on their personal values and emotions.
•
Judging versus Perceiving. Individuals who tend to have perceiving characteristics want
control and prefer their world to be organized and structured, whereas individuals with
judging characteristics tend to be more flexible and spontaneous.
Despite its popularity, there is no clear evidence whether the MBTI is a valid measure
of personality. The downside of the MBTI is that it forces a person to be categorized as one
type or another (i.e., you are either introverted or extroverted). There is no in-between,
although individuals can be extroverted and introverted to some degree.
The Big Five Personality Model. Many studies support that five basic dimensions underlie
each other and account for most of the significant variation in human personality. The big
five factors include:
•
Extraversion. This dimension reveals a person's level of comfort in relating to other
individuals. Individuals who have extraversion tend to like to live in groups, be assertive,
and socialize easily. In contrast, introverted individuals tend to be solitary, timid, and
reserved.
•
Agreeableness. This dimension refers to an individual's tendency to be compliant with
other individuals. Individuals who are highly agreeable are cooperative, warm and
trusting. Meanwhile, individuals who are not agreeable tend to be cold, unfriendly, and
defiant.
•
Conscientiousness. This dimension is a measure of trustworthiness. Individuals who are
highly cautious individuals are responsible, organized, reliable and persistent. In contrast,
individuals with low conscientiousness tend to be easily confused, disorganized and unreliable.
•
Emotional stability, often referred to by its opposite, neurosis. This dimension assesses a
person's ability to withstand stress. Individuals with positive emotional stability tend to
be calm, confident, and have a firm stand. Meanwhile, individuals with negative
emotional stability tend to be easily nervous, worried, depressed, and have no firm
stance.
Openness to experience (open to new things). Individuals who are very open tend to
be creative, curious, and sensitive to matters of art. In contrast, those who are not open tend
to be conventional and comfortable with the way things are. Figure 4.1 presents how the Big
Five Traits predict work behavior.
Research on the Big Five Model has found links between these personality dimensions and
individual work behavior. Such as the dimensions of agreeableness, extraversion, and
openness related to individual work engagement (Bozionelos 2003). Extraversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness are positively related to work engagement,
while neuroticism is negatively related to work engagement (Zaidi, et.al. 2013). Another
research result is that agreeableness and consciousness are correlated with all dimensions of
organizational commitment; namely positively correlated with affective commitment and
normative commitment, on the other hand negatively correlated with continuance
commitment (Celik and Oral, 2016).
Many facts we encounter also show that individuals who are trustworthy, reliable,
responsible, able to plan, organized, hardworking, persistent, and achievement-oriented tend
to have higher job performance in most occupations. In addition, employees with a high
cautious attitude tend to have high working knowledge, as these types of individuals may
exert considerable effort in their work. Thus, higher working knowledge effect on improving
work performance. Research has also shown a relatively strong and consistent relationship
between conscientiousness and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). However, this
appears to be the only one of the big five personality dimensions that predicts OCB.
Therefore, there is a need for more recent studies that support these studies.
For other personality dimensions, predictability depends on job performance criteria
and work group. For example, extraversion can be used to predict job performance in
managerial and sales positions. This makes sense because the work in these positions requires
a high degree of social interaction. Similarly, openness to new things is considered important
in predicting proficiency during training. What is not so clear is that positive emotional
stability is not related to job performance. Intuitively, it would seem that individuals who are
calm and determined would perform better in almost every job when compared to individuals
who are easily nervous and depressed.
In addition to linking to job performance, the Big Five Model also has other
implications for work and life. Compared to individuals with introverted characteristics,
extraverted individuals tend to be happier in their work and life as a whole. They usually
have many friends and spend more time socializing than introverted individuals.
Individuals with high emotional stability are happier than those with low emotional
stability. According to the Big Five Model, emotional stability is strongly associated with a
comfortable life, job satisfaction, and low stress levels. High emotional stability is also
associated with fewer health complaints. One advantage of low emotional stability is that,
when in a bad mood, individuals with this characteristic tend to make more informed and
better decisions than individuals with low emotional stability with stable emotions are in a
bad mood. Individuals with high levels of openness to novelty tend to be more creative in
science and art, less religious, and most likely more liberal than those with low levels of
openness to novelty. Open individuals cope better with organizational change and are more
adaptable in dynamic contexts.
Personality and Behavior
Recent research has found a link between personality and performance although it has
not been consistent. There are several key dimensions of personality that influence how a
person behaves in the organization.
Locus of control. Locus of control is a personality characteristic that describes people who
see the control of their lives as coming from inside themselves as internalizers. People who
believe that their lives are controlled by external factors are externalizers (Gibson, et.al.
2012: 111). (Locus of control is a personality characteristic that describes people who consider that
control of their lives comes from within themselves as internalizers. People who believe that their
lives are controlled by external factors are called externalizers).
Locus of control, the degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate.
Internals are individuals who believe that they control what happens to them. Externals are
individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as
luck or chance (Robbins, 2005: 105).
(Locus of control is the degree to which individuals believe that they are the determinants of
their own destiny. Internals are individuals who believe that they are in control of whatever
happens to them. Externals are individuals who believe that whatever happens to them is
controlled by external forces such as luck or chance).
With locus of control work behavior can be explained through employees' assessment
of their results. Employees who perceive internal control believe that they alone determine
their fate and can influence outcomes through their own abilities, skills, or efforts. In contrast,
employees who perceive external control think that their lives are determined by external
forces such as luck, task difficulty, or other people. For example, if one thinks that success in
school is determined by the teacher or sheer luck, then one may not believe that they are
capable of getting an A.
Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy is a belief that one can perform adequately in a particular
situation (Gibson et.al, 1012: 113).
(Self-efficacy is a belief that one can perform adequately in a given situation).
Self-efficacy relates to personal beliefs regarding competencies and abilities (Ivancevich
et.al. 2005: 94).
(Self-efficacy relates to one's beliefs about competence and ability).
Self-efficacy is character-based because it is task-specific and can be trained and
developed. It not only has important implications for training, but also for many things in
today's workplace such as selection. People with high self-efficacy focus on opportunities
worth pursuing and see obstacles as surmountable, while people with low self-efficacy
hesitate in adversity because they see obstacles as something they cannot control and easily
convince themselves that their efforts will be in vain.
The concept of self-efficacy includes three dimensions, namely magnitude, strength,
and generality (Ivancevich, et.al. 2005: 94). The magnitude dimension relates to the level of
difficulty of the task that is believed to be completed. Strength relates to whether the
magnitude is high and can produce perseverance when facing difficulties. Generality as the
flexibility of the form self-efficacy that a person has to be used in other different situations. Some
implications for managers and organizations include; in selection decisions, training programs, and in
setting goals and organizational performance should consider individuals who have high self-efficacy.
Definition Learning
If we want to explain and predict behavior, we need to understand how individuals
learn. Most behaviors in organizations are learned behaviors. This section will discuss the
definition of learning, learning theories, and how to shape behavior.
Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience (Robbins, 2005: 48).
(Learning is any change that is relatively permanent
Retrieved from behavior that occur as result of experience).
Learning is the process by which a relatively enduring change
in behavior occurs as a result of result of practice (Gibson
et.al, 2012: 158).
Theories of Learning
There are three learning theories to explain the process by which we acquire patterns
of behavior, namely: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning
(Robbins 2005: 49).
Classical Conditioning. Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning where the
individual responds to some unusual stimulus and produces a new response. This theory grew
out of experiments to teach dogs to salivate in response to a ringing bell, conducted in the
early 1900s by a psychologist named Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning is a type of
conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimuli that will not always produce
such a response. Classical conditioning in an organization, for example in a manufacturing
plant, whenever a top executive from the head office is scheduled to visit, the factory
manager would tidy up the administrative office and clean the windows. This went on for
years. Eventually the employees would demonstrate their good behavior whenever the
windows were cleaned, even when the cleaning was not associated with a visit from the top.
People had learned to associate window cleaning with a visit from the head office.
Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning is a type of conditioning in which
expected voluntary behavior results in a reward or prevents a punishment. The tendency to
repeat such behavior is influenced by the presence or absence of reinforcement of the
consequences produced by the behavior. Thus, reinforcement will strengthen a behavior and
increase the likelihood of it being repeated. What Pavlov did for classical conditioning,
Harvard psychologist B.F. Skinner did for operant conditioning. Skinner argued that, creating
pleasant consequences for following a certain form of behavior
(Learning is the process by which changes in behavior occur
that are relatively enduring as a result of practice)
will increase the frequency of the behavior. People learn to behave to get something they
want or avoid something they don't want. Operant behavior means voluntary or learned
behavior as opposed to unlearned behavior. The tendency to repeat such behavior is
influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences
of the behavior. Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood
that it will be repeated. People will mostly exhibit a desired behavior if they are positively
reinforced to do so. Rewards, for example, are most effective if they immediately follow the
desired response. Also, behaviors that are not rewarded are less likely to be repeated.
Social learning. Social learning is the view that people learn through observation and
direct experience. Although social learning theory is An extension of operant conditioning,
this theory assumes that behavior is a function of consequences. The theory proposed by
Albert Bandura also recognizes the existence of learning through observation and the
importance of perception in learning. The theory posits that individuals can also learn by
observing what happens to others or by experiencing directly. For example, much of what we
have learned comes from watching models: parents, teachers, coworkers, bosses, and others.
Model influence is central to the social learning point of view. There are four processes that
determine the influence of a model on an individual: (1) attentional processes, we tend to be
strongly influenced by models that are interesting, repeatedly present, important to us, or
similar to us in terms of our expectations; (2) retention processes, the influence of a model
will depend on how well the individual remembers the model's actions after the model is no
longer present; (3) motor reproduction processes, after an individual has seen a new behavior
by observing the model, (4) reinforcement processes, individuals will be motivated to exhibit
behaviors learned from models if positive stimuli or rewards are provided. Reinforced
behaviors will receive more attention, be better learned, and performed more often.
Based on these three theories, there are things that must be understood, namely
stimulus, stimulus, response, and reinforcement. An arousal is a state that develops from
within. There are primary stimuli such as hunger, this cannot be learned as it is inherent, and
there are secondary stimuli such as anxiety about attending a meeting, performance review
feedback, these can be learned. Stimulus is a hint of an event for a response, for example, a
supervisor's request is a stimulus to complete a certain job, the clock is a stimulus to get up
and do activities. Response is the behavioral result of stimulation, responses in organizations
can be written, manual or instructions. A reinforcer is any object or event that increases or
maintains the strength of a response, such as praise, salary increases, and so on.
We have seen individuals experience learning, seen individuals behave in certain
ways as a result of learning. In other words, we can conclude that learning has occurred when
an individual behaves, reacts, and responds as a result of an experience in a way that is
different from how he or she behaved before.
Methods of Behavior Formation
There are four ways to shape behavior, namely: positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, punishment, and extinction; (Robbins, 2005: 53).
If a response is followed by something pleasant, it is called positive reinforcement; for
example, a boss praising an employee for a job well done. When a response is followed by
the cessation of something unpleasant, the response is called negative reinforcement.
Punishment will result in an unpleasant condition in an attempt to get rid of an unwanted
behavior, for example suspending an employee for coming to work drunk. Removing any
reinforcement that maintains a behavior is called extinction. If a behavior is not reinforced, it
will eventually fade away and become extinct.
We have seen individuals experience learning, seen individuals behave in
certain ways as a result of learning, and we have "learned" at some stage in our own lives. In
other words, we can conclude that learning has occurred when an individual behaves, reacts,
and responds as a result of an experience in a way that is different from how he or she
behaved before.
