ISLAMIC HISTORY
PRE-ISLAMIC ARAB SOCIETY
A. RELIGIOUS SYSTEM
Arabs are the indigenous people of the Arabian Peninsula peninsula located in the
southwestern part of Asia, most of its surface consists of deserts. In general, the climate in
the Arabian Peninsula is extremely hot, even among the hottest and driest on earth.
Geologists estimate that the Arabian mainland was once a vast stretch of desert stretching
from the Sahara in Africa to the Gobi Desert in central Asia. There is not a single river in
this peninsula, except in the southern part which is always watery and flows to the sea. In
addition to the wadi-wadi, which is only watery during rain, even though it never rains in
this vast desert area. The Arabs belonged to the Smith family, namely the descendants of
Ibn Noah, cognate with the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Assyrians, Hebrews, Phoenicians,
Arans and Hasbish.
It is the Arabs who are still alive today, while most of the others have vanished and
are no longer known. Arab historians divide the Arabs into two major groups, namely
Baidah Arabs and Baqiyah Arabs. The Arab Baidah were an extinct Arab nation long
before Islam was born, the history of them is not widely known except that which is
enshrined in the holy books of heavenly religions and revealed in classical Arabic verses
such as the 'Ad and the Tsamud. The Baqiyah Arabs are divided into Arabic 'Aribah and
Arab Musta'riah or Muta'ribah. The Arabs of Aribah are also called Qaththiyaniyah to
their ancestor Qahthan or Yamaniyah is named to Yemen where they came from. The
Arab Musta'ribah is a descendant of Ismail ibn Ibrahim.
Therefore, they are also called Ismailiyah. They are called Musta'ribah, because
Ismail himself is not of Arab descent. He was of Hebrew descent who was born and raised
in Makkah at that time
under the rule of the Jurham tribe of Yemen.
The majority of Arabs are adherents of the Watsani (pagans). It is said that the
first spreader of the Watsani religion in the midst of the Arab community was 'Amr
bin Luhayy Al Khuza'i. He was the first to bring the statue from Sham to the Kaaba.2
Before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), some Arabs in the Hijaz
(Makkah, Yathrib, Thaif, and surrounding areas) already had the beliefs, traditions,
and influences of the 3 major religions at that time; Jews (the bearer of the religion is
attributed to the Prophet Moses), Christian (the bearer of the religion is attributed to
the Prophet Jesus Christ), Zoroastrian/Magi (the bearer of the religion is attributed to
Zaratustra).
The original religion of the Arabs before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad SAW,
especially Makkah and its surroundings was Pagan (idolatrous), besides there were also
religious influences from other regions such as; Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians/Magi.
Those idolaters would carry the little statues they considered God with them wherever
they went. This is done because they believe that in that way they can get closer to God.
So that in various ways the Lord can immediately help them. Nevertheless, they still
consider the Kaaba to be the holiest place and the center of worship for all mankind. There
are several other names for the name of the kaaba, namely: 1. Kaaba, 2. Baitul Haram, 3.
Baitul 'Atik, 4. Al-Bait. According to the words of Allah: "Indeed, the first house built for
mankind is the Baitullah in Bakkah (Makkah) which is blessed and is a guide for all
people" (QS. 3: 96).
In addition, there are several beliefs that have taken root in Arab society such as:
1. Fetitism: belief that certain objects are inhabited by spirits, and have powers. This is
explained in Surah Ash-Shu'aro verses 41-44: "So when the sorcerers came, they
asked
Pharaoh: Do we really get a great reward if we are the victors? Pharaoh replied: Yes,
then, indeed, you will indeed be the ones who are drawn closer (to me). Moses said to
them, "Throw what you want to throw. Then they threw down their ropes and staffs
and said, "For the sake of Pharaoh's power, we will indeed prevail."
2.
Totemism: Cult of certain animals/plants. So many use their names with the names
of certain animals such as; Asad/lion, Tsa'lab/ferret, Hiroh/cat, and others. The
Indonesian people have also adopted this culture a lot, so many famous people in
the past used animal names for their greatness such as; Hayam Wuruk, Gajah
Mada, and others.
3.
Animism: Belief in the spirit of good/evil that is influential in human life.
Among them, there are those who argue that spirits are in the form of blood,
air, and owls.
4.
Trust in the power of the jinn, so they will ask for help/protection/permission and
others from certain jinn.
5. Belief in celestial bodies that have powers, such as; the sun, moon, and stars. This is
explained by Allah in QS. An-Naml verse 24: "I found him and his people
worshipping the sun, besides Allah; and Satan has made them look upon their deeds
beautifully and hinder them from the way, so that they have no guidance."
B. SOCIO-POLITICAL SYSTEM
The political system at that time (around the 6th century AD) was dominated by two
great empires, namely Persia/Sasaniah in the eastern part of the world, centered in Isfahan
(Iran) under the rule of Khusraw II, with Zoroastrian/Magi as the official religion of the
state. and Byzantine/Roman
The east in the western hemisphere of the world, centered in Constantinople (Turkey),
under the rule of Emperor Maurice who was titled Augustus, a descendant of
Augustus 1, with Christianity as the official religion of the state. The Persian/Sasanian
Kingdom is a hereditary kingdom from the rulers of several parts of the world that are
very famous, namely; Iskandar Zulkarnain (The Great Alexander), whose death after
his death, the Persian/Sasanian kingdom was divided into several small kingdoms due
to various factors including: power struggles, political instability, disintegration of the
nation, economic weakness, and others.
So that in 227 AD, the Sasaniah family with their courage and strength succeeded
in reuniting several parts of the kingdom that had been scattered. At first they were
worshippers of Allah SWT, and they believed that the power they had was a grace of
Allah for them and all their descendants. But as time went by, their beliefs underwent
a shift in confidence. That is, light as a symbol of God and darkness as a symbol of
Satan. The shift in spiritual beliefs is also increasing because of seeing fire that can
provide light when it is dark, and can provide various other benefits. Finally in the
following generations came the belief that the fire that had the light was a symbol of
God. And they are fire worshippers.
Meanwhile, the Roman Empire, which for centuries has ruled several parts of the
world, especially the western world/part of Europe, became a super power country in
close competition with the Persian/Sasanian empire in the eastern part of the
world/parts of Asia and Africa. Such a great Roman power and power began to tear
apart when Emperor Diclidian (248-305 AD) divided his empire into 4 parts (meaning
perhaps some kind of independent and autonomous province). The condition of the
kingdom, which had begun to be torn apart, was further aggravated by Emperor
Theodosius (395 AD) who divided his kingdom into 2 countries, for his 2 children,
namely Arkadius, and Honorius. The division of the kingdom into 2
the country is; Western Rome, with the capital of Rome (in Italy), and Eastern
Rome/Byzantium, with the capital of Constantinople (in Turkey).
In 410 AD the Western Roman empire collapsed, destroyed by the invasion of the
Gothians (from the territory of Germany and France). Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman
empire could continue to survive for the next few centuries. Between the two world
superpowers at that time (Byzantium/Eastern Roman and Persian/Sasanian) there was
always a prolonged war. Among the reasons was the struggle for the expansion of the
territory of power, in this case especially the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Egypt,
and Syria, to be used as the military base and naval fleet of each kingdom. In
connection with the official religious differences between the two kingdoms, the war
between the two is often described as a battle between the Zoroastrian/Magi religion
who worships fire, and Christianity which recognizes the existence of God.
So at a time when the Persian/Sassanian army was able to defeat the Byzantine
army by seizing Egypt and Syria, emotionally the polytheists of Mecca were object-
worshippers; in the form of stone statues/idols also rejoiced over the victory of the
Persian/Sasanniah soldiers who were also worshippers of objects; in the form of fire.
Meanwhile, Muslims who worship Allah SWT, are also emotionally disappointed by
the defeat of the Eastern Roman army whose people generally believe in the existence
of God. Then it was dramatized by the polytheists of Makkah with various ridicule
and criticism to the Muslims.
In addition to the two superpower kingdoms mentioned above, there are five other
small kingdoms around the Hijaz, namely the kingdoms:
1.
Hirah/Manazirah (268-632 AD) appeared in the 3rd century AD and continued to
last until several generations in the Islamic era. The kingdom was born and
administered by the Persian kingdom, located on the western bank of the
Euphrates River, in the city of Najaf (in Iraqi territory), and Amr bin Adi as the
first king, with his main task securing trade routes from and to Persia. The last
King of Hirah was Munzir bin Nu'man (628-632 AD). During this time the Kingdom
joined the Islamic government in Medina, having lost the war against the Islamic army
under the command of Khalid bin Walid.
2.
Ghassan/Ghassaniyah (220-630 AD) This kingdom was founded by Jafnah bin
Amr on the initiative of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire, in order to secure
its trade expansion. The word Ghassan comes from a spring source south of Syria
(Syria). His last king was Jabalah bin Aiham, who joined the Islamic government
after losing the war during the reign of Umar bin Khattab. But then after
converting to Islam (perhaps pretending to be a Muslim), and when the
opportunity arose, Jabalah fled to Rome. These two kingdoms are actually the
former ruins of the Saba kingdom (±700-1000 BC) in Yemen. That's why the
civilizations of these two kingdoms are very similar. Furthermore, both
civilizations were widely adapted by the Arabs, especially literacy cultures, in
addition to various other cultures.
3.
Kindah (570 BC-400 AD) a group of people from Bahrein and Masyqor
established a kingdom in a village called Kindah, located in the highlands of
Yemen. His first king was Hujr bin Amr, nicknamed Akilul Mirar (bitter eater).
This kingdom collapsed long before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad.
4.
Himyar 1 (115-275 AD) was the first period of the Himyar 2 kingdom.
5. Himyar 2 (275-533 AD) The first king was Shamar Yar'asy. In 525 AD, King Zun
Nuwas was killed in a popular uprising.
And his last king was Zu Jadn. The Himyar kingdom was also an extension of the
Saba kingdom with its capital in Dafar. The location of this kingdom is suspected to
be in the Yemeni area.
C.
SOCIO-CULTURAL SYSTEM
Art forms, poems can describe the life, ethics, and customs of the pre-Islamic
Arabs who are famous for the Jahiliyah era. According to Charis Waddy, quoted by
Queen Suntiah, the phrase "Jahiliyah" has the connotation of barbarism; uncivilized,
rude, savage, and uncultured. Their habits are already very misleading, such as killing
girls because it is considered to bring bad luck in the family, fighting continuously
between clans, drinking khamer, gambling, and committing adultery.
As the most beautiful art, poetry is highly appreciated and glorified by the Arabs so
that a poet has a very high position in society. Defending and defending the tribe with
verses, is more than a hero defending his tribe with a sword and spear. Poetry is so
influential for the Arabs that it can elevate a person who was once despicable (such as the
story of Abdul 'Uzza ibn 'Amir who lived a destitute life and had many children, was
praised by the poet Al-A'sya so that he became famous and his livelihood became good)
and can insult a person who was once noble (such as the story of the poet Hassan ibn
Tsabit who denounced a group of people so that they became despicable).
According to Mushthafa Sa'id al-Khinn in the book Dirasat Tarikhiyyat li al-Fiqh
wa Ushulih wa al-Ittijahat al-lati Zhaharat Fihima quoted by Jaih Mubarok, the pre-
Isalm Arabs made custom a law in various forms. In marriage, they know various
kinds, including:
1.
Istibdla, which is a husband who asks his wife to marry a man who is considered
noble or has certain advantages such as courage and intelligence. As long as the
wife "hangs out" with the man, the husband refrains from having sex with his wife
before it is proven that she is pregnant. Purpose
This kind of marriage is for the wife to give birth to a child who has the traits of the
man who has sex with her that her husband does not. Like a husband who allows
his wife to marry the king until proven to be pregnant in order to have a child from
an honorable person.
2.
Polyandry, which is several men who have sex with a woman. After the woman
became pregnant and gave birth to a child, she called all the men who had had sex
with her to gather at her house. After everyone was present, the woman told her
that she had been blessed with a child as a result of their relationship; Then the
woman appoints one of all the men and the appointed one must not refuse.
3. Maqthu, that is, a man married his stepmother after his father died. If a child wants to
marry his stepmother, he throws a cloth at his stepmother as a sign that he wants it;
While his stepmother did not have the authority to refuse. If the boy is young, the
stepmother is required to wait until the child is an adult. After adulthood, the child has
the right to choose to make her his wife or release him.
4.
Badal, which is exchanging wives without divorce first with the aim of satisfying
the sexual relationship and avoiding boredom.
5.
Shighar, i.e. a guardian marries his child or sister to a man without a dowry.
In addition to the above types of marriages, Abdul Karim Khalil presented Fyzee's
analysis quoting Abdur Rahim's opinion in the book Kasf al-Ghumma, that some other
marriages that occurred in the Arabs before the advent of Islam are:
1.
A form of marriage sanctioned by Islam, namely a person asking another person to
marry a sister or slave for a certain fee (similar to contract marriage).
2.
Prostitution is well known. It is usually done to the visitors/guests in the tents by
raising the flag as a sign of calling. If the woman becomes pregnant, then she will
choose among the men who are dating her as the father of her child.
3.
Mut'ah is a common practice practiced by Arabs before Islam. Although at first, the
Prophet Muhammad tolerated it, but eventually forbade it. Only the Shia Itsna 'A'
Asharia group allowed such marriages.
Subhi Mahmashshani as quoted by Jaih Mubarok said that in the field of
mu'amalat, among their habits are the ability to transact mubadalat (barter), buying
and selling, agricultural cooperation (muzara'at), and riba. In addition, there are
speculative buying and selling such as bay al-Munabadzat. Among the provisions of
pre-Islamic Arab family law are the ability to have polygamy with women without
limits, and small children and women cannot receive inheritances or inheritances.
Regarding the pre-Islamic Arab society order that tends to degrade the dignity and
dignity of women, Charis Waddy who was quoted by Queen Suntiah called it a form
of social evil, namely treating women arbitrarily: unlimited polygamy, no property
rights, and the prevalence of killing baby girls. Meanwhile, Nurcholis Majid sees it
from two cases: first, women can be inherited, as in Maqthu marriages where the
stepmother must be willing to be taken as a wife by her stepdaughter when her
husband dies; the stepmother has no right to vote, either to accept or reject it; and
second, the woman does not acquire an inheritance.
Regarding culture, the desert inhabitants (Ahl al-Bedouin) of the pre-Islamic
Arabian Peninsula lived in the Bedouin tribal culture. As a result of constant wars,
their culture did not develop. When they work, create, and uphold a culture,
others came to fight and tear down. Their history can only be known about 150 years
before the birth of I slam. Even that can only be known through the holy books,
poems or stories received from the narrators because there are no buildings that can
describe their history or writings that can explain their history.
Unlike the inhabitants of the country (Ahl al-Hadhlar), they have been cultured
and their history can be known to 1200 years BC. According to Badri Yatim, they
always experience changes in accordance with the situation and conditions that
surround them. They were able to make tools from iron to establish kingdoms. The
Ma'rib Dam in the Yemeni kingdom of Saba, the Khawarnaq palace and the Sadir
palace in the Hirah kingdom are evidence of their cultural products, in addition to
others such as being proficient in changing verses, such as the Bedouin people. The
poems are usually recited, a kind of poetry reading performance in poetry markets
such as Ukaz, Majinah, and Zul Majaz.
D. ECONOMIC SYSTEM
The Arabian Peninsula is located on the trade route between Syria and China
(China). Their cities were still commercial cities until the presence of the Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him). Bernad Lewis revealed that since ancient times, the
Arab country has grown into a transit area between the countries of the Red Sea and
the Far East, and its history has expanded due to the busy traffic between the East and
the West.
Communication into and out of the Arabian Peninsula is supported by its
geographical shape, passing through certain well-planned routes. The first of these
routes is the Hijaz highway, starting from the seaports and border posts of Palestine
and Transjordan, tracing the central part of the Red Sea coasts and continuing into
Yemen. This road is what is from time to time crowded by the mainland
caravans, between the kingdom of Alexandria and its successors in the East close to the
countries of Far Asia. In that district is also located the Hijaz railway road.
The main source of income for the Arabs during the Jahiliyah period was very well
known for their business and trade. Trade became the flesh and blood of the Quraish.
According to the word of Allah because of the custom of the Quraysh, (i.e.) their habit of
traveling in winter and summer. (Q.S. Quraish: 1-2). The Quraysh used to travel mainly to
trade to the land of Syria in the summer and to the land of Yemen in the winter. On the
way they received security guarantees from the rulers of the countries through which they
passed. this is a great blessing from their Lord. Therefore, it is natural for them to worship
Allah who has given them that favor.
The second road passes through Wadi ad-Dawasir, starting from the northeastern
tip of Yemen to the center of Arabia, which connects it with another route, Wadi ar-
Rumma, to the south of Mesopotamia. The path was the main link in ancient times,
between Yemen and the Assyrian and Babylonian cultures. Finally, Wadi as-Sirhan
linked central Arabia with southeast Syria via the oasis of Jawf.
CHAPTER II
ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION DURING THE TIME OF THE PROPHET
MUHAMMAD
A. MAKKAH PERIOD
Mohammed was born in Mecca on Monday morning 12 Rabi'ul early coinciding with
April 20 in 571 AD. The year of the Prophet's birth is known as the year of the Elephant,
because in that year Abrahah's army on elephants invaded Mecca wanting to destroy the
Kaaba. He was born into a materially poor family but of noble and honorable blood. His
father was named Abdullah bin Abdul Muttalib bin Hashim bin Abdi Manaf bin Qushay
bin Kilab. It is said that the children of Hasyim are a family that is in a position to provide
drinking water for the pilgrims known as Siqayah al-Hajj. While the mother of the Prophet
Muhammad was Aminah bint Wahab, a descendant of the Banu Venus. Then, the nasab or
lineage of the Prophet's father and mother met at Kilab ibn Murrah.
At the time of his birth, the Prophet Muhammad was an orphan because his father
Abdullah died while still in the womb. The Prophet Muhammad was then handed over
to the caregiver's mother, Halimah Sa'diyyah. It was in his care that the Prophet
Muhammad was raised until the age of four. After approximately two years in the care
of his biological mother. When he was six years old, the Prophet Muhammad became
an orphan. After Aminah died, Abdul Muttalib took over the responsibility of caring
for the Prophet Muhammad. However, two years later Abdul Muthalib died due to old
age. The responsibility then shifted to his uncle, Abu Talib. Like Abdul Muttalib, he
was also highly respected and respected by the Quraysh and the people of Makkah as
a whole.
In his youth the Prophet Muhammad lived as a goat herder for his family and a
goat for the inhabitants of Makkah. Through this grazing activity, he found a place to
think and reflect.
These thoughts and contemplations kept him away from all worldly lusts, so that he
avoided all kinds of stains that could damage his name, therefore from his youth he
was nicknamed al-amen, a trusted person. At the age of 25, the Prophet Muhammad
went to trade with Sham, selling the goods belonging to Khadijah, a prominent and
wealthy woman. He used to tell people to sell his merchandise by sharing a portion of
the proceeds with them. When Khadijah heard the news about the honesty of his
words, the credibility and glory of his morals and the abundance of commercial
profits, Khadijah was interested in marrying him. Also present at the wedding were
the Banu Hashim and the leaders of the Banu Mudhar.
The principle of equality and justice built by the Prophet covers all aspects of
politics, economics, and law. First, the political aspect. Muhammad accommodated all
interests, all the people got the same rights in politics, even though the population of
Medina was very heterogeneous, both in the sense of religion, race, ethnicity and
groups. Second, the economic aspect, the Prophet applied the teachings of
egalitarianism, namely the equitable distribution of economic stocks to the entire
community. All levels of society have the same right to do business and do business.
This mission of egalitarianism is very typical in the teachings of Islam. Because the
main mission carried out by the Prophet is not a theological mission, in the sense of
exterminating people who are not of the same ideology as Islam, but to free society
from the clutches of the capitalists. Third, the aspect of Law, the Prophet understands
that the legal aspect is very urgent and significant in relation to the stability of a
nation, that's why the Prophet never distinguishes between "the top", "the bottom" or
against his own family, the Prophet is very strict in enforcing the law in the life of
society and the state in Medina, meaning that no one is immune from the law. The
principle of consistent legal (legal) must be enforced indiscriminately, so that the
supremacy and certainty of the law are truly felt by all members of society.
On the night of Monday 17 Ramadan year 13 before Hijri coincided with August
6, 610 A.D. at that time the Prophet Muhammad prayed in the Hira Cave and Allah
sent Gabriel to deliver the first revelation, namely Surah al-Alaq. When he finished
receiving the revelation, the Prophet Muhammad returned home in a state of shivering
fear. He asked his wife to wrap himself around him and then tell him about the
incident that occurred in the Hira Cave. As a righteous wife in any condition, she
always tries to calm her husband's heart, that's what Khadijah does. Khadijah tried to
calm the heart of the Prophet who was very upset at that time. After calming the
Prophet, Khadijah went to see Waraqah ibn Naufal. Waraqah is Siti Khadijah's uncle,
she is a Christian who knows a lot of ancient manuscripts.
Siti Khadijah told the incident experienced by her husband then Waraqah said that
the one who came was Namus (Jibril). Then he explained that one day he would be
expelled by his people from his own hometown. He hoped that he would still be alive
during the difficult time of the Prophet and would give him sincere help. When he
slept, the verse Al-Muddatsir came down. Then he conveyed to his wife about Jibril's
order to deliver his da'wah to his people. Then he asked again which of his people it
was. Thus, this second revelation is the coronation of the Prophet as a messenger of
Allah.
To start the da'wah of the Prophet PBUH, there are various da'wah methods
carried out by him, including:
1.
Hidden da'wah
During this period, the Prophet Saw carried out da'wah secretly in his own
family and among his colleagues. Initially, the first convert to Islam was the wife
of the Prophet and then his cousin Ali bin Abu Talib, Abu Bakr ash-Shidiq, former
Zaid
The slave who became her adopted child, Um Aiman was the Prophet's caregiver
since her mother was still alive. Then it was continued by Uthman bin Affan,
Zubair bin Awwam, Abdurahman bin Auf, Sa'ad bin Abi Waqqasah and Talhah bin
Ubaidillah they were brought before the Prophet and pledged to embrace Islam
before the Prophet himself. In the preparation of heavy da'wah, the first da'wah he
prepared mentally and morally. Therefore, he invites humans or their people to:
a. Pleasing God
b.
Purifying and cleansing the soul and heart
c.
Strengthening the ranks
d.
Fusing self-interest above the interests of the congregation.
2.
Blatant da'wah
The next step of da'wah calls on the community in general. The Prophet
appealed to the nobles and the entire Quraish community. At first, the Prophet only
preached to the people of Makkah and continued to the people outside Makkah
openly. The Prophet intensively publicized that people should convert to Islam,
then at that time he invited all Muslims to carry out the Hajj. Another time, the
banquet event was held again. This time the invited guests began to listen to the
words of the Prophet but none of them responded positively. This did not
discourage the Prophet and his companions, but made the Prophet and his
companions more enthusiastic and expanded their da'wah until one day the Prophet
made a speech.
B.
MADINAH PERIOD
The Qur'an is the essence and main teachings of Islamic teachings conveyed by
the Prophet Muhammad to the ummah. Everything that the Prophet conveyed to his
people was based on the Qur'an. It is even said in a hadith, that the morals of the
apostle are the Qur'an. What
The example given by the apostle is a mirror of the content of the Qur'an. So that if
Muslims want to stick to the Qur'an and the hadith of the Prophet, then it is guaranteed
that they will not be lost.
In the period in Medina, which began with a number of Yastrib people coming to
Mecca to perform Hajj, they consisted of the Aus and Khazraj tribes who converted to
Islam in three groups:
a. In the 10th year of the prophethood. This began with a dispute between the Aus
and Khazraj tribes, where they longed for peace.
b. In the 12th year of the prophethood. The delegation of Yastrib (10 Khazraj
tribesmen, 2 Aus and a woman) met the Prophet at a place called Aqabah and
made the first pledge of allegiance called Aqabah, which contains that they will
promise not to condemn Allah, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to kill
children, not to slander and not to disobey the Prophet Muhammad (saw). When
they returned to Yastrib, the Prophet sent Mus'ab ibn Umair to teach Islam
among them.
c.
In the 13th year (622), the pilgrims of Yastrib numbered 73 people, on
behalf of the people of Yastrib they asked the Prophet to move to Yasrib,
they promised to defend the Prophet. Then they also made an agreement
called the Bai'ah Aqabah II agreement, that is, they promised to defend
the Prophet both with soul and body, and appointed him as his dreamer.
Some of them wanted the Prophet to emigrate to Yatrib to help reconcile
the tribes that often fought.
After learning of the agreement, the infidels of the Quraish exerted even more
cruel pressure and intimidation on the Muslims. Because of this, the Prophet finally
ordered the companions-
his best friend to emigrate to Yastrib. Within two months, approximately 150 people
had left the city of Makkah. Only Ali and Abu Bakr remained with the Prophet
Muhammad (saw), finally the Prophet migrated to Yastrib accompanied by Abu
Bakr, because the infidels of the Quraish had planned the murder of the Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH).
The city of Yathrib after the migration of the Prophet there became the center
of Islam and Muslims and is famous as Madinatun Nabi (City of the Prophet) as we
know it today as Medina or al Madinah al Munawwarah. The Muslims have made
the year of the Prophet's departure the beginning of the year for them and as a
commemoration of this event.
This period was marked by the initial introduction of various other aspects of
Islamic sharia in the form of worship (ubudiyah), such as prayer, fasting, zakat, and
hajj. It is also socialized during this period the concept of jihad fi sabilillah (fighting
in the way of Allah).
Islam is a religion and it is appropriate that in the country the foundations of
Islam are laid, then the verses of the Qur'an in this period are derived to build the
legality of these aspects as explained by the Prophet with his words and actions, the
city of Medina lives in a noble life and full of main values. There is an honest and
solid brotherhood, there is close solidarity among the members of the community.
Thus, it means that this is the first Islamic society built by the Prophet with its
eternal principles.
The Prophet built places of worship that were not only for worship but also to
unite Muslims with deliberation in negotiating the problems faced. In addition, it
became the center of government that supported the muhajirin and anshar.
Brotherhood in
hoping to bind Muslims in brotherhood and family. The Prophet also formed a new
brotherhood, namely interreligious brotherhood, in addition to the pre-existing
brotherhood, which is a form of brotherhood based on blood. Forming friendships
with other parties who are not Muslims and forming army forces to anticipate
disturbances carried out by the enemy.
With the migration of the Prophet to Medina, the composition of the
population there became three groups, namely:
a. The Muhajirin. They are Meccans who moved from Mecca to save their
religion.
b. The Anshar, they are the indigenous people of Medina who converted to Islam
consisting of the Aus and Khazraj tribes. They were named Ansar because they
were helpers of the Prophet Muhammad (saw) over the polytheists of the
Quraish
c. The Jews in Medina
Among the things that the Prophet did in the early days of Medina were
brotherhood between the Muhajirin and the Ansar and the conclusion of a peace
treaty between the Muslims and the Jews in Medina. The principle of equality in
Islam greatly petrified the Prophet in uniting the people of Medina and the Muslims
of the Arab nation at that time with all the differences that became the base of
strength.
Allah SWT said:
Means:
"O man, We created you from a man and a woman and made you nations and tribes
so that you may know one another. Indeed, the noblest among you in the sight of
Allah is the most devout among you. Indeed, Allah is All-Knowing, All-Knowing."
( QS. Al Hujurat (49) : 13)
C. ELIGIBILITY CIVILIZATION THAT BUILT PROPHET
MUHAMMAD PBUH IN MEDINA
The success of the Prophet with the Peace Agreement in Medina is:
a. Succeeded in uniting fellow Muslims even though they are different tribes or
tribes, but they become one people because of Islam
b. Succeeded in gathering cooperation and a sense of loyalty based on the attitude of
prioritizing religious relationships over other relationships, even kinship
relationships.
c. Succeeding in instilling awareness in Muslims that being a group or congregation
is to have a religious and political personality that has rights over every individual,
among these rights the most prominent is the right to get security and punish every
perpetrator of destruction.
d. Succeeded in implementing conditions for the Jews in the form of equal rights for
Muslims in the common interest and opened the door for those who wanted to
convert to Islam.
The Prophet built places of worship in the form of mosques which in addition
to the purpose of worship but also to unite Muslims with the mu- sawarah in
negotiating the problems faced. In addition, it became the center of government that
supported the muhajirin and anshar.
Mosques are the forerunners of educational institutions that initially used the
halaqah system, and continue to develop until today in the form of educational
institutions, schools or madrasas to universities.
CHAPTER III
Khulfor Rasyidin
A. History of the Khulafaur Rashidin Civilization
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the status of the
Prophet (peace be upon him) could not be replaced by anyone, but the position of the
Prophet (peace be upon him) as the leader of the Muslims had to be replaced, as it is
known in history that the replacement was called "Khulafaur Rashidin," which consisted
of two words, "al-khulafa', a form of jama' from "caliph" which means "replacement," and
"ar-Rashidin" It means "true, subtle, wise, smart, and wise".
If combined, Khulafaur Rashidin means the successors (leaders) of the Prophet PBUH
who are wise and wise. However, it should be noted that the position of caliph here is not
a hereditary position as was done by the Roman and Persian kings, but is democratically
elected.3During the period of khulafaur rashidin for 30 years, consisting of four caliphs, in
this case it was as follows:
1. Khalifah Abu Bakar As-Shiddiq (11-13 H/632-634 M)
Abu Bakr As-Shidiq is one of the companions of the Prophet Muhammad PBUH
whose full name is Abdullah Abi Quhafah At-Tamimi. In the Islamic era, he was
named Abu Ka'bah, then replaced by the Prophet PBUH to Abdullah. He was born in
573 AD, and died on the 23rd of Jumadil at the end of the year 13 H. coinciding with
the month of August 634 AD, at the age of 63 years, his age was 3 years younger than
the Prophet PBUH. He was given the nickname Abu Bakr or the pioneer of the
morning, because he was one of the men who converted to Islam for the first time.
Meanwhile, the title "As-Shidiq" was obtained because he always justified all the
things that the Prophet PBUH brought, especially during the Isra' Mi'raj incident.
a. His election as caliph
Before the election of Abu Bakr as caliph, at first
There was an opinion or proposal by the Ansar and the Muhajirin who both wanted a
caliph from among them. However, then the proposal was firmly rejected, so that
among them they concluded that the muhajirin were indeed more entitled to control
this power, and all agreed, so Umar bin Khattab came forward and bai'at Abu Bakr
which was then bai'at by all those present at the tsaqifah.
Then Abu Bakr stated his speech, "Obey me as long as I obey Allah and His
Messenger in your midst, if I commit immorality, then you are not obliged to obey
me." After his inauguration and proclamation, thus, after the death of the Prophet
PBUH, Abu Bakr Ash-Siddiq was the first elected caliph of Islam, namely to
become a religious leader as well as the head of state of the Muslims which only
lasted 2 years.
2. Achievements during the time of Caliph Abu Bakr
During the reign of Abu Bakr Ash-Siddiq, there were quite a lot of problems in the
country that came from apostate groups, false prophets, and dissidents of zakat. Based
on the results of his deliberations with other companions, he decided to fight the group
through what is called the Riddah war (war against apostasy).
After successfully completing domestic affairs, Abu Bakr began to expand into the
northern region to face the Roman and Persian forces that always threatened the
position of the Muslims. However, he died before this mission was completed.
In addition, the following is about the civilization that developed during the reign of
Abu Bakr which lasted for two years and three months:
a. Cultivating more democratic deliberations in government and society
b. Fostering the loyalty of Muslims and soldiers to the government that
to support all the policies of the caliph.
c. Cultivating deliberation in responding to every problem that arises.
d. Building an orderly government at the central and regional levels.
e. Building disciplined and resilient militaries on the battlefield.
f. Pile up mushaf The Qur'an like that dimiliki People Islam now.
g. Prospering the people fairly by building baitul malls and empowering zakat, infaq,
as well as ghanimah and jizyah.
Thus, during the reign of Abu Bakr Ash-Siddiq, the treasure of the Bait Al-Māl
never accumulated for a long period of time because it was directly distributed to all
Muslims, even when Abu Bakr Ash-Siddiq died, only 1 dirham was found in the state
treasury. All Muslims are given an equal share of state revenue. In Abu Bakar's reign,
its economic characteristics (Karim, 2017), were:
a. Implementing the practice of trade contracts in accordance with sharia principles.
b. Enforce the law by fighting those who do not want to pay zakat.
c. Not making the badar expert a State official, not giving special privileges to the
badar expert in the distribution of State wealth.
d. Managing mining goods (rikaz) consisting of gold, silver, bronze, iron, and steel so
that it becomes a source of State revenue.
e. It does not change the policy of the Prophet PBUH on the issue of jizyah. Just as
the Prophet Saw Abu Bakr did not make any special provisions on the type and
level of jizyah, in his time, jizyah could be in the form of gold, jewelry, clothing,
goats, camels, or other objects.
f. The application of the principle of equality in the distribution of state wealth.
g. Pay attention to the accuracy of the Zakat calculator. The results of zakat
calculation are used as state revenue stored in Baitul Maal
and directly distributed entirely to Muslims.
B. Caliph 'Umar ibn Al-Khattab (13-23 AH/634-644 AD)
Umar bin Khatthab (583-644) his full name was Umar bin Khatthab bin Nufail, a
descendant of Abdul Uzza Al-Quraisy from the Adi tribe. Umar was born in Mecca four
years before the birth of the Prophet Muhammad. Umar converted to Islam in the fifth
year after the prophethood, and became one of the closest companions of the Prophet
Muhammad and became the second caliph after Abu Bakr Ash-Shiddiq. After converting
to Islam, Umar risked the rest of his life to defend the Prophet's da'wah. Umar became the
strongest fortress and pillar of Islamic teachings. He became the Prophet's confidant as
well as his main adviser. Umar also played a major role in the development and glory of
Islam in the future.
Umar has a firm and strong posture, his disposition is hard, brave and unfeared, his
speech is smooth and his speech is fluent. Umar bin Khatthab was one of the greatest
companions in history after the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). The existence
of a massive conquest during Umar's reign is a fact that is recognized as true by historians.
Caliph Umar bin Khatab is known as a leader who is very dear to his people because
of his extraordinary care and responsibility to his people. One of his habits is to conduct
direct supervision and alone go around the city to supervise the lives of his people. In
many ways Umar bin Khatthab is known as a very wise and creative figure, even a genius.
Some of the advantages that Umar had , made his position more and more respected
among the Arabs, so that the Qurais gave him the title "Lion of the desert", and because of
his intelligence and speed of thinking, he was nicknamed "Abu Faiz".
1. Election as Caliph
When Caliph Abu Bakr fell ill and felt that his death was imminent
Come, he consulted his companions about the caliph afterwards. He said to them: "I
have now suffered as you have seen. It seemed like my end was coming soon.
Therefore, appoint someone you love as your leader who will replace me. Perhaps if
you decide when I am alive now, you will not have a disagreement later after my
death." Then the companions deliberated among themselves. As a result, they went to
Abu Bakr and asked him to appoint someone he wanted as their leader. Abu Bakr asked
them: "Do you not have a dispute after I have decided?" They replied: "Yes" He said:
"Then give me time to think for Allah's sake, for the sake of religion and Muslims."
Then Abu Bakr summoned Uthman bin Affan and asked for his opinion on who would
be his successor. Uthman proposed the name Umar bin al-khattab. Then Abu Bakr
ordered him to write a will about Umar bin Khattab as his successor.
After Abu Bakr died, the Companions accepted and agreed to baiat Umar as caliph
and he was directly accepted as the official caliph who would lead the Muslims in a
time full of progress and would be ready to open the horizon in the Muslim world. He
was appointed as a caliph in 13H/634 AD.
2. Advances Achieved by Umar bin Khattab
During Umar's reign, Islamic power grew very rapidly. Islam took over
Mesopotamia and parts of Persia from the hands of the Sassanid dynasty of Persia
(which ended the Sassanid Empire) and took over Egypt, Palestine, Syria, North Africa
and Armenia from the Roman Empire (Byzantium). At that time there were two
superpowers, namely Persia and Rome. However, both have been conquered by Islam
during the time of Umar. History records many major battles that
became the beginning of this conquest. At the Battle of Yarmuk, which took place near
Damascus. 20,000 Islamic troops defeated the Roman army which reached 70,000 and
ended Roman rule in southern Asia Minor.
Umar carried out many administrative reforms and closely controlled public policy,
including establishing an administrative system for the newly conquered regions. In
638, he ordered the expansion and renovation of the Grand Mosque in Mecca and the
Prophet's Mosque in Medina. He also started the process of codification of Islamic law.
Umar was known for his simple lifestyle, instead of adopting the lifestyle and
appearance of the rulers of the time, he continued to live a very simple life.
Around the 17th year of Hijri, the fourth year of his caliphate, Umar issued a decree
that the Islamic calendar should be counted during the hijrah event.
There were several developments of Islamic civilization during the time of the
caliph Umar bin Khatthab, which included the system of government (political),
scientific, social, artistic, and religious. As explained below:
a. Political Development
During the time of Caliph Umar bin Khatab, Islamic political conditions were in a
stable state, efforts to expand Islamic territory obtained glorious results. Because the
expansion of the region occurred rapidly, Umar Radhiallahu 'anhu immediately
arranged the administration of the state by imitating the administration that had
developed, especially in Persia. The expansion of Islamic broadcasting to Persia was
started by Khalid bin Walid during the time of Caliph Abu Bakr, then continued by
Umar. But in his efforts there are many challenges that he faces even to the point of
war . Islamic rule reached Mesopotamia and parts of Persia from the hands of the
Sassanid dynasty of Persia (which ended the Sassanid Empire) and took
Egypt, Palestine, Syria, North Africa and Armenia from the Roman Empire
(Byzantium).
The administration of the government is organized into eight provincial regions:
Makkah, Medina, Syria, Basrah Peninsula, Kufa, Palestine, and Egypt. During the
time of Umar bin Khatab, procedures for arranging a decentralized government
structure began to be pioneered. Starting from the time of Umar, the government
was managed by the central government and the provincial government.
Because there are many areas controlled by Islam, there is a great need for
government administration, so the caliph Umar established a court institution, where
the power of a judge (judicial) is independent of the influence of the government
body (executive). The judge appointed by Umar is a person who has a good
reputation and has integrity and a noble personality. Zaid ibn Tsabit was designated
as Qadhi Medina, Ka'bah ibn Sur al-Azdi as Qadhi Basrah, Ubadah ibn Shamit as
Qadhi Palestine, Abdullah ibn Mas'ud as Qadhi kufa.
During the time of Umar ibn Khatab, a formal institution called the Institute for
the Illumination and Development of Islamic Law also began to develop. During this
period, a military system or body was also formed.
During the time of the caliph Umar bin Khattab, the expansion of Islam included
the regions of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and Persia. Because the Islamic territory was
expanding, Umar tried to organize an Islamic government and government
regulations that did not contradict the teachings of Islam.
a). Kholifah (Amiril Mukminin)
It is located in the capital city of Medina which has the authority of power.
b). Wali (Governor)
It is located in the capital of the Province which has power over the entire territory
of the Province.
c). Main duties of the office
The main duties of officials, starting from the caliph, guardian and their
subordinates are responsible for the progress and retreat of Islam and the State.
Besides that, they are also imams who pray five times in the mosque.
d). Forming the National Assemblies
In order to facilitate the administration of the government, Kholifah Umar formed
state councils that were in charge of regulating and storing money as well as
regulating the income and expenditure of state money, including printing the state
currency.
b. Economic Development
Because the expansion of the region occurred rapidly, and after Caliph Umar
arranged the administration of the state by imitating the administration that had
developed, especially in Persia. During this period, the salary payment system and
land tax began to be regulated and ordered. The court was established in order to
separate the judicial institution from the executive institution. To maintain peace and
order, police posts were formed. The same goes for public employment positions.
Umar also founded Bait al-Mal, forged currency, and made hijiah years. And abolish
zakat for the Mu'allaf.
c. Knowledge Development
During the time of the caliph Umar bin Khatab, the most influential companions
were not allowed to leave the region except with the permission of the caliph and for
a limited time. So if there are Muslims who want to learn hadith have to go to
Medina, this means that the spread of knowledge and knowledge of the Companions
and places of education are centralized in Medina. With the expansion of Islamic
territory out of the Arabian Peninsula, it seems that the caliph thought of Islamic
education in the newly conquered areas. For that
Umar bin Khatab ordered his warlords, if they succeeded in conquering a city, they
should establish a mosque as a place of worship and education.
Regarding this issue of education, the caliph Umar bin Khatab was an educator
who conducted educational counseling in the city of Medina, he also implemented
education in mosques and markets and appointed teachers for each conquered area,
they were in charge of teaching the content of the Qur'an and other Islamic teachings
such as fiqh to the population who had just converted to Islam.
The expansion of Islamic power encouraged Islamic educational activities to
increase, because those who were new to Islam wanted to gain religious knowledge
from friends who received directly from the Prophet. During this period, there has
been a mobility of students of knowledge from areas far from Medina, as the center
of Islam. This passion for studying Islamic religion then encouraged the birth of a
number of religious disciplines.
Thus, the implementation of education during the time of the caliph Umar bin
Khatab was more advanced, because during Umar's reign the country was in a stable
and safe state, this was because, in addition to the establishment of mosques as
educational centers, Islamic education centers had also been formed in various cities
with developed materials, both in terms of linguistics, writing and other subjects.
3. Death of Caliph Umar
The reign of Umar bin Khatab lasted for 10 years and 6 months, from 13 H/634 AD
to 23 H/644 AD. He died at the age of 64. During his reign by Caliph Umar it was used
to spread the teachings of Islam and expand power throughout the Arabian peninsula.
He died in 644 AD because he was stabbed by Fairuz (Abu Lukluk), a slave of
Mughirah bin Abu Sufyan from the Nahrrawain war who was previously a Persian
nobleman. Before
died, Umar appointed the Presidium Council to choose a replacement Caliph from one
of its members. They are Uthman, Ali, Tholhah, Zubair, Saad bin Abi Waqash and
Abdurrahman bin Auf.
C. Khalifah Utsman bin Affan (23-36 H/644-656 M)
The third caliph was Uthman bin Affan, his full name was Uthman bin Affan bin Abil
Ash bin Umayyah from the tribe of Quraish. He embraced Islam at the invitation of Abu
Bakr, and became a close friend of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) at that
time. He was very wealthy but remained modest and most of his wealth was used for the
benefit of Islam. He also got the nickname zun nurain, meaning one who has two lights,
because he married two daughters of the Prophet Muhammad in succession after one of
them died.
Uthman bin Affan converted to Islam at the age of 34. Starting from his closeness to
Abu Bakr, he wholeheartedly converted to Islam with Talhah bin Ubaidillah. Although his
conversion to Islam was challenged by his uncle named Hakim, Uthman remained
steadfast in his stance. The judge had tortured Uthman with a very painful torture. The
torture continued until the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) called for Muslims to
migrate to Habsyi.
At that time, after waging a struggle in broadcasting Islam during the time of the
Prophet (peace be upon him), Uthman moved to the land of Habsyi with his wife
(Ruqayyah). After that he moved again to the land of Medina. In every battle he was
always present with the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), except for
the great battle of Badr because he lived in Medina and had to take care of his wife
(Ruqayyah) who was very sick. During the sending of the army to Tabuk in the difficult
season, he had spent a lot of his wealth. According to the history of Quthadah, the items
donated by Uthman were no less than 1000 camel bags. One of Uthman's generosity was
to buy a source of spring water (ruamah well) from the Jews which was donated to all
Muslims when they encountered a disaster in the water crisis in the city of Medina.
Uthman was the one who wrote the revelations that Allah revealed to the Messenger
during the reign of Abu Bakr until the time of Umar's reign, Uthman remained the main
author. Uthman was entrusted with holding a collection of important letters and great
secrets.
1. The Election of Uthman as Caliph
After Umar bin Khattab died, the people who were previously chosen by Umar (at
the time of his illness) formed a formation team consisting of six candidates to be
appointed as the new caliph, namely Uthman bin Affan, Ali bin Abi Talib, Thalhah,
Zubair bin Awwam, Sa'ad bin Abi Waqqash, and Abdullah. The formation team was
headed by Abdurrahman ibn Auf and they gathered in one of the houses for three days
of this election only have the right to vote, and do not have the right to be elected.
Through a rather stiff competition with Ali, the Shura council finally gave Uthman
the mandate of the caliphate. Uthman's reign was the longest reign of 12 years (24-36
AH/644-656 AD), but history records that not all of his reign was a good and successful
time for him. Historians divide Uthman's reign into two periods, the last six years of
his reign and the last year of his reign were not good.
Uthman served as caliph from the age of 70 to the age of 82. Uthman's caliphate was
the longest among the other three caliphs.
2. Achievements during the time of Caliph Uthman bin Affan
During the time of the caliph Uthman bin Affan there was an inconsistency in qira'at
and caused divisions, so at that time it was considered necessary to be orderly. The first
person to signal a split was Huzaifah ibn Yemen's companion. Then Huzaifah reported
to Uthman to immediately take steps to
put it in order. This motion was accepted by Uthman and he took steps among others:
Borrowing a manuscript written by Zaid bin Tsabit during the time of Abu Bakr which
was kept by Hafshah bint Umar. Then formed a committee, namely Zaid bin Tsabit,
Abdullah bin Zubair, Sa'id ibn Ash, Abdurrahman ibn Harits. Uthman gave them the
task of copying the verses of the Qur'an from the sheets of Abu Bakr's manuscript so
that it became a perfect mushaf.
So that in the end, as time went by, the committee managed to collect and collect all
the Qur'an into a mushaf known as the Ottoman Mushaf. In accordance with the
original purpose of this gathering and gathering to unite all Muslims who had been
divided due to differences in the reading of the Qur'an, the caliph Uthman bin Affan
ordered all his governors to destroy all the mushaf in the midst of the community and
replace them with the Ottoman Mushaf.
In addition, the caliph Uthman also upholds the value of justice in deciding a legal
case, such as when he encouraged his qadhi officers in the region to carry out their
duties so that they always act fairly for the sake of creating truth. So he sent a letter to
the officer whose contents were: "So indeed Allah created the right creatures. So Allah
will not accept it except with the truth. Take the truth and pay attention to the trust,
uphold the trust and do not be the first to reject it, so you will be the partners of those
after you, Fulfill it! Do not mistreat orphans and also do mistreatment to those to whom
you have made a promise."
While his achievements did not end there, he even left a significant trace of
civilization in human life
From then until now, including:
a. Cultivating a deliberative system in the life of society and the state.
b. Uniform manner read The Qur'an that Marked
with the preparation of the verses in one mushaf.
c. Building public facilities
d. Ordering government administration with clear job descriptions.
D. Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib (36-41 AH/656-661 AD)
Ali ibn Abi Talib ibn Abdul Muttalib ibn Hashim. Ali was the son of Abu Talib, the
uncle of the Prophet. Her mother's name is Fatimah. Ali was born ten years before the
Prophet (peace be upon him) who was sent by Allah to be an apostle. Since childhood he
has been educated in the household of the Prophet (peace be upon him) all the wars fought
by the Prophet were also followed by Ali, except for the battle of Tabuk because he was
told to guard the city of Medina. When he was left to guard the city of Medina, he looked
quite disappointed. Then, the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said to
him, "Are you not willing, O Ali, that your position on my side should be as good as
Aaron's position on Moses' side?" This has proven itself after the taking of Ali as his son-
in-law, the husband of his son Fathimah. In most major wars, it was Ali who carried the
flag. Ali was famous for being brave, agile and an officer, very good at playing with
swords.
Abu Ishak said from Abdullah that the most skilled expert in judging (qadhi) was Ali
bin Abi Talib.
Abu hurairah narrated that Umar ibn al-Khattab said, "Ali ibn Abi Talib was the most
punishing man among all of us ." Ibn Mas'ud also said this.
Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib was the first person to convert to Islam from among children.
Prophet Muhammad since childhood was raised by his grandfather Abdul Muthalib, then
after his grandfather died he was raised by his uncle Abu Talib. Because the Messenger of
Allah wanted to help and
repaying his uncle's services, Ali was taken care of by the Prophet (peace be upon him)
and educated. His knowledge in Islam is very broad. Because of his proximity to the
Prophet, he is one of the people who narrates many hadiths of the Prophet. His courage is
also famous and almost all the wars led by the Prophet, Ali has always been at the
forefront.
During the time of the Abu Bakr Caliphate, the Prophet always invited Ali to discuss
important issues. Likewise, Umar bin Khattab did not take any wisdom or take action
without deliberation with Ali. Uthman also at the beginning of his office in many matters
always invited Ali in deliberations.
1. The Election of Ali as Caliph
Of course, the most votes and the one who ruled after Uthman was in the hands of
the rebels themselves was Ali. At that time Ali received a lot of support from his senior
companions and also the rebels during the time of the caliph Uthman. The first person
to worship Ali was Talhah then followed by Zubair, later followed by many
companions of the muhajirin and the Ansor.
At the time of initiation Ali gave a speech after being appointed as caliph, namely,
"O people, you have worshipped me as you did to the caliphs who came before me. I
can only refuse before I make a choice. Once the choice has fallen, the push can no
longer be. The imam must be firm and the people must obey. This baiat against me is a
common flat baiat. Whoever denies it, he is separated from Islam."
There were also companions who were still not willing to recognize Ali as caliph,
namely Hasan ibn Tsabit, Ka'ab ibn Malik, Abu Sa'id al-Khudri, and Muhammad ibn
Maslamah. There are also those who are not willing to show their stance, namely Sa'ad
ibn Abi Waqqas, Abdullah ibn Umar, Shuhaih, Zaid ibn Tsabit, and Usamah ibn Zaid.
E. The Progress of the Khulafaur Rashidin Civilization
During the reign of the Khulafaur Rashidin, many advances in civilization have been
achieved. Among the prominent thoughts during the period of Rashidin's khulafaur are as
follows:
1. Maintaining the integrity of the Qur'an Al-Kariim and collecting it in the form of a
mushaf during the time of Abu Bakr.
2. Applying the standard mushaf during the time of Uthman bin Affan
3. Their seriousness to seek and teach the Qur'an and Sunnah. Therefore, during Uthman's
time, the companions began to spread to remote areas to dismiss Islam by adhering to
the Qur'an and As-Sunnah.
4. Some people who are not happy with Islam, especially from the orientalist side of the
19th century, have studied the phenomenon of Futuhuhat al-Islamiyah. They said that
this Futuhat was a war with an economic motive, namely to seek and seek the wealth of
the subjugated country.
5. Islam in the early days did not recognize the separation between da'wah and the state,
between Da'i and commanders. It is not known to people who work as da'i. The caliphs
are the rulers, the imams of prayer, the judges of disagreements , da'i, and also
warlords.
F. Important Civilizations During the Period of Khulafaur Rashidin
Mas'a Khilafatur Rasdin (12 Rebeol I 11-41 H/8 632-661 M)
1. Restore return kesatuan PeninsulaArabic after succeeded in
defeating the apostate movement.
2. Collecting the Qur'an during the caliphate of Abu Bakr.
3. Unifying the mushaf during the caliphate of Uthman bin Affan.
4. The giving of points to the mushaf during the caliphate of Ali bin Abi Talib.
5. Start calendar Hijriyah at time Caliphate Umar bin Khattab.
6. Built the following cities: Bashrah, Kufa, Fusthat at the time
Umar bin Khattab.
7. The ethnic cleansing of the Jews from the Arabian Peninsula during the time of Umar
bin Khattab.
8. The establishment of a flour barn located between Mecca and Medina. In this place,
flour, solid cooking oil, dates, and liquid cooking oil are stored for travelers who run
out of supplies.
9. Maintaining public safety in the country's capital (Medina).
10. The expansion of the Prophet's Mosque by buying houses and land around it, lining it
with rocks and gravel, and lighting it with petromak lamps. This is as stated by Ali bin
Abu Talib, "May Allah illuminate the grave of Umar as he illuminates our mosques"
11. Umar bin Khattab first united Muslims with one imam and prayed the terawih.
The similarities and differences between the time of the Prophet and the period of
khulafaur rashidin are, first, seen from the difference in the Prophet's duties are to convey
Tawheed correctly, lead Muslims in spreading Islam, carry out their prophetic duties, as a
bearer of good news, the Prophet as a messenger of Allah and convey the revelations that
have been conveyed by Allah through the angel Gabriel, improving the morals of
Muslims. Meanwhile, the Rashidin khulafaur is not getting revelation from Allah, as a
substitute for the Prophet to become a leader, replacing the duties of the head of state of
the government, spreading Islam. The similarity in both cases is that they both defend
Islam.
CHAPTER IV
UMAYYAD BANI IS SEEN FROM THREE
PHASES (FORMATION PHASE, GLORY AND
DECLINE)
A. History of the Establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty
At the end of the reign of Ali bin Abi Talib, Muslims began to be turbulent and
emerged into the three dominant political forces at that time, namely Shia, Muawiyah, and
Khawarij. This situation was certainly not favorable for Ali, as a result of which Ali's
position was getting weaker, while Muawiyah's position was getting stronger. And in 40
AH (660 AD), Ali was killed by one of the Khawarij members.
After Ali bin Abi Talib died, his position as caliph was held by his son, Hasan. But
because the people of Kufa did not support him, as their attitude towards his father, Hasan
became weaker, while Muawiyah became stronger. So Hasan entered into a peace treaty
with Muawiyah by relinquishing the caliphate for Muawiyah in 41 AH (661 AD), so that
there would be no unnecessary bloodshed. The agreement can unite Muslims in one
political leadership, namely under the leadership of Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan. This year
in history is known as the year of al-Jama'ah (year of unity), as a sign that Muslims have
agreed by acclamation to have only one caliph. On the other hand, the surrender made
Muawiyah the absolute ruler in Islam. Thus, the so-called democratic Khulafa' al-Rashidin
period ended, and the reign of the Banu Umayah in the history of hereditary Islamic
politics began.
The Umayyad dynasty was a Muslim government that developed after the Khulafa al-
Rashidin period which began in 41 AH/661 AD. The Umayyad dynasty was founded by
Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan bin Harb. The name of the Umayyad Dynasty was attributed to
Umayyah bin Abd Shams bin Abdu Manaf. Genealogy of the descendants of Muawiyah
bin Abi Sufyan bin Harb bin
Umayyah bin Abdi Shams bin Abdi Manaf met with the Prophet Muhammad PBUH on
his Abdi Manaf. If the descendants of the Prophet are called the Hashemite family (Banu
Hashim), then the Umayyad descendants are called the Umayyad family (Banu Umayyah).
Therefore, Muawiyah was declared as the builder or main figure of the Umayyad Dynasty.
Muawiyah is not only the founder but also the first caliph of the Umayyad Bani.
Muawiyah is seen as the founder of this dynasty, by some historians it is viewed
negatively because of his success in obtaining the legality of his power in the civil war in
Shiffin. Apart from that, in muawiyah are gathered the qualities of a ruler, politician, and
administrator.
Muawiyah's success in establishing the Umayyad Dynasty was not only a victory of
diplomacy in the role of Shiffin and the killing of Ali bin Abi Talib, but from the
beginning Muawiyah had a solid "rational base" as the foundation for future development.
In addition, he has strong support from Syria and the Umayyad family, he is a very wise
administrator in placing his officials and has outstanding abilities as a true statesman.
1. The Umayyads in the Pre-Islamic Period and the Time of the Prophet PBUH
In pre-Islamic times, as a Kuraish, the Umayyads and the Hashemites always
competed for the leadership seat. The Umayyads played a more important role in
government and trade, thus they controlled more of the economy than the Hashemite
Bandits, while the Hashemites were people with a simple economy, but the pride of the
Hashemites was that the last Messenger sent by Allah swt. is from their descendant,
namely Muhammad bin Abdillah bin 'Abd al-Muthtalib.
As Islam began to develop and gain followers, the Umayyads felt that their power and
economy were threatened, thus. The Umayyads became the main opponents of the
struggle of Muhammad PBUH (Banu Hashim). Abu Sufyan bin Harb is one of the
a descendant of the Umayyads who often became generals in several wars against the
Banu Hashim. After Islam became strong and was able to seize Mecca, Abu Sufyan's
side surrendered, among them was Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan, who then embraced
Islam like the rest of the inhabitants of Mecca.
2. Overview of the Umayyad Caliphs and Their Policies
In the history of Islamic civilization, Muawiyah emerged as the first ruler to change
the system of government in Islam, from a system of government that was a consensus
democracy to an absolute monarchy. The Umayyad Dynasty ruled for approximately 90
years, namely from 661 AD / 14 H to 750 AD / 132 H, during this period, there were 14
caliphs who had ruled, namely:
1) Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan (41-60 AH/661-679 AD)
Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan's political experience has enriched him with policies in
ruling, starting from becoming one of the leaders of the army under the command of
Commander Abu Ubaidillah din Jarrah who succeeded in seizing Palestine, Syria
and Egypt from the hands of the Roman Empire. Then Muawiyah served as the head
of the region in Syria and Palestine. The Caliph Uthman named him "Amir Al-Bahr"
who led the raid on the city of Constantinople although it was unsuccessful.
Policies:
a) Changing the system of government from democratic to monarchikheridetis
(hereditary kingdom), this system of government was adopted from Persia and
Byzantium. The first step taken in using the government system was to appoint
his son Yazid as the crown prince.
b) Moving the center of government from Medina to Damascus.
c) Withdraw the besieging forces of Constantinople.
d) Established the Recording department (Diwanul Khatam).
e) Establishing a postal service (Diwanul Barid)
f) Separating financial affairs from government affairs by appointing a special
official who was given the title of sahibul kharaj.
g) Established a stamp office (currency printing).
h) Muawiyah died in 60 AH in Damascus due to illness after he became caliph for
approximately 19 years. With the appointment of Yazid bin Muawiyah as the
crown prince, the reins of leadership were handed over to him.
2) Yazid ibn Mu'awiya (60-64 AH/ 679-683 AD)
Yazid's appointment as caliph was followed by the rejection of the Shia who had
worshipped Husayn bin Ali in Kufa as caliph after the death of Muawiyah. This
refusal resulted in a war in Karbala that led to the killing of Husayn bin Ali. In
addition, Yazid also faced rebellions in Makkah and Medina harshly. The Anshor in
Medina appointed Abdullah bin Hanzalah and the Qurais appointed Abdullah bin
Muti', and the inhabitants of Mecca appointed Abdullah bin Zubair as leader without
recognition of Yazid's leadership. Yazid died in 64 AH after ruling for 4 years.
During this period, the Islamic government did not develop much because the
government was preoccupied with rebellions from several parties.
3) Mu'awiya ibn Yazid (64 AH/683 AD)
Muawiyah bin Yazid was the son of Yazid bin Muawiyah, and he succeeded the
leadership after his father's death. However, he only held the position of caliph for
only a few months. He experienced heavy mental pressure because he was unable to
shoulder the responsibility of the caliphate, besides that he had to overcome a
critical period with many disputes between tribes. With the death of Muawiyah bin
Yazid, the descendants of Muawiyah ended.
4) Marwan bin Hakam (64-65 H/ 683-684 M)
Marwan bin Hakam during the time of Uthman bin Affan, a holder of the caliph's
seal, during the time of Muawiyah bin Abi Sufyan he was the governor of Medina
and became an advisor during the time of Yazid bin Muawiyah in Damascus.
Muawiyah II did not appoint his successor as caliph then the big family of the
Umayyads appointed him as caliph, because he was considered the foremost control
of power with his experience. Marwah faced all difficulties one by one, then he was
able to occupy Egypt, Palestine and the Hijaz and Iraq. However, his leadership did
not last long, only 1 year, before he died, appointing Abdul Malik and Abdul Aziz as
successors after his death in order.
5) 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (65-86 AH/684-705 AD)
He was the second largest in the line of Umayyad caliphs so he was touted as the
"second founder" of Umayyad sovereignty. During his leadership, he was able to
fully restore the territorial integrity and authority of the Umayyad Banu with the
subjugation of the separatist movement of Abdullah bin Zubair in the Hijjaz, the
rebellion of the Shi'a and Khawarij, the terror act of al-Mukhtar bin Ubaid As-Saqafi
in Kufa, the rebellion of Mus'ab bin Zubair in Iraq, and the Roman rebellion that
shook the joints of the Umayyad government.
The following are some of the policies taken by Abdul Malik during his
leadership period:
a) Using Arabic as the official language in administration throughout the Umayyad
region. The Arabization carried out includes the Arabization of the tax office and
the financial office.
b) Printing currency regularly.
c) The appointment of governors from among the Umayyads alone is his friends,
relatives and descendants. For these governors, they are not given absolute
power.
d) In order to facilitate his government, he established post offices and opened
roads for smooth mail delivery.
e) Building several buildings, mosques and water channels.
f) Together with al-Hajjaj, he perfected the writing of the mushaf al-Quran with
dots on certain letters.
6) Al-Walid ibn 'Abd al-Malik (86-96 AH/705-714 AD)
After the death of Abdul Malik bin Marwan, the government was led by Al-
Walid bin Abdul Malik, during his rule. Islamic rule stepped into Spain under the
leadership of Thariq bin Ziyad's army when North Africa was held by the governor
Musa bin Nusair. Because of his abundant wealth, he perfected the construction of
buildings, factories, and roads with wells. He built the famous al-Amawi mosque in
Damascus, built the al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem, and expanded the Prophet's
mosque in Medina. He also provides assistance to orphans, the poor, and the
disabled. He built a hospital for lepers in Damascus.
7) Suleiman ibn 'Abd al-Malik (96-99/714-717)
Caliph Sulaiman bin Abdul Malik was not as wise as his brother in leading, he
loved the life of the world very much and his penchant for fun, his character made
him hated by his people. This resulted in the officials being divided, as well as the
community. People who contributed to his predecessors were tortured, such as the
family of Hajjaj bin Yusuf and Muhammad bin Qasim. Sulaiman died in Dabik on
the Byzantine border after ruling for 2 years. Before his death he appointed Umar
bin Abdul Aziz as his successor.
8) 'Umar b. 'Abd al-Aziz (99-101 AH) / 717-719 AD
Umar bin Abdul Aziz is said to be the third great caliph
in the Umayyad dynasty. He is a pious man who is clean and just. He spent a lot of
time in Medina in the city where he was the governor during the time of al-Walid, to
study Islamic religion, especially hadith. Previously, he was an official who was rich
in knowledge and wealth, but when he became the caliph he changed into a person
who was zahid, simple, worked hard, and fought endlessly until the end of his life.
He even returned most of his property in the form of land and jewelry to his wife to
the baitul-mal. Umar died at the age of 39 after ruling for approximately 2 years, his
body was buried at Dair Simon near Hims.
The following are the policies that were famous during his leadership:
a) Officially he ordered the collection of hadiths;
b) He made peace between the Amamiyyah, Shi'a and Khawarij;
c) Raising the salaries of its governors;
d) Equalizing prosperity by providing compensation to the poor;
e) Updating the postal service;
f) Equate the numbered non-Arabs with the Arabs, thus returning them to universal
Muslim unity. He reduced taxes and stopped the practice of jizyah for new
Muslims.
9) Yazid ibn 'Abd al-Malik (101-105 AH/ 719-723 AD)
During his reign, the conflict between Mudhariyah and Yamaniyah revived. The
Khawarij again opposed the government because they considered Yazid unjust in
leading. His leadership attitude is very different from the leadership pattern of Umar
bin Adul Aziz, he prefers to splurge so that he is considered not serious in his
leadership.
10) Hasyam ibn 'Abd al-Malik (105-125/723-742)
After Yazid's death, his brother Hiyam bin Abdul Malik ascended the throne. At
the time of his accession to the throne. During his leadership period,
the dispute between the Umayyads and the Hashemite tribes. His government was
soft and honest, and he had done much to restore security and prosperity, but all his
policies could not pay for the mistakes of his predecessors. This further smoothed
the decline of the Umayyad dynasty.25 Hisham was a zealous advocate of art and
literature. His love for science made him pay great attention to the development of
knowledge.
11) Al-Walid bin Yazid (125-126 H/ 742- 743M)
Walid by Arab writers was described as an immoral, drunkard, and transgressor.
At the beginning of his muala, he showed kindness to the poor and the weak.
However, all of them were dropped with his vindictive nature, as well as evil to his
relatives. This attitude further sharpened the decline of the Umayah bani.
12) Yazid ibn Walid ibn 'Abd al-Malik (126/743 AD)
13) Ibrahim ibn Walid ibn 'Abd al-Malik (126-127/743-744)
14) Marwan bin Muhammad (127-132 H/ 744-750 M)
B. Glory and Success of the Umayyads
During the time when the Umayyads were in power, it must be admitted that a lot of
successes were achieved, if it can be classified, then the most important can be seen from
2 aspects, namely: (1) Territory of power and politics and
(2) Scientific Development, the following include:
1) Massive expansion (expansion of territory/territory). These areas included Spain, North
Africa, Syria, Palestine, the Arabian Peninsula, Iraq, parts of Asia Minor, Persia,
Afghanistan, what is now Pakistan, Purkmonia, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan in Central
Asia.
2) Muawiyah has contributed a lot to development in various fields.
3) Establish post offices and certain places by providing horses complete with their
equipment along the way.
4) He also tried to put the armed forces in order and scored an eye.
money. In his time, the special position of a judge (qadhi) began to develop into a
profession in itself, Qadhi was a specialist in his field.
5) Abd al-Malik changed the Byzantine and Persian currencies used in the Islamic-
controlled areas. For this reason, he printed his own money in 659 AD using Arabic
words and writing .
6) Caliph Abd al-Malik also succeeded in improving government administration and
enacting Arabic as the official language of Islamic government administration. The
success of Caliph Abd al-Malik was followed by his son al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik
(705-715 AD), a strong-willed and capable person who carried out development. He
built orphanages for the disabled. All personnel involved in this humane activity are
paid by the state on a permanent basis.
7) He also built highways that connected one area to another, factories, government
buildings and magnificent mosques.
8) In the political aspect, the Umayyads drafted a completely new governance to meet the
demands of regional development and a more orderly state administration. In addition
to appointing an Advisor as a companion, the Caliph of the Umayyad Banu Umayyah
was assisted by several secretaries, namely: Katib ar-Rasail, the secretary in charge of
organizing administration and correspondence with local dignitaries; Katib al-Kharaj,
secretary in charge of organizing state revenues and expenditures; Katib al-Jundi, the
secretary in charge of organizing all matters related to the army; Katib as-Syurtah,
secretary in charge of maintaining security and public order; Katib al-Qudat, the
secretary who organizes legal order through the local judicial and legal bodies.
9) Scientific Development. During the reign of the Umayyad dynasty, the cities of
Makkah and Medina became places where music, songs and songs flourished.
poetry. Meanwhile, in Iraq (Bashrah and Kufa) it developed into a center of intellectual
activity in the Islamic world. Meanwhile, in Marbad, a satellite city in Damascus, poets,
philosophers, scholars, and other scholars gathered. Some of the rapidly developing
sciences such as:
a) Arabic Language Development. In the Umayyad Dynasty, Arabic was used as the
official language in state administration and government so that books and
correspondence used Arabic.
b) Qiraat Science. The art of reading the Qur'an which is the oldest sharia that began to
be developed during the Rashidin khulafaa. In this dynasty, well-known qiraat
experts such as Abdullah bin Qusair were born.
c) The Science of Tafsir. One of the proofs of the development of the science of tafsir
at that time was the book of the science of tafsir by the mujahid.
d) The Science of Hadith. At this time, the hadiths of the Prophet were to be collected,
then researched for their origins, until finally it became a stand-alone science called
the science of hadith. Among the famous hadith scholars at this time are Al-Auzi
Abdurrahman bin Amru, Hasan Basri, Ibn Abu Malikah, Asha'bi Abu Amru Amir
bin Shurahbil.
e) Fiqh. At the beginning, the development of fiqh science was based on the need for
regulations as guidelines in solving various problems. The Quran and hadith are
used as the basis of Islamic fiqh. Among the fiqh scholars who were killed were
Sa'ud bin Musib, Abu Bakr bin Abdurahman, Qasim Ubaidillah, Urwah, and
Kharijah.
f) Nahwu Science. With the expansion of Islamic territory and supported by
Arabization efforts, Arabic grammar is needed. So that the knowledge of nahwu was
written and became one of the important sciences to learn. One of the legendary
figures is Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali who hails from Baghdad. One of the services of
Al-Du'ail is to compile Arabic grammar by giving dots to hijaiyah letters that
originally did not exist.
g) Geography and Dates. Geography and dates have at this time become a branch of
science in its own right. In the process of science, they collected stories about the
Prophet and his Companions which were then used as the basis for writing books
about conquest (maghazi) and biographies (sirah). The emergence of geography was
triggered by the development of Islamic da'wah to new areas that were wide and far.
h) Translation Effort. At this time, efforts began to translate science books from other
languages into Arabic. This was the first pioneer in book translation which was then
continued and developed rapidly during the Abbasid Dynasty. Books translated
during this period included books on chemistry, astronomy, astronomy, physics,
medicine, and others.
10) Arts and Culture
During the time of the Umayah people, the art of Architecture developed,
especially after the Spanish conquest by Thariq bin Ziyat. This artistic expression is
manifested in the mosque buildings that were erected during this period. The
architecture of the building combines Islamic culture with the surrounding culture.
Evidence of architectural development during this period can be seen in Cuba the
stone al-Aqsa Mosque known as the Dome or The Rock (Qubah Ash-Shakhra) in
Jerusalem, the building of the Grand Mosque and the Prophet's Mosque which was
completed during the time of Umar bin Abdul Aziz, the towers erected by al-Walid in
Syria and the Hijaz, the church building which was repaired and converted into a
mosque by al-Walid. as well as small palaces and resting houses for the caliph and
his sons.
Fine art in the form of paintings seen on the wall carvings of buildings also
developed. The painters are called mushawwirun. While in songs and songs, it has
actually developed in the pre-Islamic period with the existence of songs of victory,
war, religion and love
And there are several musical instruments in the form of square sow (duff), flute
(qashabah), grass flute (zamr). One of the famous musicians at this time was Said ibn
Misjah, Ibn Surayjsab Ibn Muhriz.
C. The Decline of the Umayyad Dynasty
After ruling for 90 years, the Umayyad Dynasty finally ended with the following are
some of the dominant factors in the phase of decline or destruction of the Umayyad
dynasty, namely:
The emergence of groups that were dissatisfied with the rule of the Umayyad Tribes,
such as the Khawarij, Shia, and non-Arab Muslim groups (mawali); The absence of clear
and firm provisions on the system of changing the caliph, the absence of provisions leads
to unfair competition among members of the caliph's family; The inability of the Umayyad
rulers to rally unity and unity from the increasingly escalating conflict between the ethnic
tribes of Northern Arabia (Banu Qais) and the Southern Arabiyah tribe (Banu Kalb),
which existed since before Islam; The attitude of living in luxury in the family of the
caliph, so that those who hold the next caliphate are not able to bear the heavy burden of
statehood; The killing of Caliph Marwan bin Muhammad by the Abbasid army in the
village of Busir in the Banu Suweif area as the end of the Umayyad Dynasty in Damascus;
The emergence of a new power spearheaded by the descendants of Al-Abbas bin Abdul
Muttalib as a rival of the Umayyads in the caliphate.
CHAPTER V
Science and Technology of the First Period of the Abbasid Dynasty
A. Overview of the Abbasid Dynasty
1. History of the Establishment of the Abbasid Dynasty
The establishment of the Abbasid Dynasty cannot be separated from the role of Abu
Muslim Al-Khurasani, in his hands broke out the greatest revolution in the history of
Islam, with the fall of the Ummayah Dynasty. Western historians call it the Great
Revolution in Islam. The founder of the Abbasid Dynasty was Abdullah Al-Saffah ibn
Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abdullah ibn Al-Abass. His rule lasted from 132-656 AH or
750-656 AD. Initially, the capital of the country was Al-Hasyimiyah, near Kufa. In 762
AD, to further consolidate and maintain the stability of the state, Abu Ja'far Al-
Manshur moved the capital to Baghdad, near the former Persian capital, Ctesipon.
Thus, the center of the Banu Abbas dynasty was in the midst of the Persians.
2. The First Period of the Abbasid Dynasty
In the first period (132-232 H/750-847 AD), the government reached a golden age.
Politically, the caliphs are strong figures in politics and religion, so that the prosperity
of the people increases. This period succeeded in preparing the foundation for the
development of Islamic philosophy and science. After this period ended, the rule of the
Abbasid Dynasty began to decline in the political sphere, although philosophy and
science continued to develop.
The Caliph Abu Al-Abass (132-136 AH/749-754 AD), called himself al-Saffah, the
bloodshed, which later became his nickname. His brother and successor, Abu Ja'far
(136-158 AH/754-775 AD), received the nickname al-Manshur. The foundations of
government were laid and built by Abu Al-Abbas and Abu Ja'far Al Manshur, the
golden peak was in the caliphs afterwards, namely Al-Mahdi (158-169 AH/775-785
AD), Al-Hadi (169-170 AH/785-786 AD), Harun Al-Rashid (170-193 AH/786-809
AD), Al-Ma'mun (198-201 AH/813-817 AD), Al-Mu'tashim (218-227 AH/833-842
AD)
M ), Al-Wasiq (227-232 H/842-847 M), dan Al-Mutawakkil (232-247 H/847-861 M).
3. Founders of the Abbasid Dynasty Civilization
The victory of the Islamic army during the time of Al-Mahdi and Harun Al-Rashid
over the Byzantines, gave rise to an intellectual movement in the history of Islam. After
achieving victory in the war, the soldiers paved the way for the fields of government,
finance, law and science to work in their fields. Thus emerged poets, philosophers,
historians, scholars, religious figures and poets who enriched the treasures of the Arabic
language. Due to the entry of foreign influences, namely; Greek, Syrian, Indian, Persian
and Jewish. The intellectual movement was marked by the project of translating works
in Persian, Sanskrit, Syriac (aramaic) and Greek into Arabic.
Some of the influences obtained by the Abbasid Dynasty include: Greek, Indian,
Persian and Jewish. The influence of Greek civilization in philosophy and logic. Greece
also influenced the sciences of medicine, engineering, mechanics, chemistry etc. The
first Greek translator was Abu Yahya ibn Al-Bathriq, who translated the works of
Galen and Hippocrates (436 B.C.) in medicine. In addition, there are works by Ptoleour
(Quadripartitum) and works by Euchid (Almagest), about astronomy. Indian
civilization was influential in mathematics, and medicine especially astrology. India
became the first source of inspiration in the fields of mysticism and mathematics.
Persian civilization colored Arabic literature. The Abbasid caliph researched the history
of the Persian kings and followed their administration. Another translation of Persian
by Al-Fadhl ibn Nawbakhti (815 AD) to the library of Harun Al-Rashid. Fine arts,
calligraphy or the art of writing beautifully (belles-letters). In the field of literature Ibn
Al Muqaffa translated Kalilah Wa Dimnah from the Pahlevi language and translated
the book As-Sind Wa Al-Hind. Jews are influential in the Torah story and the
commentary of the Talmud. The mufassir accepted the story, so that some of them were
exaggerated to the point of being infiltrated by the story
israiliyyat. Among Muslims, there are those who are influenced by Jewish thinking
about the nature of Allah, namely about resemblance (tasybih) and searching for the
nature of Allah, finally turning to the idea that the Qur'an is a creature. Seen in
literature and poetry, there is an influence on the religion in the speeches of some poets
and Sufism schools.
B. Science of the Abbasid Dynasty
1. A Nation That Cares About Science
In the beginning, science came from the Qur'an and hadith. Muslims of non-Arab
descent, especially Persians, argue that they feel the need to study Arabic grammar
(nahwu) and philology as well as pre-Islamic verses which require the study of
genealogy and history to understand the Qur'an and hadith. What is interesting to
researchers of Islamic cultural history is that the majority of people who focus on
science are Mawali, especially Persians. Arabic is the only medium of communication
to interact with fellow Muslims in Abbasids. The majority of the bearers of knowledge
in Islam are foreigners (non-Arabs), both sharia and aqli science. It is very rare among
Arabs, if there are Arabs in their destiny, but their language is not Arabic, including
educators and teachers. Persians usually lived in big cities, they traded and had long
known the arts and culture.
At first, Muslims had no knowledge of art and other sciences. Their whole
attention is only attached to the laws of the Qur'an and hadith. They do not know how
to teach science, art (adab), composing, compiling or collecting books. They are able
to repeat the Qur'an and narrate the hadith. The transfer of knowledge is carried out
orally. Over time, the knowledge that is conveyed orally, and memorized, has
decreased when conveyed to the next generation. This makes the rescue of knowledge
very necessary to prevent loss, so writing is carried out.
2. Translation Movement
When the Abbasid Caliphate was firmly established, especially Abu Ja'far Al
Manshur, Harun Al-Rashid, and Al-Ma'mun paid special attention to science. They
sent a mission to Constantinople to bring scientific results in the fields of philosophy,
logic, medicine, mathematics, astrology (astrological science), music, geography and
history. Al Ma'mun asked the Roman King for an ancient book of knowledge and
ordered the work to be translated into Arabic.
Other works from Assyrian (Old Persian) and Sanskrit (Old Indian) were
translated into Arabic. The scholars who translated Persian works were: the Nubacht
family, Hasan ibn Sahal, the great vizier of Ma'mun and Baladhuri the author of
Futuh al-Buldan. In addition to the government's translation council, the wealthy
people also protect translation. As a result of this revival, many scholars began to
study, comment on and revise other translators' books. During the reign of the First
Abbasid Dynasty there were four prominent translators, namely Hunayn ibn Ishaq,
Wa'qub ibn Ishaq (from the tribe of the kinda direction), Thabit ibn Qurra (from
Harran) and Umar ibn Al-Farrakhan (from Tabaristan).
3. Bait Al-Hikmah and Darul Hikmah Libraries as the Islamic Cultural Center of the
Abbasid Dynasty
Bait Al-Hikmah is a continuation of the Jundishapur Academy institution during
the Persian Sasanian Empire founded by Harun Al-Rashid. This library is equipped
with various books by Al-Ma'mun. This library stores scientific works in the field of
religion and was able to survive until the invasion of the Mongols. The library of Bait
Al-Hikmah and Darul Hikmah, reached its peak during the time of Caliph Al-
Ma'mun. This library is more like a university where there are complete books.
People come to the library to read, write and discuss. In addition, this library also
functions as a translation office, especially works of medicine, philosophy,
mathematics, chemistry, astronomy and natural sciences. The scholars of science and
literature who often visited this library had a great effect on the progress of scientific
activities during the Abbasid Dynasty as well as in the spread among Muslims and
non-Muslims. In subsequent developments, Islamic scientists have developed
translated sciences and obtained new scientific findings.
Here lies the contribution of Islam to Western knowledge and civilization or the
world. The protection of science is not limited to the caliphs alone, but is also the
business of the vizier (ministers) and high officials. Some of them often hold
scientific meetings in their homes.
4. Division of Knowledge
Muslim writers distinguish knowledge into two, namely: the science of naql (sharia)
and the science of reason (the science of wisdom).
a. Naql Science
Naql science is a science related to the Qur'an, including: qiraat, tafsir, hadith, fiqh,
kalam, nahwu, language, bayan and adab (literature).
1) Qiraat Science
The science of qiraat is considered the initial phase and forerunner of the
interpretation of the Qur'an. The causes of various qiraat are seven. Famous qiraat
scholars: Yahya ibn Haris Az Zamari, Hamzah ibn Habib Az Zayyat, Abu
Abdurrahman Al Muqri and Khalaf ibn Hisham Al Bazzar.
2) Interpretation
Commentators in interpreting the Qur'an are oriented in two directions, namely:
at tafsir bi al ma'sur and at tafsir bi ar ra'yi. As time went by, at tafsir bi al
ma'sur accepted the opinion of the scholars of the book who converted to Islam,
namely the opinion of the Torah and the Gospel. Expert
Famous interpretations are Abdullah ibn Abbas, Muqatil ibn Sulaiman Al Azadi,
Muhammad ibn Ishak, Jarir At Tabari. During this period, a group of Mu'tazilah
(free thinkers) emerged, whose opinions were based on reason. In fighting this
group, education based on the Qur'an was established and made a postulate that
broke the enemy's postulates taken from the Qur'an through tafsir.
3) Hadith
The Arabs have only written hadith since the second century of the Hijri. So that
hadith scholars were born, including: Imam Malik, Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim,
author of Sahih Bukhari-Muslim. Then appeared Abu Daud, the author of the
book As Sunan, At Tirmizi, the author of the book Al Jami', An Nasa'i and Ibn
Majah, both the authors of the book As Sunan under the name Al Kutub As Sittah.
4) Fiqh
Among the jurists of this time is Imam Malik ibn Anas, the author of the book Al
Muwata', Al Mudawwanah. Ahmad ibn Hambal, Imam Shafi'i, Abu Hanifah, Al
Lais ibn Sa'd, Abu Yusuf, his works are in the form of the Book of Al Kharraj
(compiled at the request of Caliph Harun Al-Rashid). This book contains state
financial affairs that are only controlled by officials such as Abu Yusuf and are
close to the caliph and control fiqh.
5) Kalam Science
The science of kalam is assembled based on logic, especially in matters related to
faith. People who focus on this science are called mutakallimun. At first,
mutakallimun was aimed at people who focused on religious beliefs, but later it
was aimed at those who violated Mu'tazilah and became followers of Ahlu
Sunnah Wal Jamaah. The leading scholars of kalam are Wasil ibn Ata, Abu
Huzail Al 'Allaf, An Nizam, Abu Hasan Al Ash'arid an Hujjatul Islam Imam
Gazali.
6) Nahwu Science
The scholar of nahwu Basrah is called "the master of logic". Among the scholars
were Al-Asma'i and Abu Ubaidah, Al-Mubarrad the author of the book Al Kamil.
7) Kesusastraan
a) Poem
The famous Abbasid poet was Abu Nawas, with his verses about wine,
dormitories, hunting and various other poetic objects in line with the culture
and luxury that spread throughout the time that. Life poet
hang Proximity to the caliph and state dignitaries, therefore flattering
verses are the main characteristics of today's poetry.
b) Prose
Abdullah ibn Al Muqaffa translated the book Pahlevi (Ancient Persia).
Among them is Kalilah Wa Dimnah in Sanskrit. It is considered the oldest
prose book of Arabic literature, high in sentence structure and expressions.
The poet of this period, Abdul Hamid Al Katib, did something new in writing
a letter at the beginning of the letter there were praises, the division of
paragraphs and articles, the closing of the letter, including the content of the
letter at length regarding the king and politics.
b. Aql Science
The science of aql is the knowledge taken by Arabs from non-Arab nations. Aql
science includes: geography, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, philosophy,
magic, history, engineering, astrological science, music, medicine and architectural
arts.
1. Geography (earth sciences)
The expansion of the trade area prompted him to write to explain what he
experienced. The figure Ibn Khurdadbih wrote Kitab al-Masalik. This book is
the official guide and the oldest geographical work in Arabic. Ibn Khardazabah,
composed Al Masalik Wa Al Mamalik.
2. Mathematics and astrology
Pythagoras was an Arab teacher in the field of mathematics, according to him
one would not be a good philosopher and doctor without studying mathematics.
In the famous science of arithmetic, Imran ibn Al Wadhdhah and Shihab ibn
Cashier. Astrology is needed, for example during the construction of the city of
Baghdad. As well as the selection of time to bai'at Ali Ar Rida. The experts are
Al-Haris and Ja'far ibn Umar Al Balkhi, the authors of Isbat Al'Ulum and Haiah
Al Falak.
3. Astronomi
Ibn Ma'shar was originally a hadith expert, then studied astronomy and after
47 years succeeded in making works.
4. Chemistry
Jabir ibn Hayyan (chemist), was a Tarsus in Europe known as Gaber. He
wrote many books on chemistry, mining and rocks that were useful to Europe.
5. Filsafat
In this period Greek ideas entered Islamic thought. Some of his Islamic
philosophers have translated his works into Latin. The first figure to introduce
Greek philosophy into the Islamic world was Al-Kindi. Al-Kindi's theology was
close to the Mu'tazilah so that it was liked by the Caliphs Al-Ma'mun, Al-
Mu'tasim and Al-Watsiq. After the policy under Al-Mutawakkil he suffered,
even his library was confiscated even though it was eventually returned.
6. History
Ibn Muqaffa translated the Book of Khuday Nameh (Kitab Al Muluk) from
Pahlevi into Arabic, and named it Siyar Muluk Al'Ajm. This book is considered
an example of a history book among the Arabs. Hisham ibn Muhammad Al
Kalbi (died
204 AH) and his father was the first Arab to write in history.
C. Abbasid Dynasty Technology
1. Field of Medicine
Caliph Abu Ja'far Al-Manshur when he had a stomach ache called Ibn Bakhtisyu,
the head of the Jundisyapur hospital, a Nestor Christian. During the time of Harun Al-
Rashid, Ibn Bakhtisyu was proficient in psychiatry in determining neurotic diseases and
their treatment. During the time of Al-Mu'tashim, Yahya ibn Masuwaih was famous as
a doctor. The Abbasid caliphs relied on Iraqi, Indian and Greek doctors. During the
time of the Khlifah Al-Watsiq was famous doctors Ibn Bakhtisyu, Ibn Musawaih,
Mikhail and Hunyn ibn Ishaq. Caliph Al-Watsiq (227-232 AH/842-847 AD), asked a
Christian doctor Hunayn ibn Ishaq to compile a book, which explains the differences in
food, medicine, lactasete, anatomy of the body, poisons and bleach. Hunayn wrote the
book The Book of Physical Cases. Doctors today explain about the mouth and teeth, the
types, number and uses of each. Koehen Al Attar Al Jujudi (pharmacist), compiled the
book Sinah'ah As Saidalah which detailed medicines and explained how to make
medicines that are taken orally, swallowed, in the form of powders and tablets.
2. Art and Architects
The art of decoration has progressed rapidly, during the time of Abu Ja'far Al-
Manshur. The dome decoration is made of gold and on top of it is a statue that can
rotate if blown by the wind. Al-Manshur likes to rest, if he wants to see the water he
sits on the dome of the Khorasan Gate, if he wants to see the area around Baghdad he
sits at the Sham Gate. If he wants to see Al Kurkh he sits at the Gate of Basrah and if he
wants to see plantations and agriculture he sits on the dome of the Gate of Kufa.
During this period, the palaces became a medium for pouring paintings and
decorations, both inside and outside. The decoration is made of gibs, covered with a
gordyn decorated with Persian paintings. Characteristics of period decoration
these are decorations made of gibs that cover the underside of the walls of the palaces,
as found by the diggers of the ruins of the city of Samara. Images were found on the
ruins of animals, birds and humans hunting or women dancing. The Abbasid style of
textile decoration, antique objects of metal and ceramics and wood had spread in
Islamic countries at that time, to Egypt, Africa and Iran. In the famous technique Al
Hajjaj bin Ar Ta'ah who made the calligraphy of the Great Mosque of Baghdad during
the time of Abu Ja'far Al Manshur. Even Baqdad is dubbed as the tower of science and
knowledge.
CHAPTER VI
ISLAM AND SPANISH CIVILIZATION
A. The Entry of Islam in Spain
The first Islamic government to occupy Spain was the Caliph of the Umayyads
centered in Damascus (Salwasalsabila, 2008: 21). Prior to the Spanish conquest, Muslims
had ruled North Africa and made it one of the provinces of the Umayyad dynasty. The
complete control of North Africa occurred during the time of Caliph Abd Malik (685-705
AD). Caliph Abd Malik appointed Ibn Nu'man al Ghassani as the governor of the area.
During the time of Caliph al-Walid (705-715 AD), Hasan Ibn Nu'man was replaced by
Musa Ibn Nushair. During al-Walid's rule, Musa Ibn Nushair successfully expanded his
territory by occupying Algeria and Morocco. In addition, he also perfected the conquest of
various territories of the former Barbarians in a number of mountains so that they declared
their loyalty and promised not to create chaos like they had done before.
The conquest of North Africa to become one of the provinces of the Umayyad
Caliphate took 53 years, from 30 AH (the reign of Muawiyah Ibn Abi Sofyan) to 83 AH
(the time of al-Walid). Before being defeated and later controlled by Islam, the region was
the base of power of the Roman Empire, namely the Gothic Kingdom. This kingdom often
came to the people and encouraged them to riot and oppose Islamic rule. After the region
was completely conquered, Muslims began to focus their attention on conquering Spain.
From this, it can be seen that the conquest of North Africa was a stepping stone for the
Muslims to control Spanish territory (Syalabi, 1995: 156).
In the history of Spanish domination, there are three Islamic heroes who can be said to
be the most meritorious in the process of conquering Spain. They are Tharif Ibn Malik,
Thariq Ibn Ziyad, and Musa ibn Ibn Nushair.
Tharif is considered a pioneer and investigator of the Spanish territory because he was the
first person to successfully cross the strait between Morocco and the European continent.
He went with a war force of five hundred men on four ships prepared by Julian. In the
raid, Tharif won and returned to North Africa with a large amount of booty. Motivated by
the success of Tharif and the crisis of power in the Gothic kingdom that ruled Spain at that
time, as well as a great push to obtain the spoils of war, in 711 AD Musa Ibn Nushair sent
an army of 7000 men to Spain under the leadership of Thariq Ibn Ziyad (Hitti, 2005: 628).
Thariq Ibn Ziyad is more famous as the conqueror of Spain because his army is larger
and the effect is more pronounced (Shalabi, 1995: 159-1960; Hill, 1996: 10). His army
consisted mostly of the Barbarians supported by Musa Ibn Nushair and some Arabs sent
by the Caliph al Walid (Yatim, 1994:86). The Barbarians are a people who still have a
descendant relationship with the Hamiyah, a branch of the white race and in prehistoric
times may have originated from the Samyyah. Most of the Barbarians (Berbers) who
inhabited the coastal areas were Christians. Prominent people in the old Christianity, such
as Tertullian, Saint Cyprian, and especially Saint Augustine came from this country (Hitti,
2005: 83). The troops then crossed the Strait under the leadership of Thariq Ibn Ziyad. The
mountain where Thariq and his army first landed and prepared his army can still be
remembered as Gibraltar (Jabal Thariq).
In a battle in a place called Bakkah, some also call it Lakkah (Wadil Lakkah or
Goddelete), precisely on July 19, 711 AD, Thariq managed to defeat King Roderick.
Subsequently, Thariq and his army continued to conquer important cities there, such as
Cordova, Granada, and Toledo. He also asked Musa Ibn Nushair for additional troops in
North Africa. Moses sent an additional army of 5000 soldiers, bringing the total number of
Thariq's troops to 12,000
person. This number is not comparable to the Gothic army, which is much larger, 100,000
people (Yatim, 1994: 86). The defeat of Roderick's army, according to Syalabi, was
caused by the fact that his army consisted of sahaya servants and weak people. In addition,
among them there are also Roderick's enemies. In addition, the Jews also secretly held
fellowships with the Muslims (Shalabi, 1995: 159-1960).
The first victory obtained by Thariq Ibn Ziyad was a clear path for the conquest of a
wider territory. For this reason, Musa Ibn Nushair felt the need to involve himself in the
battle arena with the intention of helping Thariq's struggle (Syalabi, 1995: 161-1962).
With a large army, he set out across the strait. One after another, the cities he passed
through were successfully controlled. After Moses had conquered Sidonia, Carmona,
Seville, and Merida and defeated the Gothic ruler Theodomir of Orihuela, he joined Thariq
in Toledo. Subsequently, both succeeded in controlling all important cities in Spain,
including the northern part, from Saragosa to Navarre (Yatim, 1994: 90).
From the story of the Spanish conquest above, it can be seen that the success of three
Islamic heroes: Tharif Ibn Malik, Thariq Ibn Ziyad, and Musa Ibn Nushair, could not be
separated from their enthusiasm for expanding the territory of Islam at the right time. As
the entire territory of North Africa was conquered and the power of the Gothic kingdom
began to weaken, the next leap was the control of the Spanish territory on the other side.
Tharif's courage as the first person to cross the strait between Morocco and the European
continent should be appreciated even though his expedition did not involve many troops
so the results were not obvious. Tharif's success prompted Thariq to hold the next
expedition with a larger army. The results achieved have been recorded in history thus
making Thariq more worthy of being considered a Spanish conqueror. The participation of
the Governor of North Africa, Musa Ibn Nushair, in the conquest of Spain strengthened
and complemented Thariq's success
in an attempt to control Spain. The cooperation of one team and the active involvement of
the central leadership and field implementers have yielded maximum results in the
expansion of Islamic rule to Spain.
B. The Development of Islamic Civilization in Spain
It is undeniable that Islam played an important role in Spain for about eight centuries.
In Spain, the Arabs won the greatest and longest victory in Europe despite the dramatic
suffering that occurred there (Lewis, 1988: 122; Al Siba'i, 1987: 33). The long history of
Spanish Muslims according to Hamka (1994: 293-294) is divided into three periods,
namely the period when it was ruled by the deputy caliph of Damascus, the period when it
was ruled by the Amir, and the period when it was led by a caliph. However, according to
Badri Yatim (1994: 92), the Islamic period in Spain can be divided into six periods as
follows.
1. First Period (711-755 AD)
Spain was under the rule of guardians appointed by the Caliph of the Umayyad
Caliph based in Damascus. Political stability in Spain has not been fully achieved due
to many disturbances, both internal and external. Disturbances from within include
disputes and quarrels among the ruling elites, especially due to ethnic and class
differences. Likewise, there was a difference of opinion between the caliph in
Damascus and the Governor of North Africa based in Qairawan, who each claimed the
most rights to Spanish territory. Consequently, there were twenty changes of Spanish
guardians (governors) in a very short period of time. The difference in political views
led to frequent civil wars, between Barbarians from North Africa and Arabs.
The Arab ethnicity itself consists of two groups that are always competing, namely
the Qaisy tribe (North Arabia) and Yemeni Arabia (South Arabia). These ethnic
differences often cause political conflicts, especially when there are strong and
formidable figures. It is natural that in Spain at that time there was no governor who
was able to maintain his power for a certain period of time.
a long time.
External interference arises from the "former" enemies of Islam in Spain who live in
mountainous areas who have never been loyal to the Islamic government. They hate
Islam very much and continue to build power. As a result, they were able to expel Islam
from the land of Andalus despite having to fight for more than 500 years.
With many internal and external conflicts, in this period Spanish Islam has not
entered development activities in the field of civilization and culture. The arrival of
Abd al Rahman al Dakhil to Spain in 138H/755 AD marked the end of the first period
(Yatim, 1994: 94).
2. Second Period (755-912 AD)
During this period, Spain was ruled by an amir (commander or governor) but was
not subordinate to the central government that was then held by the Abbasid Caliph in
Baghdad. The first Amir was Abdurrahman I who entered Spain in 138 AH/755 AD
and was given the title al Dakhil (who entered Spain).
Abdurrahman al Dakhil was a descendant of the Umayyads who managed to escape
and escape from the pursuit of the Abbasids who had conquered the Umayyads in
Damascus. Abdurrahman traveled to Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa, until finally
arriving in Cheuta. In this region, he obtained help from the Barbarians in organizing
military power. Subsequently, he succeeded in establishing the Umayyad Dynasty in
Spain. The governments after Abdurrahman al Dakhil were Hisham I, Hakam I, Abd al
Rahman al Ausath, Muhammad Ibn Abd al Rahman, Munzir Ibn Muhammad, and
Abdullah Ibn Muhammad (Ali, 1996: 302-312).
During this period, Spanish Muslims began to make a lot of progress, both in the
political field and in the field of civilization. Abd Rahman al Dakhil founded the
Córdova mosque and schools in the major cities of Spain. Hisyam I is known for his
meritorious service as a reformer in
Military. It was he who initiated the mercenaries in Spain. He was also the first person
to make Madzhab Maliki the official Madzhab of the state. As for Abd. Al Rahman al
Ausath is known as a ruler who loves knowledge. Philosophical thought began to enter,
especially in the time of Abdurrahman al Ausath, who invited scholars from the rest of
the Islamic world to come to Spain. Finally, scientific activities in Spain are growing.
The serious political disturbances that occurred during this period actually came
from the Muslims themselves. The rebels in Toledo in 852 AD formed a city-state that
lasted for 80 years. In addition, a number of dissatisfied people demanded a revolution.
The rebellion led by Hafsun and his son, Umar, centered in the mountains near Malaga,
was a major distraction. In addition, disputes between the Barbarians and the Arabs are
still frequent (Yatim, 1994: 96).
3. Third Period (912-1013 AD)
Abd Rahman III's reign with the title al Nasir li dinillah (enforcer of the religion of
Allah) until the emergence of group kings (small) known as Muluk al Thawaif entered
the third period. In this period, Spain was ruled by a ruler with the title of Caliph. Thus,
at this time there were two Sunni caliphs in the Islamic world, the Abbasid Caliphate in
Baghdad and the Umayyad Caliphate in Spain, in addition to a Fatimid Shi'a caliph in
North Africa (Ali, 1996: 308).
The use of the caliph title began with the news that al Muqtadir, the sovereign caliph
of the Abbasid Banu Bagdad, was killed by his own bodyguards. According to his
assessment, this situation shows that the atmosphere of the Abbasid government is in
uncertainty. Therefore, this moment is considered the right time to wear the caliph title
that has been deprived of the power of the Umayyads for more than 150 years (Yatim,
1994: 96). Degree
This was officially used starting in 929 AD. The great caliphs who ruled in this third
period were three people, namely Abd Rahman al Nasir (912-961), Hakam II (961-
976), and Hisham II (976-1009 AD).
During this period, the Spanish Muslims managed to reach the peak of their progress
and glory. This can be paralleled with the glory of the Abbasid sovereign in Baghdad.
Abd Rahman III was the largest Umayyad ruler in Spain. All disruptive movements and
political conflicts can be resolved so that the situation in the country is relatively safe.
The conquest of the cities of Elvira, Jain, and Seville is part of the evidence of Abd's
success. Rahman III and the Christian powers were also forced to surrender to him.
After successfully overcoming domestic political problems, he also succeeded in
thwarting the ideals of the Fatimid Empire to expand its territory to Spain.
Under the reign of Caliph Abd Rahman III, Spain experienced an encouraging
civilizational progress, especially in the field of Architecture. There are no less than 300
mosques, 100 magnificent palaces, 13,000 buildings, and 300 public baths in Cordova.
His fame as a ruler is known to Constantinople, Germany, France, and Italy. In fact, the
rulers of these countries sent their ambassadors to the Caliph's Palace. The formed sea
fleet succeeded in controlling the middle ocean route along with the Fatimiyyah fleet.
Abd Rahman III's greatness can be compared to that of King Akbar of India, Umar bin
Khattab, and Harun al Rashid. Thus, Abdurrahman III is not only the best ruler of
Spain, but also one of the best rulers of the world (Ali, 1996:309). Unfortunately, not all
historical figures know this (Husayn, 1996: 1).
The ruler after Abd Rahman II was Hakam II, who was a book collector and the
founder of the library. The collection in its library is no less than 400,000 books.
During this time, the community can enjoy welfare and prosperity. The development of
the city is also happening rapidly.
Furthermore, Hisham II ascended the throne at the age of eleven years was the
beginning of the destruction of the Umayyad caliphate in Spain. Therefore, de facto
power is in the hands of officials. In 981 A.D. the Caliph appointed Ibn Abi Amir as the
absolute ruler. He was an ambitious man who managed to consolidate his power and
expand the territory of Islam by getting rid of his comrades and rivals. For his success,
he received the title of al Mansur billah. He died in 1002 AD and was succeeded by his
son al Muzaffar who was still able to maintain the royal primacy. However, after his
death in 1008 AD, he was succeeded by his younger brother who did not have the
qualifications for the position. Finally in 1013 AD, the council of ministers that ruled
Cordova abolished the caliph. At that time, Spain was already divided into many small
countries centered in certain cities (Watt, 1995: 218).
4. Fourth period (1013-1086 AD)
During this period, Spain was divided into more than thirty small states under the
rule of the kings of the clan or al Muluk al Thawaif, which among other things were
centered in cities such as Seville, Cordova, and Toledo (Bosworth, 1993: 35-40). The
largest of these was the Abbadiyah in Seville. During this period, Spanish Muslims
again entered a period of internal strife. Unfortunately, in the event of a civil war, there
are certain parties who ask for help from Christian kings. Witnessing the chaos and
weakness that afflicted the state of Islamic politics, Christians in this period began to
take the initiative to attack for the first time. As a result of its fatality, the power of
Islam is known to have begun to decline and it is time to be destroyed (Yatim,
1994:96).
5. Fifth period (1086-1248 AD)
Although divided into several countries, in this fifth period, Islamic Spain still had a
dominant power, namely the Murabithun dynasty (1086-1143 AD) and the
Muwahhidun dynasty (1146-1235 AD).
The Murabithun Dynasty was originally a religious movement founded by Yusuf Ibn
Tasyfin in North Africa. In 1062 AD he succeeded in establishing a kingdom centered
in Marakesh. He entered Spain at the invitation of the Islamic rulers there who were
struggling to defend their country from the attacks of the Christians. He and his army
entered Spain in 1086 AD and defeated the Castilian army.
Divisions among the Muslim kings caused Joseph to move further to control Spain
and he succeeded. This success could not be continued by the rulers after them because
they were weak kings. In 1143 AD, the rule of the Murabithun dynasty both in North
Africa and in Spain came to an end. The Muwahhidun dynasty emerged in its place.
In 1146 AD the ruler of Muwahhidun based in North Africa seized Spain.
Muwahhidun was founded by Muhammad Ibn Tumart (d. 1128). He is intelligent, agile,
and does not hesitate to have opposing thoughts. He was a disciple of Qadi Ibn Hamdin
(Urvoy, 1991: 11). This dynasty came to Spain under the leadership of Abd al Munim.
Between 1114 and 1154 AD, the important Muslim cities, Cordova, Almeria, and
Granada, fell under his rule. For a period of several decades, this dynasty experienced a
lot of progress especially when the government was held by Abu Yusuf al Mansur.
Christian forces can be repelled. However, not long after, the Muwahhidun dynasty
collapsed.
In 1212 AD, the Christian army won a major victory at Las Navas de Tolesa.
Muwahhidun's defeats caused his ruler to choose to leave Spain and return to North
Africa in 1235 AD. Under such conditions, Muslims are unable to survive the
increasingly massive attacks on Christians. In 1238 AD, Cordova fell to the Christian
rulers and Seville
fell in 1248 A.D. Eventually, except for Granada, the entire territory of Spain had been
freed from Islamic rule (Yatim, 1994:99).
6. Sixth period (1248-1492 AD)
The Kingdom of Granada was the last bastion of Spanish Muslims under the rule of
the Banu Ahmar dynasty (1232-1492 AD). Civilization has again progressed as in the
time of Abdurrahman al Nasir. Politically, however, this dynasty only ruled in a small
area.
The alliance between the territories of Aragon and Castille through the marriage of
Ferdinand and Isabella gave birth to a great power to seize the last power of Muslims
in Spain (Tim, 1994: 175). However, several times their attacks have not succeeded in
penetrating the defenses of Muslims. Abu Hasan, who was in office at that time, was
able to break the attack. In fact, he refused to pay tribute to the Castille government.
Abu Hasan in an attack succeeded in occupying the city of Zahra.
To take revenge, Ferdinand launched a surprise attack on al Hamra and managed to
seize it. Many of the women and children who took refuge there were slaughtered by
Ferdinand's forces. The fall of al Hamra was a sign of the fall of the Granada
government.
The situation of the central government in Granada is increasingly critical with
several disputes and power struggles between Abul Hasan and his son Abu Abdullah.
The attack of Christian forces who tried to take advantage of this situation was broken
by Zaghal, Abul Hasan's brother. Zaghal succeeded Abul Hasan as ruler of Granada.
Zaghal tried to invite Abu Abdullah to combine forces in facing the enemy. But he
refused the invitation. When there was political upheaval between Zaghal and Abu
Abdullah, Christian forces raided and managed to take control of Alora, Kasr Bonela,
Ronda, Malaga, and Loxa.
On the next attack, Zaghal surrendered and fled to North Africa. The only Muslim
power is in the city of Granada
led by Abu Abdullah who was later destroyed by Ferdinand. Abu Abdullah was forced
to swear allegiance to Ferdinand and was willing to give up the wealth of Muslims in
exchange for the right to life and freedom of religion for Muslims. The sad transition
of power occurred on January 3, 1492 AD (Ali, 1996: 315; Yatim, 1994: 99-100).
Thus, the end of Islamic rule in Spain. Muslims are then faced with two choices,
convert to Christianity or leave Spain. As a result, in 1609 AD, it can be said that there
were no more Muslims living in this area.
C. Factors Supporting Spain's Progress
The progress of Islamic Spain was determined by the existence of a strong and
authoritative ruler, who was able to unite the forces of the Muslims, such as Abd al
Rahman al Dakhil, Abd al Rahman al Wasith, and Abd al Rahman al Nasir.
The political success of these leaders was supported by the wisdom of other rulers
who pioneered scientific activities. Religious tolerance was enforced by the rulers against
Christians and Jews so that they participated in realizing the Islamic Arab civilization in
Spain. For Christians, as well as for Jews, special judges have been provided who deal
with their problems based on their own religious teachings.
Islamic Spanish society is a pluralistic society consisting of various communities,
both religious and national. With the establishment of religious tolerance, these
communities can work together and contribute to each other's strengths. Disputes between
religious believers can be suppressed as little as possible so that they can live peacefully
side by side.
Further, despite the fierce competition between the Abbasids in Baghdad and the
Umayyads in Spain, the cultural relations of the East and the
The West is not always a war. Since the 11th century AD, many scholars have traveled
from the western end of the Islamic region to the eastern end with books and ideas. This
shows that although Muslims are divided into several political units, there is a so-called
cultural unity of the Islamic world.
Then, the political division during the grand period of al thawaif and afterwards did
not cause the retreat of civilization. That period can be said to be part of the peak of the
advancement of science, art, and culture of Islamic Spain. This is due to the spirit that
every dynasty in Malaga, Toledo, Seville, Granada, and others has to compete with the
center of Islamic science and civilization in Spain. For example, Muluk al thawaif
succeeded in establishing new civilization centers that were quite advanced (Yatim, 1994:
106). Thus, Spain's progress from time to time was maintained until then it was
completely destroyed by Ferdinand's merciless attack.
D. Causes of the Decline and Destruction of Spanish Islam
Among the main causes of the decline and destruction of Islam in Spain are:
1. Islamic and Christian Conflict
Muslim rulers did not Islamize completely. They seem to be content with simply
collecting tribute from the Christian kingdoms it conquered and allowing them to
maintain their laws and customs, including the traditional hierarchical position on the
condition that they do not engage in armed resistance. Nevertheless, the presence of
Arab Islam has strengthened the sense of nationality of the Christian Spaniards. This
caused the life of the Islamic state in Spain to never stop from the conflict between
Islam and Christianity. In the 11th century AD Christians made rapid progress, while
Muslims were experiencing a decline. In fact, many Christians use Arabic names and
imitate the outward way of life of Muslims. Arabic has also become one of the main
languages (Lebor, 2009: 112). Muzarabes Terms
(Arabization) promoted against the Christian Spanish led to the almost oblivious Latin
language (Arnold, t.th.: 122).
2. The Absence of a Unifying Ideology
Basically, converts should be treated the same as equal Muslims. But in Spain, as in
the politics of the Umayyads in Damascus, the Arabs never wanted to accept the
indigenous Muslims. At least until the 10th century AD, they still gave the terms ibad
and muwalladun to the converts which is a derogatory expression. As a consequence,
existing non-Arab ethnic groups often undermine and undermine peace which
ultimately has a major impact on the country's socio-economy. This shows the absence
of an ideology that can give meaning to unity, in addition to the lack of figures who can
personify that ideology.
3. Economic Difficulties
In the second half of the Islamic period in Spain, the rulers built cities and developed
science so seriously that they neglected to foster the economy. In fact, a strong
civilization without being supported by an established economy is certain to be
destroyed. It is proven by the emergence of economic difficulties that burden and affect
the political and military conditions of the Spanish Islamic rulers.
4. Unclear Power Transition System
Without a definite system of power transition, power struggles among heirs will
inevitably arise. The emergence of grandeur al thawaif which finally forced the
collapse of the power of the Umayyads was inevitable. One of the causes of the fall of
Granada, the last center of Islamic power in Spain, into the hands of Ferdinand and
Isabella was this problem.
5. Remoteness
It is recognized that Islamic Spain seems to be separate and isolated from the rest of
the Islamic world centered in the East. He always struggles alone without
received assistance except from North Africa. When Spanish Islam was attacked, help
from other regions could not come immediately. As a result, when Christians rose, there
was no alternative force capable of stemming their attacks (Yatim, 1994: 108).
E. The Influence of Islamic Spanish Civilization in Europe
The progress of Europe, which continues to develop until now, has been indebted to
the treasures of Islamic science that developed in the classical period (Nasution, 1996: 52).
There are indeed many channels through how Islamic civilization influenced Europe, such
as Sicily and the Crusades, but one of the most important channels is Islamic Spain.
Spain is the main place for Europe to absorb Islamic civilization, both in the form of
socio-political relations, as well as economic relations, and civilizations between
countries. The European community witnessed the fact that Spain under Islamic rule had
managed to grow rapidly away from its European neighbors, especially in the field of
thought and science in addition to physical buildings. One of the most important ideas that
is still embraced and admired today is the thought of Ibn Rushd (1120-1198 AD).
Ibn Rushd has succeeded in letting go of the shackles of taklid and advocating
freedom of thought. He reviewed Aristotle's thought in such an alluring way that many
people were interested in free-thinking. He prioritized sunnatullah according to the
Islamic understanding rather than the teachings of pantheism and Christian
anthropomorphism. So great was its influence in Europe, until the Averroism movement
(Ibn Rushd-ism) arose that demanded freedom of thought. Even so, the church still insists
on rejecting the rational thinking brought by this Averroism movement.
The Averroism movement in Europe gave birth to the Reformation movement in the
16th century AD and rationalism in the 17th century AD. Ibn Rushd's books were printed
in Venice in 1481, 1482, 1483, 1489, and 1500 AD. His works were also published in the
16th century AD in Naples, Bologna, Lyonms, and Strasbourg, and in the early 17th
century AD in Geneva. Thus, Ibn thought
Rusyd is increasingly popular and has become one of the main understandings for
European society.
The influence of Islamic civilization, including Ibn Rushd's thought, to Europe began
with the large number of young European Christians studying at Islamic universities in
Spain, such as the universities of Cordova, Seville, Malaga, Granada, and Salamanca.
While studying in Spain, they were active in translating books by Muslim scientists. The
translation center is Toledo. After returning to their homeland, they established the same
school and university. The University of Paris was founded in 1231 AD, thirty years after
the death of Ibn Rushd. At the end of the European Middle Ages, only 18 universities
were established. The knowledge they gained from Islamic universities, such as medicine,
exact science, and philosophy, was taught there. The most studied philosophical thought is
the thought of al Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd.
The influence of Islamic science in Europe, which has been going on since the 12th
century AD, gave rise to a renaissance movement of the relics of Greek thought in Europe
in the 14th century AD. The development of Greek thought in Europe this time was
through Arabic translations that were studied and then translated back into Latin.
Although Islam eventually had to leave Spain in a painful way, it has dominated
important movements in Europe. These movements were the revival of Classical Greek
culture (renaissance) in the 14th century AD that began in Italy, then the reform
movement in the 16th century AD and rationalism in the 17th century AD, and followed
by the enlightenment (Aufklarung) in the 18th century AD (Yatim, 1994: 108-110). Thus,
the role of Islam is still felt even though it is no longer in the form of a religion but in the
form of a high civilization.
CHAPTER VII
LOCAL DYNASTIES (AGHLABIYAH, FATIMIYAH, AND AYYUBIYAH
DYNASTIES)
A. Dinasti Aghlabiyah
At the beginning of the period, the Abbasids experienced glory, but political problems
led to the collapse of the Abbasid dynasty later. With these disputes, disintegration is
inevitable. Many Dynasties broke free from Baghdad, according to their respective
nationalities, and established a new Dynasty. Among the dynasties was the Aghlabiyah
Dynasty which was an Arab nation.
The dynasty was not completely independent of Baghdad, but only semi-independent. The
next dynasty was the Ayyubids who were Kurdish. Meanwhile, the one who claimed to be
the caliphate was the Fatimid Dynasty in Egypt. The power of these three dynasties
included North Africa and Egypt. The three are the Aghlabiyah, Fathimiyah and Ayyubid
dynasties respectively.
The presence of these three dynasties has brought enlightenment to Islam, especially
Cairo which was made the capital of the government. Thus Egypt has become a city of
Islamic civilization that became the center of all activities at that time. To find out more,
we will try to explain about each Dynasty, starting from its establishment, growth and
collapse.
The Aghlabiyah Dynasty was one of the Islamic Dynasties in North Africa that ruled
for approximately l00 years (800-909 AD). Its territory includes Ifriqiyah, Algeria and
Sicily. This dynasty was founded by Ibn Aghlab (Mufradi, 1997:116). The rulers of the
Aghlabiyah Dynasty who once ruled were as follows:
1. Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab (800-812 M)
2. Abdullah I (8L2-817 M)
3. Ziyadatullah (817-838 M)
4. Abu ‘Iqal al-Aghlab (838-841 M)
5. Muhammad I(841-856 M)
6. Ahmad (856-863 AD)
7. Ziyadatullah (863-M)
8. Abu Ghassan Muhammad II (863-875 M)
9. Ibrahim II (875-902 M)
10. Abdullah II (902-903 M)
11. Ziyadtalahayi (903-909 AD)
Aghlabiyah was indeed a small dynasty during the Abbasid period, whose rulers came
from the family of the Banu al-Aghlab, so the Dynasty was called Aghlabiyah. The
beginning of the formation of the Dynasty was when Baghdad was under the rule of Harun
ar-Rashid. In the western part of North Africa, there are two major dangers that threaten
its authority. The first was from the Idris Dynasty which was Shi'a and the second was
from the Khawarij faction.
With these two threats, Harun ar-Rashid was encouraged to place his army in Ifrikiah
under the leadership of Ibrahim bin Al-Aghlab. After successfully securing the territory,
Ibrahim bin al-Aghlab proposed to Harun ar-Rashid that the territory be gifted to him and
his descendants permanently. Because if that happens, then he will not only secure and
rule the territory, but also send tribute to Baghdad every year in the amount of
40,000 dinars. Harun ar-Rashid agreed to his proposal, so a small dynasty (Aghlabiyah)
centered in Ifrikiah was established that had full autonomy. Nevertheless, it still
recognizes the caliphate of Baghdad (Hoeve, 1994: 65).
The founder of this dynasty was Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab in 800 A.D. In that year
Ibrahim was given the province of Ifriqiyah (Modern Tunisia) by Harun al-Rashid in
exchange for an annual tax of 40,000 dinars and included large autonomous rights
(Bosworth, 1980:.46). To conquer a new territory requires a long process and a great
struggle, but unlike Ifriqiyyah whose nature is
gift.
The Aglabiyah Dynasty ruled for approximately a century, starting from 800-909 AD.
The name of the Aglabiyah Dynasty was taken from the name of Amir's father, Ibrahim
bin al-Aglab. He was a Khurasan official in the Abbasid military. In 800 A.D. Ibrahim I
was appointed Governor (Amir) in Tunisia by Caliph Harun ar-Rashid. Because he was
very good at maintaining relations with the Abbasid Caliph such as paying large annual
taxes, Ibrahim I was given power by the Caliph, including great autonomy rights such as
political wisdom, including determining his successor without interference from the
Abbasid rulers. This is due to the considerable distance between North Africa and
Baghdad. So that Aglabiyah was not disturbed by the Abbasid government.
The first Aghlabiyah government succeeded in quelling the turmoil that arose from the
Barbarian Kharijiyah in their region. Later under Ziyadatullah I, the Aglabiyah were able
to seize the nearest island of Tunisia, namely Sicily, from the Byzantine hand in 827 AD,
led by the commander Asad bin Furat, by deploying a sea commander consisting of 900
cavalry and 10,000 foot troops. This is the largest sea expedition. This was also the final
battle that the commander Asad bin Furad led because of this, he died in battle. In addition
to expanding the territory of conquest of Sicily, it also aims to wage jihad against the
infidels. The region became an important center for the spread of Islamic civilization to
Christian Europe.
An interesting aspect of the Aghlabiyah Dynasty was its sea expeditions that explored
the islands of the Mediterranean and European coasts such as the coasts of Southern Italy,
Sardinia, Corsica, and the Alps. In addition, it also managed to conquer the Italian coastal
cities, Brindisi, Naples, Calabria, Totonto, Bari, and Benevento. And in 868 AD, it was
able to occupy Malpa. With the success of the conquests over the Aghlabiyah Dynasty
became a rich dynasty, so that the rulers of Aghlabiyah were enthusiastic in the field of
development.
The success of the control of the entire island of Sicily is what makes the Aglabiyah
superior in the Central Mediterranean. The Aglabiyah then continued its attacks on other
islands and beaches in Europe, including the successful conquest of the Italian coastal
cities of Brindisi (836/221 AH). Naples (837 AD), Calabria (838 AD), Toronto (840 AD),
Bari (840 AD), and Benevento (840 AD). Unable to withstand the prolonged attacks of the
Aghlabid forces on Italian cities, including Rome, Pope John VIII (872–840 A.D.) was
forced to ask for peace and was willing to pay a tribute of 25,000 silver coins a year to the
Aglabiyah.
The Aglabiyah forces also managed to control the city of Regusa on the coast of
Yugoslavia (890 AD), the island of Malta (869 AD), attacked the islands of Corsica and
Mayorka, and even controlled the city of Portofino on the west coast of Italy (890), the
Greek city of Athens - which was within their range of attack.
With the success of these conquests, making the Aglabiyah Dynasty rich, the rulers
were eager to build Tunisia and Sicily. Ziyadatullah I built the Great Mosque of Qairuan,
while Amir Ahmad built the Great Mosque of Tunis and also built nearly 10,000
fortifications in North Africa. It is not enough, roads, posts, transport fleets, irrigation for
agriculture (especially in South Tunisia, where the land is less fertile), as well as the
development of architecture, science, art and religious life.
Apart from being the capital of the Akhlabiyah Dynasty, Qoiruan was also an
important center for the emergence of the Maliki madhhab, a gathering place for
prominent scholars, such as Sahnun who died (854 AD) the author of the youth wwanat,
the Maliki fiqh book, Yusuf bin Yahya, who died (901 AD), Abu Zakariah al-Kinani, who
died (902 AD), and Isa bin Muslim, who died (908 AD). The works of the scholars during
the Aghlabiyah Dynasty are well preserved in the Great Mosque of Qairuan.
1. Steps of the Aghlabiyah Leader
a. The first Aghlabiyah rulers succeeded in quelling the turmoil of the Berber
Kharijiyah in their territory.
b. This was followed by the commencement of a major project to seize Sicily from
Byzantine hands in 827 AD, under the very capable and energetic Ziadatullah I, by
asquementing internal opposition in Ifriqiyyah carried out by the Fuqaha' (religious
leaders) Maliki in Qayrawan (Cairovan). In addition, a pirate fleet was deployed,
giving the Aghlabiyah an advantage in the Central Mediterranean and enabling them
to harass the coasts of Southern Italy, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Alps. Then
Aghlabiah also succeeded in capturing Malta in 868 AD. These areas became the
territory of the Aghlabiyah Dynasty.Thus, in 878 AD the control of Sicily was
perfected, then the island was under Muslim rule. First under the rule of the
Aghlabiyah and second under the Fathimid governors, until the Norman conquest in
the XI century. The island became the center for the spread of Islamic culture to
Christian Europe.
2. Historical Relics of the Aghlabiah Dynasty
Aghlabiyah is a passionate builder. Among the buildings left by Aghlabiah are:
a. Rebuilding of the Great Mosque of Qayrawan by Ziyadatullah I
b. The construction of the Great Mosque of Tunis by Ahmad.
c. The development of useful agricultural and irrigation works, especially in the less
fertile southern Ifriqiyah.
3. Kemunduran Dinasti Aghlabiyah
Towards the end of the IX century, Aghlabiah's position in Ifqriqiyah declined. This is
because his last mire, Ziyadatullah III, was immersed in luxury, and all his rulers were
interested in Shi'a, as well as Shi'a propaganda, Abu Abdullah. The Fatimid pioneer
Mahdi Ubaidillah had considerable influence in the Barbarians, which eventually led to
a military rebellion, and the Aghlabiyah Dynasty was defeated by the Fatimid (909
AD), Ziyadatullah III was expelled to Egypt after futile efforts to
get help from the Abbasids to save Aghlabiah (Bosworth, 1993:47).
B. Fatimid Dynasty
Fatimiyah is an Ismaili Shi' a Dynasty whose founder is Ubaidillah al-Mahdi who
came from Syria to North Africa who passed his fate to Fatimah, the daughter of the
Prophet and the wife of the fourth Caliph Ali bin Abi Talib. Therefore, it was named the
Fatimid Dynasty (Hoeve, 1994: 8). But Sunnis say Ubaidiyun. The concept used is the
radical Shi'a of Isma'iliyah with its doctrines that have political, religious, philosophical,
and social dimensions. And his followers expected the appearance of al-Mahdy.
Ubaidillah with the support of the barbarians, was first able to defeat the governors of
Aghlabiyah in Ifriqia, Rustinia Khoriji in Tahar and made Idrisiyah Fez his subordinate,
when the first government was in al-Mahdiyah around Qairawan and then the Fatimids
spread their wings to the surrounding areas and occupied Egypt which then established a
new city called Cairo (al-Qohirah "the triumphant") on the initiative of the general Jauhar
Atsaqoli (Mufrodi, 1997: 116).
In competition with the Abbasid government, the Fatimids moved their capital from
al-Mahdi to Cairo. And also gave the title to the Fatimid Caliphs as true Caliphs.
Likewise, he spread his daidai out of Egypt who graduated from al-Azhar University.
During the Fatimid reign there was a Crusade and extreme Shi'a movements called Druze
led by Darazi emerged (Bosworth, 1993: 71).
Fathimiyyah was a Shi'a dynasty led by 14 caliphs or imams in Africa and Egypt from
909–1171 AD, for approximately 262 years. The kahlifah are:
1. 'Ubaidillah al Mahdi (909-924 M)
2. Al-Qa'im (924-946 AD)
3. Al–Manshur (946-953 M)
4. Al–Mu’izz (953-975 M)
5. Al-'Aziz (975-996 AD)
6. Al–Hakim (996-1021 M)
7. Azh–Zhahir (1021-1036 M)
8. Al–Musthansir (1036-1094 M)
9. Al Musta’li (1094-1101 M)
10. Al-Amir (1101-1131 AD)
11. Al-Hafizh (1131-1149 M)
12. Azh–Zhafir (1149-1154 M)
13. Al-Faiz (1154-1160 AD)
14. Al-'Adhid (1160–1171 M)
However, since 1131 AD, it was a period of transition from "Caliph" to "wali". This
happened when the Fatimid Dynasty was ruled by al-Hafizh (as wali not as Caliph).
In 1094 AD, after al-Muntasir died, there was a split in the Ismailiyah movement,
namely the very extreme Nizar group and the more moderate Musta'ali. He maintained
the caliphate, but his spiritual base was much weaker.
The establishment of this dynasty began towards the tenth century, when the power
of the Abbasids in Baghdad began to weaken and its vast territory was no longer
coordinated. This condition has opened up opportunities for the emergence of small
dynasties in the regions, especially in areas where the governor and sultan have their own
army. This condition has ignited rebellions from groups that have felt oppressed and
provided opportunities for Shi'ah, Khawarij, and Mawali groups to carry out political
activities.
The Fathimid dynasty was not only an independent governorate, but also a
revolutionary regime that claimed universal authority. They declare the concept of
imamah , namely the leaders of the descendants of Ali which requires a redefinition of the
change of the history of the Imam or of the eschatological cycle
history.
The Fathimid dynasty ruled from (909–1173 AD) or approximately 3 centuries. This
dynasty claimed to be descended from the Prophet Muhammad through the Fatimah az-
Zahro route. The Shi'a argue that the deceased Ishmael ibn Ja'far as-Sadiq (765 A.D.), not
his brother Moses, acted as the seventh imam in place of their father (Imam Ja'far). Based
on Ismail's leadership, a religious political movement Ad da'wah Fatimiyah was
organized. This movement succeeded in realizing for the first time the formation of an
exclusive Shi'i government. While most Sunnis who say that the Fatimid Dynasty is
descended from Ubaidillah al-Mahdi, is called the Ubaydiun Dynasty (Caliph I of the
Fatimid Dynasty) and is of Jewish origin.
This Fatimid Shi'a movement proves to the world that the potential of messianic and
centralistic doctrines. Although the Shi'a considered Ismail to be their Imam, Isma'il did
not play an independent role, as he died young, even before his father (Imam Ja'far). This
condition did not hinder the development of Ismaili doctrine, with the dominance of the
Abbasids, because these two groups felt brotherly. This departs from the fact that Umul
Fadhl once breastfed Husayn, the son of Fatimah and Ali, when he gave birth to Dotham.
So according to them, the Abbasids and the Fatimid Shi'ah are brothers.
The success of instilling Ismaili doctrine, in its development, was able to provide
protection for their imams in Salamiyah, Syria and facilitated the organization of Fatimid
da'wah. Although Fatimid da'wah began early, it was only during the time of Abu
Ubaidillah Hussein, the fourth generation after Ismaili, that it began to develop rapidly.
The popular da'wah doctrine that was spread at that time was the right of the son of
Ubaidillah to the position of savior (al-Mahdi). This doctrine uses a network system of
agents (plural du'ah of da'i), so it is very effective and neatly organized.
It was Ubaidil who led his da'wah from Salamiyah and Syria to North Africa, where
Shi'a propaganda had developed rapidly. He led his da'wah by winning broad support
from areas that were not paid attention to by the Abbasid Caliphate. Through da'is such as
Ali bin Fadl al-Yamani and Ibn al-Hawsyab al-Kufy, Yemen, including its capital, can be
captured. With Yemen in control, he was able to spread the da'is to various regions,
including North Africa, the eastern hemisphere between Arabia and India. Also West
Africa with the da'i Abu Abdullah as-Shi'i. Who put forward the concept of the coming of
Imam Mahdi, from the descendants of the Prophet. The da'is finally succeeded in making
the Barbarians a supporter of Ubaidillah al-Mahdi's leadership. Furthermore, it was with
this great support that the Ash-Shi'i succeeded in occupying Roaqadah, the center of the
government of the Ashlabyid Dynasty. Finally al-Mahdi, who had just replaced his father,
came to Tunis to be crowned Caliph (909 AD).
Because he did not control his territory, he relied a lot on da'i, such as ash-Shi'i.
However, because the latter apparently gave a lot of hope and concessions to the local
population, it was considered to be less fulfilling al-Mahdi's extensive program. Then al-
Mahdi cleaned up the suspected figures, including the Ash-Shi'i. During his reign, in
order to expand his power, which intended to compensate the barbarians, he organized
expeditions to the Mediterranean region, such as; Genoa, Sicily, Egypt.
The success of the Fatimid government was marked by the relocation of the center of
government to Cairo. Almost all of Western North Africa was controlled by the Fatimi,
especially after conquering the Maghrib region led by Jawhar as-Siqilli (969 AD) and
conquering the last dynasty at Fusthath Ikhshidiyyah. There also began to build a new
capital in Egypt, namely al-Qohirah (970 AD) and al-Azhar Mosque as the center of
education for the da'i and Caliph al Muizz moved to the new capital in 973 AD. The
Fatimid Dynasty finally developed in various aspects of life, because it was supported by
extensive power and was able to awaken
various kinds of actions that are discourse (scientific), trade, religious, even though the
transfer of power to the east, gradually eliminated their power in the West. Evidently, their
representative in Tunis, the Banu Ziri (1041 AD) stated that they were not bound by the
Fatimid government.
During the reign of al-Mustanshir (1036-1094 AD) the Fatimid dynasty reached the
peak of its power after being involved in a conflict with Greece over the Syrian issue. The
Fatimid Caliphs generally fostered peaceful relations with Byzantium, then united by the
threats of the Seljuk and Trumen Adventurers in Syria and Anatholia in the second
century.
But at the end of the 11th century there was an act of the First Crusade that threatened
the Turkish rulers of Syria. The Fatimid Caliphs, in the middle of the 12th century
collaborated with the Zangiyid Dynasty; Nuruddin of Aleppo and Damascus to fight the
Crusaders (The Crusaders II). After Ascalon fell to the Crusaders, the Fatimid Dynasty
began to be divided. The Caliphs lost power and their Vizier (Governors) held executive
and military leadership. From here the Fatimid Dynasty was ended by the attack of
Sahadin (Shalahudin), a capable nephew as a successor to the Shaykh who ruled Egypt
(1173 AD) under the rule of Nuruddin the son of Zangi of the Ayyubid Dynasty.
Around 1171 AD, the Fatimid Dynasty ended. This dynasty achieved a lot of
civilizational progress and economic improvement and the cause of the decline and
destruction of the Fatimid was due to divisions among its caliphs (Glasse, 1996:43).
1. The Journey of Government
According to As'adi (2001:77), in the course of its government, the Fathimiyyah
Empire went through two phases, namely:
a. Consolidation Phase (969-1021 AD)
In this phase, there was a civil war between Turkey and the Barbarians, both of
whom were groups that co-founded the Fathimiyid Dynasty. Barbarians gave full
support to the Daulah
Fathimiyyah because initially it was Barbarian who controlled the members of the
government. Many of the Barbarians were appointed to government. This situation
lasted until the reign of Al-Muizz li Dinillah. Meanwhile, during the reign of Az
Zahir and Al-Munthasir, the Caliph was closer to Turkish descent. So that two great
powers emerged, namely Turkey and Barbarians, since then Barbarians have lost
their position in the government.
To get to know the situation in this phase better, both about the leader/Caliph, the
wheels of government, government policies, and the situation he faces, it will be
explained as follows:
1) Al–Mahdi (909-924 M)
Ubaidillah al-Mahdi was the first Caliph of the Fathimiyid Dynasty. She
come from AfrikaansNorth where propaganda Shi'i has created
condition thatgood for Arrival.With the support of the Barbarians of Ketama,
and overthrew the Governors of Aghlabiyah in Ifriqiyyah and Rustamiyah Khariji
in Tahari, and made Idrisiyah Fez their subordinate rulers. In 909 A.D., he was the
one who proclaimed the establishment of the Fathimiyyah caliphate that was
independent of Abbasid rule. It was assisted by Abdullah
Ash-Shafi'ideep consolidating its caliphate in Tunisia. In the process, in
920 AD, he succeeded in establishing a new city and made it the capital, namely
Mahdiah located on the coast of Tunisia. During his reign, he had succeeded in
repelling the rebels led by Abu Abdullah al Husyain and expanded its
territory until the province of Fez in Morocco had even captured Alexandria.
Resistance also came from Abbasid supporters, groups affiliated with the Umaid
Dynasty in Andalusia as well as the Khawarij and Barbarian groups (Hoeve,
1994:10).
2) Al-Qa'im (924-946 AD)
After al-Mahdi died, he was replaced by his son Abdul Qasim and given the
title Al-Qa'im. He continued his father's policy by sending his fleet and was able
to destroy the southern coast of France, Genoa and along the coast of Calabria in
934 AD. However, he was unsuccessful in quelling a rebellion by Abu Yazid that
lasted seven years. Abu Yazid, who repeatedly conquered Al-Qa'im's army,
finally managed to besiege Susa. With the death of Al-Qa'im in 946 AD, his reign
ended and was continued by his son Al-Manshur.
3) Al–Manshur (946-953 M)
The struggle carried out by his father has achieved glorious success under his
rule. He was a shrewd and energetic young man until he managed to stop the Abu
Yazid rebellion that occurred during his father's reign. He succeeded in subduing
Abu Yazid and his army. In fact, they helped expand throughout Africa, and that
is where he created a city called al-Mashuriyah.
4) Al-Mu'iz (953-975 AD)
The success that Al-Manshur has achieved was continued by his son Abu
Tamim Ma'ad with the title al Mu'iz. He had enlightened the Fathimiyyah
Dynasty, by exercising great wisdom, namely:
a. Reform in the field of administration by appointing a vizier (minister) to carry
out state duties.
b. Economic development, by giving special salaries to soldiers, palace
personnel, and other government officials.
c. Religious tolerance (also a stream) by establishing four institutions, the
judiciary in Egypt, two for the Shi'a madhhab and for the
Madhav Sunni (Yatim,1993: 282).
After the power base in Tunis was strong, the Fathimiyyah Caliph was able to
control Egypt in 969 AD. This control began with the dispatch of the commander
Jauhar al-Katib as-Siqili with equipment and wealth obtained from their base in
Ifriqiyah in preparation for the East. Jauhar managed to enter Fustat and get rid of
the Ikhsidiyyah Dynasty. After Egypt was conquered, he built a new capital in
Egypt, New Cairo (al-Qahirah, meaning the victorious) (Bosworth, 1993: 71).
Cairo was built with a number of palaces and mosques which were royal cities
designed as a form of royal greatness (Lapidus, 1999: 536). The mosque is the Al
Azhar mosque which functions as a center for Islamic studies and the
development of science and then this mosque became an academic and during
that period Al Azhar became a very famous university in academic circles
(As'adi, 2001:115).
During the 23 years of al-Mu'iz's leadership, his reign was brilliant. He died in
975 A.D. He was the most famous Caliph in the Fathimiyid caliphate in Egypt.
He had advantages in the fields of art, literature and teaching coupled with his
extensive knowledge, so it is not surprising that this was the beginning of the
development of Fathimiyyah during the time of Al-Muiz.
5) Al-'Aziz (975-996 AD)
Al-Aziz son of Al-Muiz with his brave, wise, compassionate, friendly and
conciliatory nature made him succeed in carrying out a massive expansion of the
territory. All of Syria was part of Mesopotamia, and from the Euphatic coast to
the Atlantic it had been conquered, even then the Fathimids were a formidable
rival to the Abbasids in Baghdad.
Apparently he inherited his father's expertise in the field of art. This is evident
in the architecture of the Golde Palace (a very beautiful place), The Perl Pavilion
(a pavilion made of pearls) and his father's mosque in the Karava cemetery. It
was during this period that the Fathimiyyah Dynasty reached its peak.
6) Al-Hakim (996-1021 M)
Al-Hakim was a very ruthless ruler, he killed a number of royal figures for no
reason. This is due to his young age (11 years old) when he became the ruler in
place of his father in 996 AD, so it was easy for his unscrupulous governor
named Barjawan to fully control it.
At the beginning of his rule, there was no stability. Comparatively, Christians
and Jews are treated well. In fact, some of them occupy high positions in the
state. It was during the reign of Al-Hakim that the extreme Shi'i religious
movement, namely the Druze emerged in Southern Syria and Lebanon, because
Al-Hakim gave encouragement to its founder, the Da'i Al-Darazi, so the Druze
viewed the Caliph Al-Hakim as a drop of God (Bosworth, 1993:72).
Despite the brutality that colored his caliphate, he managed to build many
mosques, and the most famous building to this day is the Dar al-Hikmah built in
1306 AD, where various poets meet and promote education and Shia.
b. Phase Papers
After going through the consolidation phase, the Fathimiyyah Dynasty then
entered the parliamentary phase. A phase where a lot of complicated problems arise
as a continuation of the power/glory achieved in the consolidation phase. This period
is called
also with "Ahdu Mufuzil Awzara" or the period of influence of ministers starting
from Az Zahir, to Al 'Adhid.
This phase shows the deterioration of the political order, namely the period of
war between military factions and the division of the country into a number of iqta'
controlled by influential military officials (Lapidus, 1999: 538).
A war has occurred in this phase, namely the Crusades. The war that occurred at
the beginning of al-Munthasir's rule began with the expansion of the Fathimiyyah
from Egypt to Palestine and Syria.
The Crusades were originally formed from a general European counterattack
against Muslim powers in the Mediterranean region. The first Crusade took place at
the end of the fifth century, and it was more threatening to the Turkish rulers in
Syria than the Fathimiyah, because at that time the Fathijs did not control the
territory north of Asealon in Palestine.
By sea and land the European forces moved eastward. Between 1099-1109 AD
they conquered Edessa, Antioch, and Tripoli, and established a Latin kingdom in
Jerusalem. The Latin clergy council controlled the Christian government in the holy
city, but the eastern Christian sects were not left out.
The Muslim response to the Crusades was quite slow, even tending to be an
attempt to organize Egypt and Syria into a Muslim empire. Areas that felt incapable
of facing the threat of the Crusades opened the door to military cooperation with
other Islamic countries.
However, gradually the Muslim counterattack became more intense, which can
be described through three phases (Lapidus, 1999:542). The first phase occurred
before the Fathimiyyah were conquered by Ayyubids. Meanwhile, in the second and
third phases, Nur Al Din has begun to come to power.
2. Decline of the Fatimid Dynasty
After the end of Al-Aziz's reign, the prestige of the Fatimid Dynasty began to
decline. Even if al-Munthasir had experienced success, it was not like what al-Aziz had
achieved.
The factors that caused the decline of the Fathimid Dynasty were:
a. The rulers who are always immersed in a life of luxury.
b. There is a imposition of Shi'a ideology on the Sunni-majority society.
c. There was a competition for the vizier.
d. The condition of al-'Adhid (in a state of illness) which was taken advantage of by
Nur ad-Din.
In the condition of a weak caliphate, there is a prolonged conflict of interest between
officials and the military. Feeling unable to do so, al-Zafir finally asked Nur al-Din for
help with an army led by Salah al-Din Al-Ayyubi. At first he succeeded in stemming
the invasion of the Crusaders into Egypt. But Salah al-Din's second coming was not
only to fight the Crusaders, but to take control of Egypt.
With the defeat of the Crusaders and the control of Egypt, the history of the Fatimid
Dynasty in Egypt in 1171 AD ended which had lasted for 262 years.
3. Advances of the Fatimid Dynasty
During a period of 262 years, the Fatimiyah has made rapid progress, especially
during the time of Al-Muiz, Al-Aziz and Al-Hakim. These advances cover various
fields, namely:
a. Progress in trade relations with the non-Muslim world, including India and the
Christian Mediterranean countries.
b. Progress in the field of art, can be seen in a number of palace decorations and
architecture.
c. In the field of knowledge with the construction of Al-Azhar University.
d. In the economic field, both the agricultural, trade and industrial sectors.
e. In the field of security.
4. Historical Relics of the Fatimid Dynasty
Among the relics of the Fatimid Dynasty, there are two buildings that are very
historic and their existence can still be felt today, even experiencing rapid development.
The relics are:
a. Al-Azhar University was originally a mosque as a center of study. This mosque was
founded by al-Saqili on the 17th of Ramadan (970 AD). The name Al-Azhar is taken
from al-Zahra, the nickname of Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet PBUH and the
wife of Ali bin Abi Talib, the first imam of Shi'ah.
b. Dar al-Hikmah (Hall of Science), which was inspired by the same institution
founded by al-Ma'mun in Baghdad.
C. Dynasty Ayyubiyah
Ayyubids were a Sunni Dynasty that ruled in Dyar Bakir until 1429 AD. This dynasty
was founded by Salahuddin al Ayyubi, who died in 1193 AD (Glasse, 1996:143). He
came from the Kurdish tribe of Hadzbani, the son of Najawddin Ayyub, who became a
servant of Zangi's son named Nuruddin.
His success in the Crusades, led the soldiers to recognize him as a replacement for his
uncle, the Shirkuh who had died after conquering Egypt in 1169 AD. He retained the
scientific institutions established by the Fathimid Dynasty but changed his religious
orientation from Shia to Sunni (Yatim, 2003:283).
The conquest of Egypt by Saladin in 1171 AD, paved the way for the establishment of
Sunni legal madhhabs in Egypt. The Shafi'i madhhab remained under the Fatimid rule,
while Saladin imposed the Hanafi madhhab (Lapidus, 1999:545).
His success in Egypt encouraged him to become an autonomous ruler in Egypt.
Najmudin Ayub was a man of the Kurdish tribe of Hadzbani and became the
commander of Turkey in 1138 AD, in Mosul and Aleppo, led by the government of
Zangi Ibn Aq-Songur. Likewise, his younger brother Shirkuh, served Nuruddin, the son
of Zangi in 1169 AD. Shirkuh succeeded in expelling King Almaric and his crusaders
from Egypt.
The arrival of the Shayr Kuh to Egypt was due to the invitation of the Fatimid Caliph
to displace Almaric who occupied Cairo. After Shirkuh died in 1169 AD, he was
replaced by Shalahuddin (his nephew) as the leader of the army. First of all, he still
respected the Shi'a symbols in the government of Al-Adil Lidinillah, after he was
appointed as Wazir (Governor). But after al-Adil died in 1171 AD, Shalahuddin declared
his loyalty to the Abbasid Caliph (al-Mustadi) in Baghdad and formally marked the end
of the Fatimid regime in Cairo.
Shalahuddin's success in Egypt propelled him to become an autonomous ruler. In
consolidating his power, he made great use of his family for expansion into other
regions, such as Turansyah. His brother was sent to take control of Yemen in 1173 A.D.
Taqiyuddin, his nephew was set to fight the Crusaders occupying Dimyat. Meanwhile,
Shihabuddin, his uncle, was to occupy Upper Egypt (Nubia). Nuruddin's death in 1174
AD made Shalahuddin's position even stronger, which eventually facilitated the conquest
of Syria, including Damascus, Aleppo and Mosul. Finally, in 1175 AD, he was
recognized as the sultan of Egypt, Yemen and Syria by the Abbasid Caliphate.
During Shalahuddin's reign, he built a formidable military and economy that
cooperated with Muslim rulers in other regions. He also built the city walls as a
defensive fortress in Cairo and Muqattam hill. His army was also reinforced by
barbarian, Turqi and African forces. In addition to being encouraged to trade with cities
in the Mediterranean Sea, the ocean
Indies and perfecting the tax system. On this basis, he launched an offensive movement to
seize al-Quds (Jerusalem) from the Crusaders led by Guy de Lusignan in Hittin, and took
control of Jerusalem in 1187 AD. This did not change the position of Shalahuddin, until finally
the English king Richard made an armistice agreement that he used to control the city of Acre.
Until his death (1193 AD), Shalahuddin bequeathed a stable and solid government, to his
descendants and his brothers who ruled in various cities. The most prominent were al-Malik al-Adil
(his brother), and his nephew al-Kamil, who managed to unite the local Ayubi rulers by centralizing
their rule in Egypt. However, during the reign of al-Kamil, the Ayubiyah Dynasty took place in
Diyarbakr and al-Jazirah, under pressure from the Seljuk Rum Dynasty and the Khiwarazim Shah's
Dynasty, then al-Kamil returned Jerusalem to the emperor Frederick II which brought peace and
great economic fortune to Egypt and Syria. Relive trade with the power of Mediterranean Christians.
After al-Kamil died (1238 AD) the Ayubiyah Dynasty was torn apart by internal
conflicts. In the reign of Ash-Shalih the 6th Crusade was overcome, in which the
dreamer of the king of Prencis St. Louis was captured, but then the slave army (Mamluk)
from Turkey seized power in Egypt. This automatically ended the entire Ayubiyah
government.
1. Steps Taken by Salahuddin
a. Waging jihad against the Crusaders in Palestine
b. Uniting Turkish, Kurdish and Arab armies on the same path.
From Egypt, Shalahuddin was also able to unite Syria and Mesopotamia into a
single Muslim state. In 1174 he captured Damascus, then Alippo in 1185, and
captured Mosul in 1186.
After establishing his power, Shalahuddin launched an offensive movement to take
al-Quds (Jerusalem) from the hands of the army without much difficulty. This meant
that Jerusalem once again became Muslim after eighty years, and the Franks were
eliminated, although
only temporarily. Massive efforts were made by the Crusaders from England, France,
and Germany between 1189–1192 AD, but failed to change Saladin's position. After
the war ended, Salahuddin moved the seat of government to Damascus.
2. The Struggle After Salahuddin
Shalahuddin's struggle in realizing his main objectives, namely expelling the
Crusaders from Jerusalem and restoring them to the unity of the Muslims, has
exhausted his strength and disturbed his health. He died and was buried in Damascus
in 1193 AD, after 25 years of reign.
Before he died, he distributed the Ayyubid empire to family members. Therefore
control from the center remained under the rule of Al-'Adl and Al-Kamil, until Al-
Kamil died. Under these two sultans, the wisdom of the activist Shalahuddin gave
place as a detente and peaceful relationship with the Franks.
After the death of Shalahuddin, the Ayyubids continued Egyptian rule and Syrian
rule (until 1260 AD). The Ayyubid family divided its empire into a number of small
kingdoms of Egypt, Damascus, Alleppo, and the kingdom of Mosul according to the
Saljuk idea that the state was the inheritance of the royal family. However, Ayyubids
did not experience division, because with the loyalty of the Egyptian family were
integrated various empires. They set up government with the bureaucratic system of
the past that had developed in Egypt and Syria through the distribution of iqta' to
influential military officials.
The Ayyubids were particularly reluctant to continue the battle against the
remnants of the Crusader forces. They prioritized defending Egypt as unity began to
weaken. In 1229 A.D. Ayyubid negotiated a treaty with Fedrick II. This is the
pinnacle of new wisdom, and it is in this period of peace that
brought great economic benefits to Egypt and Syria, including the resumption of trade
with Mediterranean Christian powers (Bosworth, 1993:87).
3. Decline of the Ayyubid Dynasty
After Al-Kamil's death in 1238 AD, the Ayyubid Dynasty was torn apart by
internal conflicts. The sixth Crusade was overcome, and its leader, the King of France
St. Louis was captured. However, in 1250 A.D. the Ayyubid family was overthrown
by a revolt by one of its slave regiments (Mamluks), who killed the last Ayyubid
ruler, and appointed one of the Ayubiid officials as the new sultan. This collapse
occurred in two places, in the western Ayyubid region ended in a Mamluk attack,
while in Syria it was destroyed by Mongol forces (Glasse, 1996:552). Thus ended the
Ayyubid history by the Mamluk Dynasty. A dynasty that was able to defend the
center of power from Mongol attacks.
4. The Advances and Legacy of the Ayyubid Dynasty
Like the previous dynasties, the Ayyubid Dynasty also achieved glorious progress
and has several historical relics. These advances cover various fields, including:
a. Architecture and Education
The Ayyubid rulers had succeeded in making Damascus a city of education. This
was marked by the construction of Madrasah al-Shauhiyyah in 1239 AD as a
teaching center for four legal madhhabs in a Madrasah institution. The construction
of Dar al Hadith al-Kamillah was also built (1222 AD) to teach the main points of
law that are generally found in various madhhabs of Sunni law. Meanwhile, in the
field of architects, it can be seen in the monuments of the Arabs, mosque buildings
in Beirut that resemble churches, and palaces that are built to resemble churches.
b. Philosophy and Science
Concrete evidence of this is the translated Adelasd of Bath, the works of the Arabs
on astronomy and geometry, the translation of the field of medicine. In this field of
medicine a hospital has been established for people with mental disabilities.
c. Industry
Progress in this field is evidenced by the making of a mill by a Syriac who is more
sophisticated than made by Westerners. There are carpet factories, fabric factories
and glass factories.
d. Trade Field
This field has an influence on Europe and the Ayyubid-controlled countries. In
Europe there is agricultural and industrial trade. This gave rise to international
trade through sea routes, since then the world economy and trade has used credit
systems, banks, including Letter of Credit (LC), even when there was already
money made of gold.
e. Military Field
In addition to having tools of war such as horses, swords, arrows, and so on, he
also had an eagle as the head of birds in war. In addition, the existence of the
Crusades has brought positive impacts, profits in the fields of industry, trade, and
intellectual, for example with irrigation.
BAB VIII CRUSADES
A. Definition of the Crusades
The crusade was a war that had occurred between Muslims and Christians in the past. The
war was called the "Crusade" which Christians claimed as a holy war because of the
Christian military expedition, so the sign of the cross was a unifying attribute and as a
symbol of the holy war in attacking Islam. According to the author's analysis, the great
marker worn by Christians is fully understood as the religious emotion of Christian
society. With the symbol of the Cross, Christians will understand their fellow Christians. It
is evident that during the three periods of war, the Kistens and the Muslims won and lost
alternately between the two groups.
The crusades were a series of religious wars for nearly two centuries as a reaction of
European Christians to Islam in Asia. This war occurred because the cities and holy places
of Christians were occupied by Islam in such as Syria, Asia Minor, Spain and Sicily,
especially the holy city of Jerusalem. The name of the Crusades is because the Crusader
military used the Cross in its battles.
The First Crusade began when Pope Urban II was elected in 1108 A.D. And became
the ruler of all Christians, he invited all the leaders of the Crusades to wage war against
the Muslims to seize Jerusalem.
The first army of the First Crusade moved from France and Germany in early 1096
AD. This army consisted of the common people and was led by a priest named Peter.
However, the first army was inexperienced, after several conflicts with the Bulgarian and
Byzantine populations and looting along the way, this inexperienced army was finally
destroyed by Kilij Arslan's forces in Asia Minor. This first batch is known as the People's
Crusade or Popular Crusade.
The next party that departed in 1096 A.D. consisted of a more well-trained army than
before and was led by many French and Norman nobles, such as Raymond of Saint-Gilles,
Godfrey de Bouillon, Baldwin, Bahemond of Taranto, and Tancred.
Based on the previous explanation, questions arise that must be further analyzed and
explained, namely:
1. What are the causes, processes, consequences/impacts of the crusade?
2. What is the period of decline?
B. Causes of the Crusades
There are several factors that trigger the cross-war to occur. As for the main factors
that caused the crusade, there are three things, namely religion, politics, and socio-
economy.
a. Religious factors
Since the Saljuk dynasty seized Jerusalem from the Fathimid Dynasty in 1070 AD,
the Christians felt that they were no longer free to worship there because the Saljuk
rulers established a number of regulations that were considered difficult for those who
wanted to worship at Jerusalem. Christians felt that the treatment of the rulers of the
Saljuk Dynasty was very different from that of other Islamic rulers who had ruled the
region before.
b. Political factors
At that time, the Saljuk dynasty in Asia Minor was experiencing division, and the
Fathimid Dynasty in Egypt was in a state of paralysis, while Islamic power in Spain
was increasingly shaky. Such a situation prompted Christian rulers in Europe to seize
Islamic territories one by one, such as the small dynasties in Edessa and Jerusalem.
c. Socioeconomic factors
The social stratification of European society at that time consisted of three groups,
namely the church, the nobility, as well as the knights, and the common people.
Despite being the majority in society, the latter group occupies the lowest class. Their
lives are very oppressed and humiliated. Therefore, they were mobilized by the church
to take part in the crusade with the promise of freedom and better welfare if the war
could be won. They welcomed the call spontaneously by engaging themselves in the
war.
C. The Crusade Process
According to Dr. Badri Yatim, M.A, the crusade can be divided into 3 periods.
According to Phillip K. Hitti in The Arabs A Short History, a more precise division of the
crusades is as follows:
1. Conquest period (1096-1144 AD).
2. The period of reaction of the Muslims (1144-1192 AD).
3. The period of the minor Civil War or the period of the Crusaders (1192-1291 AD).
called the Small Civil War or this period is easily known as motivated by political
ambition to gain power and something material rather than religious motivation.
a) First period (1095-1147 AD)
In the spring of 1095 AD, 150,000 Europeans, mostly French and Normans, set
out for Constantinople, then for Palestine. The crusaders, led by Gudfrey,
Bohemond, and Raymond, won a major victory. On June 18, 1097 they succeeded in
conquering Nicaea and in 1098 AD they took control of Raha (Edessa). Here they
established the first Latin kingdom with Baldawin as King. In the same year they
were able to take control of Antiochea and establish the second kingdom in the East.
Bohemond was proclaimed king. They also succeeded in occupying Jerusalem (15
July 1099 AD) and established the second Latin kingdom with its king, Godfrey.
After the conquest of Jerusalem, the crusaders continued their expansion. They
controlled the cities of Akka (1104 AD), Tripoli (1109 AD) and the city of Tyre
(1124 AD). In Tripoli they founded
the Latin kingdom IV, the king was Raymond.
b) Second period (1147-1179 AD)
In 1147-1179 AD it was led by King Louis VII of France, Emperor Krurad of
Germany, and son Roger of Sicily. Welcoming the arrival of the second batch of
Salibiyah, the hero Nuruddin Zanki, Putra Imanuddin Zanki and the Second
Crusader army appeared who could not do much, even everywhere could be
defeated.
In Egypt, this crusade produced a famous warrior whose name was Sultan
Shalahuddin Al-Ayyubi. With this leadership of Shalahuddin, even the Islamic army
was able to recapture Jerusalem, the city that the crusaders were aiming for.
c) Third period
The Crusaders in this third period were led by the king of Germany, Frederick II.
This time they tried to capture Egypt first before going to Palestine, hoping to get
help from the Qibti Christians.
In 1219 AD, they succeeded in occupying Dimyat, King of Egypt of the Ayyubid
Dynasty. At that time, Al-Malik Al-Kamil, made an agreement with Frederick. The
content included Frederick being willing to release the dimyat, while Al-Malik Al-
Kamil released Palestine. Frederick assured the safety of the Muslims there and
Frederick did not send aid to Syrian Christians. In the next development, Palestine
was recaptured by the Muslims in 1247 AD, during the reign of Al-Malik Al-Shalih,
the next ruler of Egypt. When Egypt was ruled by the Mamalik dynasty which
replaced the Ayyubid dynasty, the war leadership was held by Baybars and Qalwun.
It was during their time that Akka was recaptured by the Muslims, in 1291 AD.
Such was the crusade that took place in the east. This war did not stop only in the
west, in Spain, until finally the Muslims were expelled from European Spain.
However, even so, they cannot
lowering the Islamic flag from Palestine.
D. Impact of the Crusades
a. In Europe
The Crusades had some important consequences in world history. The Crusades
brought Europe into direct contact with the Muslim world and the establishment of
relations between east and west. This contact caused an exchange of ideas between the
two parties. The knowledge of advanced easterners gave a great impetus to the
intellectual growth of Western Europe.
The advantage of the Crusades for Europe was that it increased the field of trade,
learned art, and important inventions, such as sailor compasses, windmills and so on
from Muslims. They can also learn advanced ways of farming and learn about the more
developed industrial life of the east. When they returned to Europe, they established a
special market for eastern goods. Westerners began to realize the need for eastern
goods, and because of this interest the trade between east and west became more
developed.
b. Islamic World
Broadly speaking, it can be concluded that the Crusades were won by Muslims, but
the negative impact caused by the crusade is very numerous, including in terms of the
economy, because the Crusades occurred in Islamic territories, although Christians are
no less at a loss.
Although the European Christians suffered defeat in the Crusades, they have gained
invaluable lessons because they have been able to get acquainted with such advanced
Islamic culture and civilization. Even the culture and civilization they obtained from
the East-Islam led to the birth of a renaissance in the West.
In addition to the Economy, some of the negative impacts and losses of the Islamic
world due to the Crusades are as follows:
1. Politics
The political power of Muslims has become weak. In such conditions they do not
become united, but instead divided. Many small dynasties broke free from the
Abbasid central government in Baghdad.
2. Military
In the military field, the Western world invented weapons and warfare
techniques that they had never encountered before in their country, such as the use
of explosives to throw bullets, armed combat on horseback, techniques for training
pigeons for military information, and the use of tambourine and drums to encourage
military forces on the battlefield.
3. Industrial
In the industrial field, they found woven fabrics and their equipment in the
Islamic world, then they brought them to their country, such as muslin, satin, and
damas fabrics. They also found different types of perfumes, frankincense, and
Arabic sap that could brighten up a room.
4. Agriculture
An entirely new agricultural system in the Western world they found in the East-
Islam, such as practical irrigation models and a wide variety of plants and fruits,
including the discovery of sugar.
5. Business
(Summary) Westerners use an Islamic trading system that uses money as a
medium of exchange in buying and selling. Because previously they were still using
the barter system.
6. Science and health
Astronomy that has been developed by Muslims since the 9th century has also
influenced the birth of various observatories in
West. In addition, western nations also imitate the existence of hospitals, as has been
developing for a long time in the Islamic world.
E. Period of Decline
The period of decline is a period when Islam was attacked by various parties, the
period of decline began in 1250-1500 AD. The period of decline itself began with the
attack of the Mongols.
a. Mongol invasion
The attacks carried out by the Mongols had a background that motivated them to
carry out the attack. Maidir Harun and Firdaus explained that there were several things
that motivated the Mongols to carry out the attack, as follows:
1. Political Factors
In 615 H. about 400 Tartar merchants were killed with the consent of the wali
(governor) of Utrar. Their merchandise was confiscated and sold to Bukhara and
Samarkand merchants on charges of Mongol spying. Of course, this caused the
anger of Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan sent troops to Sultan Khawarizmi to request
that the guardian of Utrar be handed over as compensation to him. This envoy was
also killed by Khawarizmi Shah so that Genghis Khan and his army attacked the
Khawarizmi region.
Meanwhile, according to Muhammad Masyhur Amin, the political factor that
caused the Mongols to attack Islamic territory was first, because Sultan Alauddin
Muhammad Khawarizmi Shah included the Qarahatun tribe area into his power in
1210 AD., so that his territory directly bordered the territory of the Genghis Khan
kingdom. Second, the massacre of Mongol merchants was caused because three
Muslim large merchants and their entourage were killed and their merchandise was
confiscated by the Mongols in the capital city of Qoraqarun. Therefore, the emir
Ghayun Khan was ordered by Sultan Alauddin to kill 150 people
Mongol merchants in Utrar.
2. Economic Motives
This motive is reinforced by Genghis Khan's own words, that his conquests were
carried out solely to improve the fate of his nation, increase the small population,
help the poor and unclothed. While in the Islamic region the people are prosperous,
civilized and advanced, but their military strength is fragile.
3. The Habits of the Wandering Mongols
The habit of those who like to travel, invited or uninvited they will also come also
plundering and robbing the wealth of the people where they live. The attacks carried
out by Genghis Khan with his organized war forces, sought to expand the territory
by conquering. Their carpenters brought in the troops of the Zeni battalion (yon-
zipur) to build bridges and ensure smooth transport in the attack. Prisoners of war
were forcibly used to carry war supplies and food. Genghis Khan's war strategy that
was not left behind was also to line up the civilian population who had lost in front
of the army as a shield to agitate the enemy. In addition, Genghis Khan brought an
advisor consisting of monks and fortune tellers.
b. Ilkhan Dynasty Offensive
The Mongols originated in the mountainous region of Mongolia, which stretches
from Central Asia to Northern Siberia. Their ancestors had two twin sons, Tatar and
Mongol. His two sons gave birth to two great tribes, namely the Tatars and the
Mongols. The progress of the Mongols occurred massively during the leadership of
Yasugi Bahadur Khan.
After Yakusugi died, he was replaced by his son Jengis Khan who had the real
name Timujin. Genghis Khan
is a title given by the court of Mongol chieftains who appointed him as the supreme
leader of the nation in 1206 AD, when Genghis Khan was 44 years old.
Gengis Khan tried to expand his territory by conquering other regions. The first
attack was directed at the Chinese kingdom (Peking). He succeeded in occupying
Peking in 1215 AD. The next target was Islamic countries, namely Turkey, Ferghana,
Bukhara, Khurasan, and others.
After Genghis Khan's physical condition began to weaken, he divided his territory
into 4 parts to his sons, namely Yuchi, Chagatai, Ogatai, and Deaf. The Deaf ruled
Khurasan, because the Islamic kingdom at that time was already divided and its power
was weakened. Deaf conquered Iraq in 1256 AD. After he died, he was succeeded by
his son Hulaghu Khan. In his hands, Baghdad fell to the Mongols. This not only ended
the period of the Abbasid Caliphate but also the beginning of a period of political
decline and Islamic civilization.
With the end of the Abbasid Dynasty, the Ilkhan Dynasty led by Hulaghu Khan
emerged. Under this Ilkhan Dynasty, Baghdad was demoted to the provincial capital
under the name of Iraq al-Arabi.
c. Lenk Eastern Offensive
East Sulthan Lenk is a descendant of Mongols who have converted to Islam, where
the remnants of barbarism and cruelty are still firmly attached. He managed to defeat
Tughluk Temur and Ilyas Khoja, and then he also fought Amir Hussain (his own
brother-in-law). And he proclaimed himself the sole ruler of Transoxiana, the successor
of Jagatai from the descendants of Gengis Khan.
After more than a century of suffering and trying to rise from the destruction caused
by the Mongol attack under Hulagu Khan, no less devastating catastrophe came back,
namely the attack also from the descendants of the Mongols. Different from Hulagu
Khan and
descendants of the Ilkhan dynasty, the attacker this time has converted to Islam, but the
remnants of barbarism and cruelty are still firmly attached. The attack was led by
Timur Lenk, which means East Lame.
The Ottoman Empire, by Timur Lenk, was seen as the greatest challenge, as the
kingdom controlled much of the former empires of Gengis Khan and Hulagu Khan. In
fact, Sultan Yildirim Bayazid I Rahimahullah, the supreme ruler of this kingdom,
previously succeeded in expanding his territory to areas that had been conquered by
Timur Lenk. Therefore, Timur Lenk was very ambitious to defeat this kingdom. He
mobilized his army to fight Bayazid I's army. Timur Lenk came out victorious and
Bayazid I's son, Erthugrul, was killed in the battle. In 1402 AD there was a decisive
battle in Ankara. The Ottoman army again suffered defeat, while Sultan Yildirim
Bayazid I Rahimahullah himself was taken prisoner when he was about to escape.
Sultan Yildirim Bayazid I Rahimahullah finally died in captivity. Timur Lenk
continued its offensive on Bursa, the old capital of Turkey, and Syria. Afterwards he
returned to Samarkand to plan an invasion of China. However, in the middle of the
journey, precisely in Otrar, he suffered an illness that led to his death. He died in 1404
AD, at the age of 71. His body was taken to Samarkand to be buried with a grand
ceremony.
Timur Lenk was famous for being a very fierce and cruel ruler against his
opponents. He is a devout Shi'a believer and likes the Sufism of the Naqsyabandiyyah
order. On his travels, he always brought with him Shi'a scholars, writers and artists.
Shi'a clerics and scientists are respected by him. While attempting to conquer northern
Syria, he respectfully received the famous historian, Sheikh Ibn Khaldun Rahimahullah
who was sent by Sultan Faraj to talk about peace. The city of Samarkand was enriched
by
magnificent and beautiful buildings and mosques. During his lifetime the city of
Samarkand became an international market, taking over Baghdad and Tabriz. He
brought in skilled craftsmen, great artists, skilled workers and building designers from
the conquered lands; Delhi, Damascus and others. He increased trade and industry in
his country by opening new trade routes between India and Eastern Persia. He tried to
organize the administration of the government and the armed forces in rational ways
and struggled to spread Islam.
After Timur Lenk died, his two sons, Muhammad Jehanekir and Khalil, fought for
power. Khalil (1404-1405 AD) came out victorious. However, he lived a lavish life
spending the wealth left by his father. Therefore his other brother, Shah Rukh (1405-
1447 AD), seized power from his hands. Shah Rukh tried to restore the authority of the
kingdom. He was a just and gentle king. After his death, he was replaced by his son
Ulug Beg (1447-1449 AD), a pious king and scholar of exact science. However, his
reign was short-lived. Two years after coming to power he was assassinated by his
power-hungry son, Abdal-Latif (1449-1450 AD). The last great king of the Timurid
dynasty was Abu Sa'id (1452-1469 AD). It was during this time that the kingdom began
to be divided. The vast territory of the kingdom was contested by two newly emerging
Turkish tribes, the Kara Koyunlu (black sheep) and Ak Koyunlu (white sheep). Abu
Sa'id himself was killed while fighting against Uzun Hasan, the ruler of Ak Koyunlu.
d. Dinasti Mamluk
If we study the history of Islam, it is known that there were two Mamluk Dynasties,
namely in Egypt (648 H-922 H/1250 A.D.-1517 A.D.), and in India (604 H-689
A.H./1206
M-1290M). The Mamluk dynasty in Egypt emerged just before the collapse of the
Abbasid Empire. They were able to build a civilization that is still partly visible today
even though this dynasty was led by slaves. Their success in building civilization is
due to
The economy, especially trade, developed rapidly. In addition, territorial expansion was
carried out so that they could control the regions of Syria and its surroundings. After
ruling for a long time, the dynasty experienced internal conflicts so they split into two,
the Mamluk Bahri and the Mamluk Burji, respectively. With the breakup of the
dynasty.
Initially, the power of the Mamluk Dynasty was established in Egyptian territory,
and later, its territory became more and more extensive, not only in Egypt. The
expansion of its territory was in line with its role as a fortress for Muslims in the face of
the power of the Mongols, the Crusaders and also the Christians around Egypt. History
records that they captured the fortress city of Arsuf (662 AH/1263 AD) and destroyed
the order of Hospitallers who defended the fortress city.
They also captured the fortress city of Safad (663 AH/1264 AD) and destroyed the
Templars order that defended the city, and captured the fortress city of Arcadic (664
AH/1265 AD). In 665 AH/1266 AD, his attention was turned to the Hasyashin group in
the mountains of Lebanon/Syria, who still held on to the famously fortified fortresses
of AlMasyaf, which could not be captured and controlled by Sultan Shalahuddin.
They controlled the capital of Antioch (667 AH/1268 AD) in Northern Syria, thus
ending the history of the Country of Antioch. In 670 AH/1271 AD, they launched an
attack and siege on the fortress of Acre (Akka), which was then defended by Prince
Edward of England, and finally in 671 AH/1272 AD they invoked the Ten Years'
Truce with the willingness to pay an annual tribute to Egypt.
CHAPTER IX
HISTORY AND ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
The history and civilization of Islam in Southeast Asia can be seen in several
countries such as the Philippines, Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia. Muslim minorities in
the Philippines and in Thailand are in an unpleasant position because they are in a fierce
separatist hammer supported by guerrillas and the foundations of national unity. The
political environment in Malaysia seems to have marked the continuity of the Islamic
revival. Although it is highly doubtful that radicals and fundamentalists will be able to
achieve their goals. Perhaps we will see sporadic violence that continues because of
frustrating activities. More importantly, Malaysia's policies have helped to promote a sense
of Islamic identity and this will have a long-term influence on their political systems.
Keywords: History, Islamic Civilization and
Southeast Asia.
1. PHILIPPINES
a. History of the Entry of Islam
Islam entered the Philippines in 1360 through Malaysia and Indonesia in the
southern, central, and northern parts of the Philippines. He explained after the
withdrawal of Majapahit, which was brought by the missionaries of Brunei and Johor
Malaysia.
Based on Sulu news, Islam was brought to the island of Sulu by Syarif Al-
Makhdum, an Arab missionary, in 1380 AD, then continued by Syarif Abu Bakr as a
traveling missionary. For the sake of the continuity of the struggle of Muslims in the
future, Syarif Abu Bakr established an Islamic kingdom under the leadership of
Muhammad. He was the sultan of Mindanau, but not long ago, the Portuguese came to
the Philippines led by Villa Jobos with Christian teachings in 1543 AD in addition to
wanting to make a fortune by controlling the country's economy and trade
who was colonized and received resistance from Muhammad Kebungsuan's son
named Syarif Makaalang.
Not long in 1565 the Spanish State colonized the Philippines with the same
mission led by Legazpi. Due to the enormous power of Islam with the establishment
of the sultanates of Buayan, Sulu and Maquindanau, Spain received great resistance
from the Philippines. Muslims in the Philippines get the nickname "Moro" until now
and that nickname comes from Catholics. The Moro War occurred several times and
ended with the victory of Spain (Drs. Ja'far Sanusi. et al., History of Islamic
Civilization, 1983). Luzon can be captured by Spain, through Luzon Spain wants to
spend Islam in the south is quite strong. Spanish power ended in 1889 without taking
control of Mindanau.
In 1891 the United States colonized under the leadership of Commodore Dedey
who succeeded in destroying the Spanish navy in Manila. The coercion to open up the
land of the southern Filipinos for the benefit of Catholics was strongly opposed by
Muslims. Muslims feel modern-minded elsewhere in a similar situation, and with their
own creativity find a solution that is pleasing to God, which can reassure their
conscience as Muslims. Nevertheless, as Professor Smith has stated very accurately
about the Muslim minority in India:
...Indeed, all Muslims as a whole have a similar situation to the rest of humanity.
Today, relative independence for civilization is dead. Every human culture needs to
develop a new element, namely the ability to adapt. The West may have learned a lot
about this, but no civilization is exempt. In the past, civilizations lived in isolation,
proximity or conflict. Now we must learn to live in collaboration. Islam like others
must prove itself
creative in this regard, and perhaps he will learn this in India.
It is also possible that he will learn this, in the Philippines and Thailand.
On the other hand, the governments and non-Muslim people of the Philippines and
Thailand must acknowledge, understand and provide leeway to deal with the special
difficulties experienced by Muslim minorities in adjusting their roles as full and
responsible citizens. However, these Muslims are citizens who have no choice
because of the founding of the country without their participation, and therefore, as a
historical fact, they are conquered. Therefore they really feel, in a very real sense, as
... a stranger and a coward, in the world that I
have never made.
The norms of human decency, and the prerequisites for peace and stability in
Southeast Asia, call on Filipino Christians and Buddhists in Thailand and their
governments to do better than ever before, to help Muslims to see themselves as full
partners in national development and to have full rights to their isolated national
heritage with the creation of the Pax America Act, which allows Islamic areas to be
inhabited by Christians and prohibits Muslims Islam that is outside the area.
After independence, the Philippine government continued the Spanish struggle to
remove Islam from the land of the Philippines, so that the Philippines became 100%
Catholic. Muslims are considered second-class citizens and Muslims are
discriminated against in all fields. In education, Islamic regions are deliberately made
backward so that they remain ignorant. If the Philippine government establishes a
school or college in the southern Philippines, it will be prioritized for Catholics.
Muslim children who want to enter schools or colleges are complicated by various
things.
various reasons. In the Philippines, it is known for the Illaga army formed by
Catholics, this army constantly urges and hunts Muslims. Philippine security forces do
not appear to be making any effort to prevent these heinous acts.
This Muslim-occupied area is a fertile area, so even if the Muslim community
wants to break away from the Philippine government, the government will not let it
go.
b. Muslim Minorities in the Philippines
An analysis shows that the Muslims of the Philippines, Thailand are almost similar
to the Muslims in India but have to find a way to reconcile what seems to be
irreconcilable. Their situation as Filipino and Thai citizens is unlikely to change, and
they are still expected to participate fully in cooperation with all other citizens in the
context of national development and development goals. But it is clear that if they
want to do more effectively than they did in the past, they must address some of the
problems that are specific to themselves as Muslims, including fundamental problems
in Islamic theology, law and morals. They will find only a few Islamist presidents
who can help them. They should rely on the experience of Muslims in their respective
countries. This will require patience, good will, and generosity possessed by people
who profess to be Christians and Buddhists. Otherwise, the possibility is a
continuation of debilitating tensions and conflicts, which have been raging in the
southern Philippines and Thailand for far too long.
In the latest analysis, the position of the Muslim minorities in the Philippines and
Thailand is an unpleasant position because it is between the hammer of a vigorous
guerrilla-backed separatist movement, and the foundation of national unity. This track
will be much longer than the blows of the hammer and
For humans trapped in the midst of it, this suffering is terrible. Muslim and non-
Muslim movements managed to reach an agreement in the context of national unity.
2. THAILAND
a. Pathways to Islam in Thailand
Islam came to Thailand in the 10th century AD, brought by Arab and Hindustan
traders. Thai Muslims live in Bangkok Noi (small Bangkok) with the king's
permission, because they do not like to live with the natives who still raise pigs. The
Thai people call Muslims Khek Islam. In Bangkok Noi, Muslims built the first grand
mosque in Thailand. Muslims are generally descended from Arab and Hindustan
merchants in their marriages to the daughters of native Thais. Their descendants are
ultimately the successors of the struggle for Islam in Thailand.
When Thailand invaded Burma under the leadership of King Alaung Phya and
succeeded in occupying the city of Ayuthaya, Thai Muslims helped Phya Thaksin
succeed in expelling him. Then he built an Islamic city, Phiya Thaksin gave Muslims
the freedom to spread Islam and was free to come to Thailand.
The development of Islam was also carried out by captives from the Pasai ocean
when King Zainal Abidin was brought by the Siam/Thai kingdom. During the
captivity of the Pacific Ocean in Thailand, they spread Islam to the Thai population.
Hasanudin Makassar's army fled due to his defeat against the Dutch, actively
participated in spreading Islam in Thailand. Samsam residents living in Thailand
adjacent to Malaya have converted to Islam, due to the influence of Malaya. Thus, the
development of Islam in Thailand has progressed.
b. The state of Islam in Thailand
Thailand is a country with a constitutional state
with its capital city Bangkok, the religions of the inhabitants of this country are Buda,
Islam and Christianity. The population of Islam is estimated to be about 10% of
Thailand's 73 provinces. Muslims inhabit the southern region, namely Pattani, Yallah,
Marathiwat and Satu. In this area, Muslims number about 80%. This area is a fertile
area and produces a lot of mines.
The Pattani Islamic community in general is descended from the Malay nation who
are religious. Unfortunately, the Thai government, which has been Buddhist since
ancient times, has not paid attention to the fate of Muslims. They were accused of
being Muslim separatists so the Thai government was always on the hunt for them.
The ummah under the rule of Buddhism has indeed suffered a worrisome fate. In
terms of education, they are very backward, because they are only given the
opportunity to receive education until they reach high school. The rest if they want to
continue their religious studies, they have to go abroad on their own, for example in
the Middle East.
For almost 2 centuries, the Pattani Muslim community wanted to separate from the
Thai government, but the government always prevented it because Muslim areas were
strategic and very fertile. The Pattani Muslim community who cultivate the land and
produce foodstuffs cannot enjoy the fruits of their work.
Religious education is generally held in lodges. Pattani Muslims who studied
religion in the Middle East after returning to their area, they built huts in the education
system and some buildings are still ancient and modern. They have
26 Islamic Ulema Council. This assembly is tasked with taking care of everything
about the Pattani Muslims.
3. SINGAPORE
Singapore has been a republican country since August 9, 1965. before becoming a
Republic, Singapore was part of the kingdom
Malaya. Singapore is an archipelago separated by the Straits of Johor from Malaysia, the
capital city of Singapore is Singapore, the population consists of 80% Chinese and the
rest Malays. Jews, Pakistanis, Arabs, Bengalis, and European Peranakan people. The
religions embraced by the population are Taoism, Islam, Hinduism and Christianity.
In Singapore there is an Islamic court called the Syariah Court. This court is tasked
with taking care of and deciding everything related to Islamic activities, including zakat,
waqf, marriage, etc. Another organization is PERDAUS (Adult Religious Students
Association). This organization organizes out-of-school education such as skills courses
or a kind of da'wah course. Through this da'wah, the divorce rate from year to year is
decreasing because a course has been held for Muslims who will undergo marriage.
Other Islamic organizations can be mentioned, for example, MENDAKI, which was
founded in 1991.
1981 by 9 members of the Malay Muslim Parliament. The goal is to improve the socio-
economic status of the weak and poorly educated Muslim community.
4. MALAYSIA
a. The Rise of Islam in Malaysia
The most important manifestation of the Islamic revival movement in Malaysia
today is the emergence of many da'wah organizations and a number of government
policies that pay greater attention to the importance of Islam. Islam is a religion that is
embraced by about half of the population and is closely related to the Malay ethnicity.
Almost all Malays are Muslims, with a small number of Muslims from other circles.
And a number of Chinese converts plus people of Arab and Pakistani descent. The
rest of the population, mainly Chinese (about 35%) and Indians. With high
conservatism and suppression of ritual elements of belief, Malaysia looks more
homogeneous. Recently, the influence of regional theology
extreme is less significant to Malaysian Islam because it gives it a certain short-
sightedness. Finally, there is still a substantial basis of animic beliefs that influence
attitudes or behaviors among Muslims, Hindu and Buddhist elements do not seem to
be so strong. The political environment greatly influenced the rise of Islam in
Malaysia, which is a competitive democracy that has been limited since independence
ruled by a multiracial coalition (now called the National Front) which in turn has been
dominated by its Malay counterpart UMNO (United Malaysia National Organization).
The pluralist characteristics of the national front consisting of Malay parties. China
and India demand a balance of policies in order to maintain and maintain stability in
the coalition. The opposition comes from the Chinese, who see the front's Chinese
partners, the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA) and the movement, as a
compromise of their interests and from the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS), a
Malay Muslim party that wants greater support for their religious ethnicities.
Therefore, it is in UMNO's interest to react to the demands of its Malay Muslim
voters inside and outside the party and to maintain balance in the coalition.
The assessment of the manifestations of the Islamic revival will focus on 5 main
aspects:
1) Radical groups
2) Da'wah and religious expression
3) International influences
4) Changes in individual practices and attitudes
5) Political tensions
CHAPTER X
THE HISTORY OF ISLAM'S ENTRY INTO INDONESIA
A. The Process of Entering Islam in Indonesia
To study a religion, including Islam, one must start from studying the geographical
aspects and geography of the distribution of world religions. After that, it can also be
understood the process of the birth of Islam as one of the world religions, especially those
born in Eastern Tah, namely Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three are known as the
religion of the sky or revelation. These two things are the geography of distribution and
the spread of religion itself. Furthermore, to be able to understand the process of the
development of Islam so that it becomes one of the religions embraced by a wide range of
world populations, it is necessary to first recognize the figure who accepted the teachings
and at the same time spread the teachings, namely Muhammad (saw), the bearer of the
treatise.
The success of the Islamization process in Indonesia forces Islam as an immigrant, to
obtain cultural symbols that are in harmony with the ability to capture and understand the
society that it will enter in the recognition of the Islamic world. This step is one of the
pluralistic Islamic characters that has been possessed since its early birth.
The arrival of Islam in various regions of Indonesia is not at the same time. Similarly,
the kingdoms and districts he visited had different political and socio-cultural situations.
The process of Islam entering Indonesia has raised several opinions. The figures who
expressed their opinions include those who directly know about the entry and spread of
Islamic culture and teachings in Indonesia, some through various forms of research such
as those carried out by westerners (Europeans) who come to Indonesia for duty or are
employed by the government in Indonesia. These figures include, Marcopolo, Muhammad
Ghor, Ibn Bathuthah, Dego Lopez de Sequeira, Sir Richard Wainsted.
Meanwhile, the sources of support for the entry of Islam in Indonesia include:
a. News from Arabia
This news is known from Arab traders who carry out trade activities with the
Indonesian nation. Arab traders have come to Indonesia since the time of the Srivijaya
kingdom (7th century AD) which controlled trade shipping routes in the western part of
Indonesia including the Strait of Malacca at that time. The relationship between Arab
traders and the Srivijaya kingdom is proven by the existence of Arab traders for the
Srivijaya kingdom as Zabak, Zabay or Sribusa.
This opinion was expressed by Crawfurd, Keyzer, Nieman, de Hollander, Syeh
Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas in his book entitled Islam in the History of Malay Culture
and the majority of Islamic figures in Indonesia such as Hamka and Abdullah bin Nuh.
Even Hamka alleged that the theory that Islam came from India was a form of
propaganda, that Islam that came to Southeast Asia was not pure.
b. Eopa News
This news came from Marcopolo in 1292 AD. He was the first person to set foot in
Indonesia, when he returned from China to Europe by sea. He received an assignment
from the Chinese emperor to deliver his daughter who was assigned to the Roman
emperor, from which he stopped in northern Sumatra. In this area he found an Islamic
kingdom, namely the Samudera kingdom with its capital Pasai. Among the historians
who adhere to this theory are C. Snouch Hurgronye, W.F. Stutterheim, and Bernard
H.M. Vlekke.
c. India News
This news stated that Indian traders from Gujarat had an important role in the spread
of Islamic religion and culture in Indonesia. Because besides trading, they are also
active in teaching Islamic religion and culture to every community they meet, especially
to people located in coastal areas
beach. This theory was born after 1883 A.D. Brought by C. Snouch Hurgronye. The
proponents of this theory include Dr. Gonda, Van Ronkel, Marrison, R.A. Kern, and
C.A.O. Van Nieuwinhuize.
d. China News
This news is known through a note from Ma Huan, a writer who followed Admiral
Cheng-Ho's journey. He stated through his writings that since about 1400 there have
been Islamic merchants who lived on the north coast of Java Island. T.W. Arnol also
said that the Arab traders who spread Islam in the archipelago, when they dominated
the West-East trade since the early centuries of the Hijrah or the 7th and 8th centuries
AD. In Chinese sources, it is stated that in the 7th century AD an Arab merchant
became the leader of an Arab Muslim settlement on the coast of Sumatra (called
Ta'shih).
e. Domestic sources
There are sources from within the country that explain the development of Islamic
influence in Indonesia. Namely the discovery of a stone in Leran (Gresik). The stone is
written in Arabic letters and language, some of which have been damaged. The stone
contains the death of a woman named Fatimah Binti Maimun (1028). Second, the tomb
of Sultan Malikul Saleh in North Sumatra who died in the month of Ramadan in 676 H
or 1297 AD. Third, the tomb of Sheikh Maulana Malik Ibrahim in Gresik who died in
1419
M. Jirat makan was imported from Guzarat and contains Arabic writings.
Regarding the entry of Islam into Indonesia, there is one study, namely a scientific
seminar held in 1963 in the city of Medan, which produced the following:
1. Islam first entered Indonesia in the 1st century H/7 AD, directly from the Arab
country.
2. The first area that Islam entered was the coast of North Sumatra. After that, the
Islamic community formed the First Islamic kingdom
namely Aceh.
3. The first dai, the majority were merchants. At that time, da'wah was spread
peacefully.
B. Channels and Ways of Islamization in Indonesia
The arrival of Islam to Indonesia and its spread to the nobility and the people in
general, was carried out peacefully. There are six channels of Islamization that have
developed, namely:
a. Trading Channels
Among the channels of Islamization in Indonesia at the initial level is through trade.
This is in line with the busy trade traffic from the 7th to the 16th centuries, trade
between countries in the western, southeast and eastern parts of the Asian continent and
where Muslim traders (Arabs, Persians, Indians) took part in Indonesia. The use of the
channel of Islamization through trade is very profitable. This creates a bond between
the Indonesian people and traders.
It is explained here that the process of Islamization through trade channels was
accelerated by the situation and political conditions of several kingdoms where the
coastal dukes tried to break away from the central power of the kingdom which was
experiencing chaos and division. In general, the Islamization carried out by the traders
through trade may be described as follows: first they arrived in the places of the trading
centers and then some of them dwelt, either temporarily or to settle down. Gradually
their place of residence developed into villages. The village of the Muslim merchant
group from foreign countries is called Pekojan.
b. Marital Channel
Marriage is one of the most convenient channels of Islamization. Because the
marriage bond is an inner birth bond, a place to find peace between two individuals.
Both individuals
That is, husband and wife form a family that is actually the core of society. In this case,
it means forming a Muslim society.
The channel of Islamization through marriage, namely between merchants or
merchants and indigenous women, is also a part that is closely intertwined with
Islamization. This good relationship is sometimes continued by marriages between
indigenous daughters and Islamic traders. It is through this marriage that a Muslim is
born. From an economic point of view, Muslim merchants had a better social status
than most natives, so the natives, especially the princesses of the nobles, were interested
in becoming the wives of the merchants. Before marriage, they were Islamized first.
After they have descendants, their environment is even wider. Eventually, Muslim
villages, districts, and kingdoms arose.
c. Sufism Channel
Sufism is one of the important channels in the process of Islamization. Sufism is a
category that functions and shapes the social life of the Indonesian nation which leaves
clear evidence in writings between the 13th and 18th centuries. This is directly related
to the spread of Islam in Indonesia. In this case, Sufism experts live in simplicity, they
always try to live the life of their people and live together in the midst of their society.
Sufism experts usually have expertise to cure diseases and others. The Sufism path,
which is the process of Islamization by teaching theosophy by accommodating cultural
values and even existing religious teachings, namely Hinduism, into Islamic teachings,
by of course first codified with Islamic values so that it is easy to understand and
accept.
Among the Sufism experts who gave teachings that contained similarities with the
pre-Islamic Indonesian mind were Hamzah Fansuri in Aceh, Syeh Lemah Abang, and
Sunan Panggung in Java. Mystical teachings like this are still developing in the 19th
century and even in the 20th century
Ini.
d. Education Channel
Scholars, religious teachers, and kings play a big role in the process of Islamization,
they spread Islam through education, namely by establishing Islamic boarding schools
as a place to teach Islam for students. In general, this Islamic boarding school is taught
by religious teachers, kyai-kyai, or ulama. After learning religious sciences from
various books, after leaving a pesantren, they will return to each village or village to
become religious figures, become kyai who organize pesantren again. The more famous
the kyai who teaches the pesantren, the more famous the pesantren, and its influence
will reach an even greater radius.
e. Arts Channel
The channel of Islamization through arts such as building art, sculpture or carving,
dance art, music and literary art. For example, in the art of this building, it can be seen
in the ancient mosque of Demak, Sendang Duwur Agung Kasepuhan in Cirebon, the
Great Mosque of Banten, Baiturrahman in Aceh, Ternate and so on. Another example
in art is puppet shows, which are popular with the public. Through the puppet stories,
Islamic religious teachings are inserted. The art of gamelan can also invite the public to
see the performance. Furthermore, Islamic religious da'wah was held.
f. Political Channels
The influence of the king's power played a big role in the process of Islamization.
When a king embraces Islam, the people will also follow in his footsteps. The people
have a very high level of obedience and the king as a role model even becomes an
example for his people. For example, in South Sulawesi and Maluku, most of the
people converted to Islam after the king embraced Islam first. The king's political
influence greatly helped the spread of Islam in this area.
C. The Development of Islam in Indonesia During the Kingdoms
Islam began in this region through the presence of individuals from the Arabs, or from
the natives themselves who had embraced Islam. With their efforts. Islam spread little by
little and slowly. Steps to spread Islam began to be carried out on a large scale when
da'wah already had people who specialized in spreading da'wah. After that phase, Islamic
kingdoms began to form in this archipelago. Among the most important kingdoms are the
following:
1. Kingdom of Malacca (803-917 AH/1400-1511AD)
Malacca is known as the gateway of the archipelago. This designation is given
considering its role as a traffic road for foreign traders who have the right to enter and
exit Indonesian ports. Malacca's geographical location is very favorable, which is a
common path between East Asia and West Asia. With such a geographical location,
Malacca became an influential kingdom over its region.
After Malacca became an Islamic kingdom, traders, missionaries, and Sufi teachers
from the Middle East and India came to the city of Malacca. From this city, Islam was
brought to Pattani and other places in the peninsula such as Pahang, Johor and Perlak.
The Kingdom of Malacca established good relations with Java, considering that
Malacca needed food ingredients from Java. Where this is to meet the needs of his own
kingdom. Supplies in the field of food and spices must always be sufficient to serve all
the merchants. Likewise, Javanese traders also brought spices from Maluku to Malacca.
In addition to Java, Malacca also established a relationship with Pasai. Pasai traders
brought pepper to the Malacca market. With the arrival of Javanese and Pasai traders,
trade in Malacca became crowded and more meaningful for Chinese traders. Apart from
the economic field, Malacca is also advanced in the religious field. Many
Religious scholars came and participated in developing Islam in this city. The ruler of
Malacca was by himself very generous. Although the rulers had not embraced Islam, in
the 15th century they had allowed Islam to develop in Malacca. Followers of Islam are
given privileges and even the ruler makes mosque buildings.
The Malacca Sultanate had influence in Sumatra and its surroundings, by influencing
these areas to convert to Islam such as: Rokan Kampar, India Giri and Siak. And the
Malacca sultanate is the center of international trade between the West and the East, a
transit port. So with the occupation of the Malacca Sultanate by the Portuguese in 1511,
the kingdom in the archipelago grew and developed because the Malacca Strait route
was no longer used by Muslim traders because it had been occupied by the Portuguese.
Thus no progress will be achieved by the Malacca government if it does not have
certain regulations, which guarantee good trade peace. For example, customs rules,
rules about the unity of size, the system of using coins and so on. In addition to the
rules that are applied, the government system is also very good and orderly.
2. Kingdom of Aceh (920-1322 AH/1514-1904 AD)
In the 16th century, Aceh began to play an important role in the north of the island of
Sumatra. The influence of Aceh extends from Barus in the north to the south in the
Indrapura area. Indrapura was previously under the influence of Aceh, which was
previously an area of Minangkabau influence. The founder of the Aceh kingdom was
Sultan Ibrahim (1514-1528), who succeeded in liberating Aceh from Pidie.
Aceh received Islam from Pasai which is now part of the Aceh region and the
conversion is estimated to have occurred near the middle of the 14th century.
The Kingdom of Aceh is located in an area now known as Aceh Besar Regency. It is
also located here that the capital is located. Aceh experienced progress when Muslim
merchants who had previously traded in Malacca then moved their trade to Aceh, when
the Portuguese took control of Malacca in 1511. When Malacca was under Portuguese
rule in 1511, its area of influence in Sumatra began to break away from Malacca. This
was very beneficial for the Kingdom of Aceh which was beginning to develop. Under
Ibrahim's rule, the Aceh kingdom began to expand its power to the surrounding areas.
Military operations are carried out not only for religious and political purposes, but also
for economic purposes.
The greatness of the Aceh kingdom when it was ruled by Alauddin Riayat Syah. His
power reached the Barus region. Two sons of Alauddin Riayat Syah were then
appointed as Sultan Aru and Sultan Parlaman with the official names Sultan Ghori and
Sultan Mughal. In maintaining the integrity of the Aceh kingdom, everywhere in the
area of influence of Acehnese power there are representatives of Aceh. Aceh
established good relations with Turkey and other Islamic countries in Indonesia, this
was proven when Aceh faced the Portuguese army of Aceh asking for Turkish help. In
building a good war budget, this is also thanks to the help of Turkey.
The glory of the Aceh kingdom was at its peak when it was commanded by Iskandar
Muda. He was able to reunite the territory that had separated from Aceh under his rule.
At that time, Aceh controlled all ports on the East and West coasts of Sumatra. From
Aceh, the land of Gayo which borders Islam, is also Minangkabau. During his reign,
Sultan Iskandar the young did not depend on the Ottoman Turks. To defeat the
Portuguese, the Sultan then collaborated with the Portuguese enemies, namely the
Dutch and the British.
After Iskandar Muda was replaced by his successor, Iskandar Tsani, he was more
gentle and fair. During his time, Aceh continued to grow
for a period of several years. Religious knowledge advanced rapidly. It would still be
when several female sultans occupied the throne in 1641-1699, some of the conquered
territories were released and the sultanate became divided. In the 18th century, Aceh
was only a memory of the past from its own imagination. Finally, the Aceh sultanate
became backward.
3. Demak Kingdom ( 918- 960 H / 1512-1552 AD)
In Java, Islam is spread by the wali songo (wali nine), they are not only ruling in the
religious field, but also in terms of government and politics, and often even a king
seems to be a legitimate king if he has been recognized and blessed by wali songo. The
guardians made Demak the center of the spread of Islam and at the same time made it
an Islamic kingdom that appointed Raden Patah as its King. This kingdom lasted about
the 15th and 16th centuries
M. Besides the Demak kingdom, there were also other Islamic kingdoms such as
Cirebon, Banten and Mataram.
Demak is one of the Islamic kingdoms that developed on the north coast of Java. His
first king was Raden Patah. Before full rule over Demak, Demak was still a Majapahit
area. Only Raden Patah came to full power after holding a rebellion assisted by the
ulema on Majapahit. It can be said that in the 16th century, Demak had ruled all of
Java. After Raden Patah came to power around the end of the 15th to 16th centuries, he
was replaced by his son named Pati Unus. And then he was replaced by Trenggono who
was inaugurated by Sunan Gunung Jati with the title Sultan Ahmad Abdul Arifin. He
ruled from 1524 to 1546 and managed to control several regions.
The development and progress of Islam on the island of Java coincided with the
weakening of the position of the king of Majapahit. This gave the coastal Islamic kings
the opportunity to establish independent centers of power. Under the spiritual guidance
of Sunan Kudus, although not the eldest of the Songo guardians.
Demak finally succeeded in replacing Majapahit as the central palace. The Demak
Kingdom placed its influence on the north coast of West Java and could not be
separated from its political and economic goals. The politics were to break the Pajajaran
kingdom which was still in power in the interior, with the Portuguese in Malacca.
4. Kingdom of Banten (960-1096 H/1552-1684 AD)
Banten is an Islamic kingdom that began to develop in the 16th century, after Indian,
Arab, Persian traders began to avoid Malacca which since 1511 has been controlled by
the Portuguese. Judging from its geography, Banten, an important and economically
important port has a strategic location in the ruler of the Sunda Strait, which is the vein
in shipping and trade through the Indonesian ocean in the southern and western parts of
Sumatra. Its importance was very felt, especially when the Strait of Malacca was under
the supervision of Portuguese politics in Malacca. Since before the arrival of Islam,
when it was under the rule of Sundanese kings (from Pajajaran), Banten had become a
significant city. In 1524 Sunan Gunung Jati of Cirebon, laid the foundation for the
development of religion and the Islamic kingdom as well as for the trade of Muslims
there.
The Islamic Kingdom in Banten, which was originally located in Banten Girang, was
moved to the city of Surosowan, in the old Banten near the coast. From an economic
and political point of view, this relocation is intended to facilitate the relationship
between the northern coast of Java and the coast of Sumatra, through the Sunda Strait
and the Indonesian ocean. This situation was related to the political conditions in
Southeast Asia at that time after the fall of malacca to the Portuguese, merchants who
were reluctant to contact the Portuguese diverted their shipping routes through the
Sunda Strait.
Regarding the existence of Islam in Banten, Tom Pires said, that in the Cimanuk area,
the port city and the boundary of the Sunda kingdom with Cirebon, many Muslims are
found. This means that at the end of the 15th century AD in the territory of the Sunda
Hindu kingdom there were already religious communities
Islam. Because he was interested in his ethics and high level of knowledge, the Regent
of Banten married Syarif Hidayatullah to his younger sister named Nhay Kawunganten.
From this marriage, Syaraif Hidayatullah was blessed with two children named Ratu
Winaon and Hasanuddin. Not long after, because of his wife's calling, Cakrabuana,
Syarif Hidayatullah left for Cirebon to replace his old umawk. Meanwhile, the task of
spreading Islam in Banten was handed over to his son, Hasanuddin.
Hasanuddin himself married the daughter of Demak and was inaugurated as
Panembahan Banten in 1552. He continued his father's efforts in expanding the Islamic
area, namely to Lampung and its surroundings in South Sumatra. In 1568, when
Demak's power shifted to Pajang, Hasanuddin liberated Banten. That is why by
tradition he is considered the first Islamic king in Bnaten. Banten has always been a
vassal of Demak.
During the reign of Maulana Hasanuddin, Banten made a lot of progress in all areas of
life. Maulana Hasanuddin died in 1570 and was buried next to the Great Mosque. To
continue his power he was replaced by his son, Maulana Yusuf.
During the reign of Maulana Yusuf, the development strategy was more focused on
urban development, regional security, trade and agriculture. In 1579 Maulana Yusuf
was able to conquer Pakuan, the capital of the non-Islamic kingdom of Pajajaran which
at that time still controlled most of the interior of West Java. Maulana Yusuf died in
1580, and was buried in Pakalangan Gede near the village of Kasunyatan.
After the death of Maulana Yusuf, the next government was continued by his son,
Muhammad, who was still young. As long as Maulana Mohammed was a minor, the
power of government was held by the qadhi. Maulana Muhamad is famous as a person
who
pious. For the sake of spreading Islam, he composed many religious books which were
then distributed to those who needed them. During his reign, the Great Mosque located
on the edge of the square was beautified. The walls of the mosque are lined with
porcelain and the pillars are made of sandalwood. For women's prayer places, a special
place is made called pawestren or pawedonan. Maulana Muhamad died in 1596 AD,
while carrying out an attack on Palembang.
The government of Banten was then held by Maulana Muhammad's son, Sultan Abdul
Mufakir Mahmud Abdulkadir, crowned at the age of 5 months. And to run the wheel of
government, Mangkubumi Jayanagara was appointed as his guardian. He only actively
held power in 1626. In 1651 he died, and was succeeded by his grandson Sultan
Abdulfath. During his reign, there were several wars between Banten and the VOC, and
ended with a peace treaty in 1659 AD.
5. Kingdom of Goa (Makassar) (1078 AH/1667 AD)
The Islamic kingdom in the Southern Peninsula of Sulawesi is Goa-Tallo, this
kingdom accepted Islam in 1605 AD. Its famous king named Tumaparisi-Kallona came
to power in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. It is to govern the kingdom with
regulations on collecting taxes and also appointing regional heads. The Kingdom of
Goa-Tallo established a relationship with Ternate which had received Islam from
Gresik/Giri. The ruler of Ternate invited the ruler of Goa-tallo to convert to Islam, but
failed. Islam only managed to enter Goa-Tallo when Grandpa ri Bandang came to the
kingdom of Goa-Tallo. Sultan Alauddin was the first king to convert to Islam in 1605
AD.
The Kingdom of Goa-Tallo expanded to Bone in 1611, but the expansion led to
enmity between Goa and Bone. The spread of Islam carried out by Goa-Tallo was
successful, this is a tradition
which requires a king to convey good things to others. Such as Luwu, Wajo, Sopeng,
and Bone. Luwu first converted to Islam, while Wajo and Bone had to go through the
war first. The first King of Bone to convert to Islam was known as Sultan Adam.
6. Kingdom of Maluku
The Kingdom of Maluku is located in the Eastern part of Indonesia. The arrival of
Islam to Eastern Indonesia, namely to Maluku, cannot be separated from the trade route
that stretches between the center of international shipping traffic in Malacca, Java and
Maluku. It is said that in the 14th century the twelfth King of Ternate, Molomateya,
(1350-1357) was friendly with the Arabs who gave instructions on how to build ships,
but apparently not in trust. According to local tradition, since the 14th century Islam
has been established in the Maluku area. Islamization in the Maluku area, brought by
Maulana Husayn. This happened during the reign of Marhum in Ternate.
The first king who was truly Muslim was Zayn Al-Abidin (1486-1500), who himself
received the teachings of the religion from the Giri madrasah. Zainal Abidin when in
Java was famous as King Bulawa, meaning the king of cloves, because he brought
cloves from Maluku for offerings. Upon returning from Java, Zainal abidin brought a
missionary named Tuhubabahul. The first one who brought king Zainal Abidin to Giri
was Jamilu of Hitu. The relationship between Ternate, Hitu and Giri in East Java is
very close.
Regarding the entry of Islam into Maluku, Tome Pires said that the merchant ships
from Gresik belonged to Pate Cucuf. The king of Ternate who has embraced Islam is
named Sultan Bem Acorala, and only the king of Ternate is called the sultan while the
others are called kings. It was explained that he was at war with his father-in-law who
became the king of Tidore, named King Almancor.
In Banda, Hitu, Maluku and Bacan, there are already Muslim communities. In the
Maluku area, the king who first converted to Islam as explained by Tome Pires about
50 years ago, means between
1460-1465. The year can be said to be together with the news of Antonio Galvano who
said that Islam in this area began 80 or 90 years ago, which if you count from the time
Galvano was there around 1540-1545 to 1460-1465.
Because Islam was still young in Ternate, the Portuguese who arrived there in 1522
AD, hoped to replace it with Christianity. That hope did not materialize. Their efforts
have yielded little results. In the process of Islamization in Maluku faced political
competition and trade monopoly among the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and British.
Competition among these merchants also caused competition between the Islamic
kingdoms themselves so that in the end the Maluku region fell under the political and
economic power of the Dutch company.
BABXI
HISTORY OF ISLAMIC DEVELOPMENT IN BANJARMASIN AND THE ROLE
OF THE BANJAR SULTANATE (XV-XIX CENTURIES)
A. History of Islam in Banjarmasin
The life of the people of the archipelago since the collapse of the Suzerinity of the
Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms at the end of the 15th century has undergone changes in various
aspects. The most important aspect of change is the opening of the space (locus) for the
development of Islam, which since the 7th century has begun to enter the archipelago.
Formally Islam has established its political institution in Samudera Pasai in the 7th
century Hijri (13 AD) with its king named Malik As-Saleh, who died in the month of
Ramadan 698 Hijri (1297 AD). At the beginning of the 16th century, the Demak Sultanate
(1518-1550 AD) was established with its first king, Raden Patah.
Demak in the early 16th century had formed a unit of preacher Ulama, called "Wali
Sanga". The Sultanate of Demak contributed to the Sultanate of Banjarmasin, not only
from the aspect of military assistance, but also from the aspect of Islamic
institutionalization.
The most important institutionalization was the formation of the Sultanate structure,
so that the development of Islam spread throughout the Sultanate of Banjarmasin. Hikayat
Banjar said that the Demak troops who came to Banjarmasin amounted to 1000 troops.
At first glance, the Islamization of Banjarmasin is completely the result of the
intervention of the Demak Sultanate, so that the understanding of the spread of Islam in
Banjarmasin is interpreted as a form of expansion and violence. Moreover, the evidence of
Hindu-Buddhist relics, such as the Agung Temple and Laras Temple, only leaves the
remains of the ruins of the building, which were destroyed as if due to the invasion of the
Demak army. In fact, Hikayat Banjar also mentions that the Sultanate of Demak itself sent
a Khatib to Banjarmasin, named Khatib Dayyan. The title or name of Khatib Dayyan is
more
reflects the name of a preacher or religious broadcaster rather than the name or a warlord.
The assumption of expansion and violence in the Islamization of Banjarmasin negates
the role of the Islamization channels of the archipelago which are actually more important
and dominant in describing the arrival, acceptance and spread of Islam in Banjarmasin.
Theories about the Islamization channel of the archipelago that are widely discussed
by orientalists such as; van Leur, B.O. Scherieke, Pijnappel, J.P. Maquette, C. Snouck
Horgronje, Crewfurd, Keyzer, Norduyn, Niemann and Hollander, van Brueinessen, to
Karel Steenbrink. Meanwhile, from Muslims, among others; Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-
Atthas, Fatimi, HAMKA, P.A. Hoesein Djajadiningrat, Azyumardi Azra and Uka
Tjandrasasmita. They examined the Islamization of the archipelago through channels:
trade, marriage, government bureaucracy, Sufism and tarekat, education and art.
The Islamization channels that are river-oriented are in accordance with the ecology
of Banjarmasin. The ecology of the Banjarmasin community is the river. The river is a
meeting place for various community groups, and in the end forms a community colored
by various cultures.
The coloring of various cultures in turn is formed in a Banjar format, with a touch of
Islam. Although Islam has been included in political institutions and has had formal
legitimacy in the Banjarmasin Sultanate since the early quarter of the 16th century, as the
official religion of the palace, its spread and development has gone through the process of
time and continues continuously. Moreover, according to Azyumardi Azra, the process of
Islamization of the Dayak ethnic group from the 16th century to the mid-18th century was
very slow. This is where the connection between the "Bottom Up" and the "Top Down" is
the connection between the "Top Down" and the "Top Down‟, requires a balanced
explanation, so that the assessment of the development of Islam in Banjarmasin, which is
institutionalized through the Banjarmasin Sultanate, is not generalized as a cultural
engineering.
Moreover, political engineering, which is very forced. Therefore, the historical role that
describes Islamization naturally with "bil hikmah wa bil mau'ijatil hasanah" (by hoping for
the wisdom of Allah swt.'s guidance, and in good ways), will reveal the face of Islam that is
"Rahmatan lil-alamin‟ in the Sultanate of Banjarmasin.
The Sultanate of Banjarmasin and the Islamization of Banjarmasin produced a new
identity and culture, namely the identity and culture of Banjar, with Islamic characteristics
in various forms. The formation of a new identity and culture requires a local intelligence
(Local Genius) which of course belongs to the people of Banjar. Local Genius is seen in
various forms of Banjar culture. Therefore, a very important understanding of the
Islamization of Banjarmasin from the 15th to the 19th centuries with all human activities
and its community, will provide an overview of the pattern of social networks, which have
formed an Islamic society in a nation state of the Sultanate of Banjar, as a portrait of the
reality of the existence of Urang Banjar.
B. Social Networks and Channels of Islamization of Banjarmasin from the 15th to the
19th Century: The Development of Islam and the Role of the Banjar Sultanate
Social networks according to Bambang Rudito and Melia Famiola are a collection of
relationships. These relationships range from the simplest to having multiple relationships.
This form of relationship is not just an exchange of attributes or something at a place or
time, but can also be in the form of a flow between individuals or a group of objects
(nodes).
Kedushin, stated that in the social sciences there are three types of networks; first,
ego-centric, which is a network that deals with individuals. Second, social-centric, which
Russell Bernard's describes as a box that contains various forms of networking. Third,
social-centric open system, namely an open system social network, such as networks
between elites, networks between traders and networks between scholars.16 reviews
According to Ruddy Agusyanto, the pattern of social networks contains at least three
things; First, social networks because of interest. Second, social networks because of
emotions (sentiment) and third, social networks because of power.
Trade Channel, Social Network of Muslim Traders in Banjarmasin. The results of
Meilink-Roelofsz's research explained that trade activities in the commercial period since
before the 15th century, have been massive, meaning that there has been bulk trade,
because of the trade of rice and pepper that requires ships with large cargoes. Manguin's
research, which is based on Chinese sources, shows that Southeast Asian merchant ships
in the early days were already large. Recent archaeological excavations show that there
were ships up to 30 meters long.
If you trace historical sources such as: Hikayat Banjar, Hikayat Lembu Mangkurat,
Hikayat Raja-Rajas Banjar and Kotawaringin, and Tutur Candi, then it is mentioned that
the chain of trade networks of large Chinese ships has been formed, namely the type of
Wangkang and Banawa between Keling and Surabaya, Giri, Gresik, Kudus in East Java
and Banjarmasin.
The trade network began with Empu Jatmika as the son of the merchant Keling, the
founder of the throne in the Dipa State, and Raden Sekar Sungsang alias Ki Mas Lelana,
the adopted son of Balaba from Surabaya, the founder of the Daha State throne. Empu
Jatmika built a city in Muara Rampiau, and has been included in the Majapahit trade
network. According to M. Idwar Saleh, the location of Muara Rampiau is around
Pematang Penyaungan and around Marampiau village, South Laras Temple District.
Furthermore, Raden Sekar Sungsang established a city in Muara Bahan. Hikayat Banjar
has mentioned Surabaya, Gresik and Giri. Surabaya since the 14th century has been a port.
Based on archaeological evidence, various ceramic finds in the waters of the Nagara
River and the Bahan, a comparison of Hikayat Banjar with Tutur Candi, and Babad
Demak (Hikayat Demak), Babad Tanah Jawi, Riwayat Sunan Giri, accompanied by the
geographical proximity of Java
East with Banjarmasin, as well as the rapid flow of maritime trade in the 15th century
period, it has been confirmed that Raden Sekar Sungsang, the son of Juragan Balaba, was
a Muslim merchant who tried to build a power network in the Daha State palace.
However, due to the strength of the Hindu-Buddhist community and the number of Dayak
communities; Biaju- Ngaju, Maanyan, Lawangan and Bukit who had Kaharingan and
Balian beliefs, then the structural spread of Islam by Sekar Sungsang failed.
According to Siti Chamamah, the Islamic element in the Hikayat of the Kings of
Banjar and Waringin City is as a seed giver. That the Islamization of Banjarmasin cannot
be separated from Sunan Giri, who was very active in carrying out his da'wah activities in
the 15th century. Sunan Giri and Sunan Bonang in the 15th century preached to Muara
Bahan.
Sunan Giri and Sunan Bonang formed a trade network with the Bakumpai
community, under Raden Sira Panji Kesuma, the son of Raden Sekar Sungsang and Puteri
Kalungsu, the queen of the Dipa State.
According to Ricklefs, who took the source of the Tanah Jawi Chronicle, "Sunan Giri
was the adopted son of a female merchant". Danys Lombart, Oemar Zainuddin, and
Hikayat Banjar very clearly explain the role of Nyai Suta (Ageng, Gde) Pinatih, a Chinese
Muslim nobleman from Palembang, Sunan Giri's adoptive mother who played an active
role in trade to Banjarmasin.
If you look at various historical evidences, the merchant network from Surabaya,
Gresik, Giri and Kudus, cannot be separated from the social network of Chinese Muslim
traders, who are active in international trade, since Admiral Cheng-Ho was sent by the
emperor of the Ming Dynasty, namely Emperor Yong-lee. The third emperor of the Ming
dynasty was a Muslim emperor of China. Chinese Muslim traders from Canton, of course,
have also reached East Java and have been actively trading to Banjarmasin since the 15th
century. The network of Chinese traders and other Muballigh, based in Surabaya, Gresik,
Giri and Kudus, was successful
Islamization of the Biaju-Ngaju-Bakumpai people.
The Bakumpai community managed to absorb the trading skills of the traders who
came. Then together with the Negara-Alabio-Amuntai and Kalua communities, they built
a trade network from the headwaters of the river in the interior to the estuaries of the river
to Bandar Masih which grew in the early 16th century.
The Malay merchant community led by Patih Masih, a Malay merchant, a big man in
the mouth of Kuin, built a network with the Bakumpai Regional community, and a
network of traders around the town of Muara Bahan, as well as actively communicated
with Bubuhan Tutus Raja-Raja, especially the Prince of Samudera, so that he succeeded in
building a power network in Kuin, Bandar Masih. To strengthen its political legitimation,
the power of Bandar Masih, built relations and networks with the Demak Sultanate.
Banjarmasin in 1520 paid tribute to Demak. The condition of the relationship of forming
relationships and networks is part of the special Islamic cause of Prince Samudera, who
was later titled Sultan Suryanullah or Sultan Suriansyah. The pronunciation of the
shahada by Prince Samudera was just a formal legitimacy that marked the establishment
of the Islamic Sultanate around 1524, while according to M. Idwar Saleh in 1526. Most
likely, Prince Samudera was one of the descendants of Sekar Sungsang who had
recognized Islam, so he was exiled to Halalak Island. Then he collaborated with the
Bakumpai community and traders in Muara Bahan, and received full support from the
Malay community in Muara Banjar.
The Sultanate of Banjarmasin, which has existed since the early 16th century, protects
the merchant community, as well as a kingdom that relies on the pepper trade, because the
nobles of the Sultanate of Banjar are very reliable patrons in all trading activities. As a
result of the progress of pepper plantations and trade, especially since the 17th century and
18 The Sultanate of Banjar succeeded in forming and coordinating a network of traders
from the interior to the estuary, from the estuary of the river to
the mouth of the Barito river which is directly connected to the Java Sea.
In the late 18th and mid-19th centuries, Bakumpai, Nagara, Alabio, Amuntai and
Kalua merchants had direct contact with Chinese coclogs. Local traders experience
vertical mobility, which also has a position as the middle class in Banjarmasin. Some of
them became Hajj, and participated in the dynamism of the Banjarmasin community.
The channel of Islamization through marriage has succeeded in forming Bubuhan's
emotional network. Marriages were carried out by Muslim traders with women from the
Biaju-Ngaju-Bakumpai, Maanyan, Lawangan, and Bukit ethnicities. Marriages are also
carried out by Ulama, with various ethnicities in Banjarmasin. In the 18th to 19th
centuries, the emergence of Bubuhan Sheikh Muhammad Arsyad Al-Banjary, and
Bubuhan Anak Cucu Teng of Sheikh Abdul Hamid Abulung, and other Bubuhan Datu-
Datu.
Marriages were also carried out by Bubuhan Tutus Raja-Raja of Banjar, with various
ethnicities in Banjarmasin, both Dayak ethnicities, as well as with women from Malay,
Javanese, Bugis, Makassar and Wajo ethnicities. The results of the marriage of Bubuhan
Tutus the Kings of Banjar very quickly contributed to the development of Islam in
Banjarmasin from the 16th to the 19th century.
Islamization channels through Sufism and Tarekat in Banjarmasin through Sunni
Sufism and Philosophical Sufism. The Sunni Sufism channel was pioneered by Khatib
Dayyan in the early 16th century, continued by Khatib Banun from Bakumpai. In the 17th
century, Ulama from Balangan appeared, namely Sheikh Zainal Abidin or Datu Kandang
Haji. Meanwhile, in Rantau it was pioneered by Datu Ujung, and towards the end of the
mid-18th century, the Islamization channel of Sunni Sufism was driven by Sheikh
Muhammad Arsyad Al-Banjary. In the early 19th century onwards, it was continued by
the zuriyat of Sheikh Muhammad Arsyad Al-Banjary.
Philosophical Sufism was probably started in the early 16th century by Sheikh Abdul
Malik of Aceh. In the 17th century, a great scholar of Sufism emerged
Falsafi, namely Sheikh Ahmad Syamsuddin Al-Banjary in Martapura. In the late 17th and
early 18th centuries, the understanding of Sufism was developed by Sheikh Sirajul Huda
or Datu Sanggul, Datu Suban and Datu Nurayya in the Rantau region.
While in the State, it is carried out by Sheikh Muhammad Tahir, or Datu Negara. In
Margasari, Sheikh Yusuf Khair appeared. While in Kelua by Sheikh Muhammad Nafis Al-
Banjary, who is famous for his book Ad-Durun Nafis. In Martapura by Sheikh Abdul
Hamid Abulung. Meanwhile, in the Pelaihari area, Datu Insad, Sheikh Samada and Datu
Mastanian are known. On Datu Island, Batakan is known as Datu Pamouthan, Sheikh
Muhammad Taher, who came from Martapura.
The Sunni and Philsafi Sufism Network was partly developed by the Haramayn
Network Ulama, who came from outside Banjarmasin, and some of the Haramyn Network
Ulama who did study in Mecca and Medina. Meanwhile, the Tarekat network, from the
beginning of the 16th century to the 19th century, developed in Banjarmasin. The institute
includes; The Syattariyah, Naqsabandiyah, Khalwatiyah, Sazaliyyah and Sammaniyah
tarekat were also developed by a network of Ulama from the Sufism group.
In the development of Sufism, the Sultanate of Banjar provides a wide space, for
Ulama who prioritize Islamic Sharia, with Sunni understanding (Ahlus-Sunnah Wal-
Jama), so that Islamic teachings emanate from the crowded mosques that are places of
worship for Muslims. In the Banjar Hikayat, it is stated that Sultan Mustain‟billah built a
mosque in Martapura (Tambangan and Kampung Melayu areas), and participated in
Friday prayers along with his ministers.
The government bureaucracy of the Sultanate of Banjarmasin in its early phase, from
the 16th century to the mid-18th century, has not directly functioned in Islamization.
However, the efforts of Tuan Penghulu, Khatib Dayyan and Khatib Banun to build
various mosques provide evidence of the Sultanate's work in building the Muslim
community. It was only at the end of the 18th century that the government bureaucracy of
the Sultanate of Banjarmasin placed the
"The Sharia Court‟ as a judicial bureaucracy, which actually plays a role in developing
the Islamization network to various corners of Banjarmasin through the roles of Mufti,
Qadhi, Khalifah, Khatib, Penghulu and Bilal. This bureaucracy was established by Sultan
Adam Al-Wasiku Billah in the early 19th century through a constitution known as the
Sultan Adam Law Law. The network of Sharia Courts with its Islamization is held by
Bubuhan Tuan Surgi Sheikh Muhammad Arsyad Al-Banjary.
In the 15th to 16th centuries, the educational network in Banjarmasin was still
personal and community-limited. Developed by traders and Muballigh. The educational
network has been systematic since the 17th century by the Datu Kandang Haji Islamic
boarding school, Sheikh Zainal Abidin with the Balangan recitation system, in Balangan.
In Rantau at the end of the 17th century, the Datu Ujung network in Banua Halat,
developed pesantren for the local hill ethnicity, and for the Islamic community protected
by the village of Garis Halat. In the fence, which is bounded by the Halat-Astambul River
line, Datu Kalampayan, Sheikh Muhammad Arsyad Al-Banjary with his Sorogan system
recitation, which was facilitated by Sultan Nata Alam, succeeded in educating his
Bubuhan Kelurga network to become Tuan Guru in Martapura as well as Banjar sons from
various ethnic groups who most of them also became Taun Guru. Sheikh Muhammad
Arsyad Al-Banjary composed various books to be studied in his pesantren. The books are
like; Sabilal Muhtadien, Kaulul Mukhtasar, Tuhfaturragibien, Kanzul Ma‟rifah and
others became the main books in the recitation at the Islamic Boarding School in Pagar.
This pattern of education continues to be continued by the descendants of Sheikh
Muhammad Arsyad Al-Banjary and his students until now. The art channel was developed
by Bubuhan Tutus, Bubuhan Tuan Guru and Bubuhan Jaba. The art of Wayang Kulit
Banjar, Wayang Orang, Wayang Gong, Ba'da Muluk, Mamanda, Madihin, Balamut,
Barudat, japen, and others, is mostly an influence from Sumatra from the 17th to the 19th
century, except for Wayang Kulit Banjar which does come from Java, especially from
Demak. Baayun Maulud Arts, at Banua Halat Mosque
Rantau as a relic of Datu Ujung. While the tradition in Tambak Anyar, Martapura which is
interspersed with verses"Hwale-Awal Damai Dandam", and verses "Hasan Husein" shows
symptoms of Persian influence. Likewise with the culture of making "Ashura Porridge"
every 10th of Muharram. Various channels of Banjar art, including changes in painting,
calligraphy sculpture in Banjar houses, show the strong influence of Islam. When the
Banjar war broke out in 1859, all Bubuhan Tutus, Tuan Guru and Jaba tried to maintain
the existence of the Sultanate of Banjarmasin, but because of politics unwinded and
impired, such as the emergence of internal intrigues of the palace and the myth of the
separation of Banjar - Dayak, namely between the Islamic Banjar and the Dayak;
Kaharingan, Balian and Christian, resulted in the defeat of the Sultanate of Banjarmasin.
On June 11, 1860 the Sultanate of Banjarmasin was abolished by the Dutch. However, it
appears pretend The Sultanate of Banjarmasin upstream of Barito, namely Prince
Muhammad Seman. This prince did Islamization through jaringan
social Bubuhan,and succeeded in spreading Islam along the stream
upstream of the Barito River, from Buntok to the Muara Teweh area. The rapid
Islamization of the late 19th century upstream Barito, United States addressed
by RMG (RheinischeMissionary Society), collaborate with
government kolonial Netherlands to Christianization in the Kapuas
area. Bubuhan Dayak Islam upstream of Barito must be the opposite with Bubuhan
Dayak Christianity, which is deliberately done
The Netherlands, in the framework of strengthening its colonialism in Banjarmasin.
C. Becoming Banjar: The Results of Islamization of Banjarmasin in the Patronage
and Role of the Banjar Sultanate
The intelligence of the Dayak ethnic group of Banjarmasin in facing the era of
globalization in the 15th century driven by Islamic traders is characterized by the
adoption, diffusion, assimilation, and acculturation of Dayak culture with Islamic culture.
The Biaju-Ngaju-Bakumpai ethnicity takes the role of a dynamist of economic change,
from a subsistence economy to a trade economy, not only river trade, but also maritime
trade. They
affiliated with Bubuhan Tutus Raja-Raja Banjar, and formed a symbiotic relationship in
trade, including facing trade competition with China and the Netherlands.
Dayak ethnicity; Biaju-Ngaju, Maanyan, Lawangan and Bukit who then accepted
Islam, even then intelligently, immediately absorbed the teachings of Islam in the land of
Mecca. They became Tuan Guru and built an Islamic community in his area. The Bubuhan
Tuan Guru network, which was formed at least since the beginning of the 17th century, in
such a way that it intelligently and dynamically built the cells of the Islamization channel
network, and made Islam a new identity.
The river as a means of transportation forms a network of Bubuhan, Interests and
Power for the Dayak community. Malay (Banjar) as the lingua franca language bridges
communication between Dayak and other ethnicities in Banjarmasin. Arabic letters, not
only a tool for communication through writing, but also a tool to increase knowledge
through books, which were written by Banjar scholars, using Arabic letters in Banjar
Malay.
The Biaju-Ngaju, Maanyan, and Lawangan ethnic groups who were Kaharingan then
became Dayak Islam. Meanwhile, the Bukit ethnicity, which previously had Balian
beliefs, then became Dayak Bukit Islam. Some of the state trunk communities and elite
groups of the Dipa and Daha state palaces originating from Java, as well as the remnants
of the Malay-Srivijaya suzerinity in Tanjung Tabalong to Margasari, participated in
changing their beliefs from Hindu-Buddhist to Islam. Until the end of the 19th century, the
Islamization of Banjarmasin succeeded in changing the Banjarmasin community, from the
threshold of Barito to the upstream of Barito. The valleys of the Meratus Mountains, and
in the foothills of the mountains, later became Islamic communities.
The Dayak ethnic group who have accepted Islam, then intelligently adopt, diffuse,
assimilate and acculturation their culture, their lives, with Islamic teachings, produce a
format of privatization of Islam.
They participated in building the Banjarmasin Sultanate, and some of them succeeded in
joining the Tutus network of the Kings of Banjar because of their marital relationship, or
their status as Lelawangan, as well as the Dayak Traditional rulers.
Dayak Islam as a "merchant‟, joined the Malay-Malacca trading community, and was
united by the Sultanate of Banjarmasin. As a result of affiliation and trade partnerships, as
well as a continuous dynamic relationship with the Sultanate of Banjarmasin, the Dayak
identity was fused into the identity of Banjar. Those who bring goods from the interior bring
their goods to Banjar, and those who come to the interior get the name of coming from
Banjar. While the old "madam" traders in Banjar, have received the status
of "have become
Urang Banjar".
