A PHENOMENOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF CAREER DECISION-MAKING
AMONG RURAL BIPOC CES DOCTORAL STUDENTS
CHAPTER 1
Recent years have seen significant changes in higher education in the United States,
especially in Counselor Education and Supervision (CES). While many doctoral programs in
CES are now available at 93 institutions accredited by the Council for Accreditation of
Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP, 2024), the experiences of Black,
Indigenous, People of Color (BIPOC) doctoral students, particularly those in rural areas, have not
been thoroughly investigated. The term BIPOC, which highlights the unique historical and social
challenges faced by Black and Indigenous individuals alongside broader people of color,
underscores the need to focus on these underrepresented groups within academia (Clarke, 2020).
Despite the growing number of these programs, further investigation is warranted to understand
the lived experiences of rural BIPOC students in CES programs, including issues of
representation and support that influence their career decision-making process.
Approximately 43.55% of students currently enrolled in CACREP-accredited doctoral
programs identify as BIPOC (CACREP, 2023), highlighting their significant representation
within the counseling field. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2023), in
the academic year 2021–22, 63% of all doctorates conferred by postsecondary institutions in the
United States were awarded to White students. While these statistics do not specifically address
rural BIPOC students alone, it is reasonable to assume that similar challenges exist within this
specific demographic.
Rural communities in the U.S. present unique challenges to educational attainment,
marked by limited access to higher education institutions and financial barriers (Bright, 2020b).
Despite these challenges, many students attend schools in rural areas, necessitating exploration of
career development in such contexts. This dissertation seeks to address the existing gap by
centering on the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, focusing on their career
decision-making processes and representation within the CES community.
The primary objective of this research is to explore the lived experiences of rural BIPOC
CES doctoral students, emphasizing their career decision-making processes and representation
within the CES community. Although the U.S. Census Bureau does not define rural, it considers
all people, housing, and territories that are not within an urban or metropolitan area rural, also
called urban clusters (US Department of Health & Human Services, 2020). Urban clusters (UCs)
are defined as having at least 2,500 and less than 50,000 people (US Department of Health and
Human Services, 2020). Using this guideline, this research will specifically target geographic
regions with 49,999 people or fewer to be noted hereafter as rural. This study aims to shed light
on a subset of students whose experiences have been overlooked despite the growing diversity in
CACREP-accredited doctoral programs.
Career decisions, integral to enrollment in collegiate programs, are linked to self-efficacy,
reflecting an individual's confidence in navigating diverse situations (Lent et al., 2023). Doctoral
students often view their supervisors as influential figures in these pivotal decisions (Borders et
al., 2020). For BIPOC CES doctoral students, navigating racial and cultural dynamics within
predominantly White academic settings adds an additional layer of complexity to their career
decision-making process (Pulliman et al., 2019). The support and guidance from supervisors can
significantly impact their self-efficacy and career trajectories, highlighting the importance of
culturally competent and responsive supervision. Research shows that therapists’ cultural
competence, especially in cross-cultural interactions, plays a critical role in building trust and
understanding in diverse dyads (Lee et al., 2021). Growth in career self-efficacy over time among
rural BIPOC students further underscores the importance of understanding their perceptions and
experiences in the career decision-making process (Perez-Felkner et al., 2018; Storlie et al.,
2018).
This introduction lays the foundation for a detailed exploration of the obstacles faced by
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, highlighting the significance of understanding their lived
experiences to inform improvements in CES programs. Addressing these unique challenges can
provide valuable insights into how cultural, racial, and geographic factors intersect to shape their
academic and career trajectories. The following sections will present the problem statement,
research questions, and the rationale behind the chosen methodology, guiding the reader through
the structure and purpose of this investigation.
Background of the Study
The exploration of the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students holds
significant relevance within the broader context of CES (Branco & Davis, 2020; Peterson &
Brooks, 2024). As the counseling profession increasingly emphasizes diversity and inclusivity,
understanding the unique challenges faced by BIPOC students pursuing doctoral education in
rural settings becomes paramount. These challenges include but are not limited to limited access
to resources, geographical isolation, and the lack of representation within their academic
environments. Moreover, the underrepresentation of BIPOC individuals within the CES
community not only affects the students themselves but also has broader implications for the
counseling profession (Branco & Davis, 2020). This underrepresentation can perpetuate a lack of
diverse perspectives in educational settings and professional practices, which can negatively
impact the quality of counseling services provided to diverse client populations. (Chun et al.,
2020; Peterson & Brooks, 2024).
Addressing the gaps in representation and support for rural BIPOC CES doctoral students
can lead to more inclusive and culturally responsive counselor education programs. This, in turn,
can enhance the profession's ability to effectively serve diverse client populations by
incorporating a wider range of cultural insights and experiences into counseling practices (Chun
et al., 2020; Peterson & Brooks, 2024). Additionally, providing targeted support and resources to
these students can help in mitigating the unique challenges they face, such as feelings of isolation
and the lack of mentorship opportunities (Um & Bardhoshi, 2022). By fostering a more inclusive
and supportive environment, the CES community can ensure that all students, regardless of their
background, could succeed and contribute meaningfully to the field.
The insights gained from studying the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students
can inform policy changes and the development of best practices within counselor education
programs. These changes could include the implementation of mentorship programs, increased
funding for students from underrepresented backgrounds, and the integration of culturally
responsive teaching methods. Ultimately, by addressing the specific needs of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students, the counseling profession can move towards greater equity and inclusion,
thereby improving the overall effectiveness and reach of counseling services.
Problem Statement
Within the field of CES, BIPOC CES doctoral students face persistent disparities,
including limited representation and insufficient support, which significantly impact their
experiences (Spellman et al., 2022). These disparities in faculty representation and access to
resources create challenges in career decision-making and hinder professional identity
development for BIPOC counselor educators (Ngadjui & Doughty, 2024). Despite increasing
awareness, a substantial gap remains in understanding the specific challenges faced by rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students, particularly regarding mentorship experiences, self-efficacy
dynamics, and career decision-making processes (Peterson & Brooks, 2024). Rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students often encounter unique challenges such as geographic isolation, limited
networking opportunities, and cultural barriers, which further impede their academic and
professional growth (Bright, 2020a). The intersectionality of race, ethnicity, and rurality
exacerbates these challenges, creating complex dynamics that require comprehensive
understanding and targeted interventions.
Examining these challenges is crucial for fostering a more inclusive and equitable
environment within the CES community. Understanding the unique obstacles encountered by
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students in their career journeys can inform targeted interventions and
support initiatives. By addressing the disparities and challenges faced by this population, this
research aims to contribute to the creation of more inclusive and supportive training
environments for rural BIPOC CES doctoral students across the United States.
Research Question
What are the lived experiences of rural BIPOC CES Doctoral students during their career
decision-making process?
Study Rationale
The experiences of BIPOC doctoral students in rural United States within the field of
CES have received limited attention in research. This study aims to delve into their multifaceted
narratives, providing insight into the intricate dynamics of identity within rural settings.
Emphasizing intersectional supervision becomes essential, as it provides valuable support and
promotes social justice for BIPOC students (Pulliman et al., 2019). Rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students face significant challenges, including barriers to accessing higher education and the
prevalence of microaggressions within academic environments. Barriers to access, such as
geographic isolation and limited resources, restrict opportunities for these students to enter and
thrive in doctoral programs (Branco & Davis, 2020). Additionally, the microaggressions that
BIPOC faculty frequently encounter highlight the challenges of working in predominantly White
institutions, where cultural representation remains limited (Spellman et al., 2022). Together, these
challenges underscore the urgent need for enhanced representation and expanded opportunities
for professional growth within rural CES programs.
This section highlights a critical, ongoing gap in the literature regarding the career
decision-making processes of rural BIPOC students enrolled in CES doctoral programs. Recent
studies underscore the need to address the unique barriers faced by rural BIPOC students, such as
limited mentorship opportunities and cultural isolation, which impact their career trajectories and
self-efficacy (Perez-Felkner et al., 2018; Storlie et al., 2018). This study seeks to address these
gaps by investigating how rural BIPOC CES doctoral students actively construct self-efficacy
beliefs and navigate career-related decisions within their distinct cultural contexts. Using Lent et
al., (1994) social cognitive career theory (SCCT) as a framework, this research specifically
examines how contextual factors, such as geographic isolation and racial identity, influence their
self-efficacy and outcome expectations, thereby informing the development of targeted training
and support mechanisms that enhance inclusivity and responsiveness within CES programs.
Significance of the Study
This dissertation uncovers the unique experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral students in
their career decision-making processes and representation within the CES community, utilizing
the lens of SCCT. SCCT provides a valuable framework for understanding how individuals
develop self-efficacy beliefs and make career decisions, but it is crucial to acknowledge that
these processes are influenced by intersecting identities (Lent & Brown, 2019). Intersectionality,
as conceptualized by Greene and Flasch (2019), recognizes the complexity of identity and how
various social categories interact to shape individuals' experiences. Therefore, while SCCT offers
insights into the cognitive aspects of career development, an intersectional approach allows for
exploration of how race, gender, socioeconomic status, and other factors intersect to impact
career decisions and experiences. By integrating SCCT with an intersectional perspective, this
study aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges and triumphs faced
by rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, possibly contributing to more equitable and inclusive
CES practices.
SCCT emphasizes the profound influence of personal and social environments on career
decision-making, highlighting how individuals exercise agency as they navigate this complex
process (Perez & Carney, 2018: Turner & Griffin, 2020). This theoretical framework has proven
particularly relevant in examining the experiences of underrepresented groups, who often face
unique challenges that shape their career trajectories (Lent & Brown, 2019). Recent scholarly
investigations have extended this focus, revealing that BIPOC faculty members frequently
encounter microaggressions within higher education settings, which can impact their professional
development and career satisfaction (Brown & Grothaus, 2019). These findings raise important
questions about whether BIPOC students, particularly those at the doctoral level, experience
similar challenges within academic environments across the United States. Exploring these
dynamics at the student level could provide a deeper understanding of how institutional climates
influence the academic persistence and career aspirations of BIPOC doctoral candidates,
especially those in fields where they remain underrepresented.
These challenges are further exacerbated for rural CES doctoral students, who need more
representation and growth opportunities. Despite significant strides made by the BIPOC
community in higher education, disparities persist, underscoring the importance of understanding
the training experiences of BIPOC doctoral students to address ongoing inequities (Harris et al.,
2019; Perez-Felkner & Schneider, 2018). Understanding these experiences can inform culturally
relevant training methods, as well as recruitment and retention strategies, within counselor
education programs and professional development initiatives, particularly in rural regions where
such support is crucial (Storlie & Toomey, 2020). Hipolito-Delgado et al. (2021) examine the
success factors for graduate students of color, providing valuable insights into effective strategies
that support BIPOC students’ career decision-making processes. Their grounded theory approach
aligns well with enhancing professional development initiatives, making their study particularly
relevant for regions where tailored support is crucial. This highlights the necessity of conducting
research focused on the career decision-making processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students
and understanding the unique challenges and barriers they face. Additionally, gaining insight into
the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students can foster increased representation in
prestigious counseling journals and enhance the availability of professional development
opportunities in these rural areas.
The educational landscape in rural areas presents distinct challenges that limit students’
exposure to and consideration of potential career paths. Rural students often face restricted
access to role models, higher education institutions, and career opportunities, which can
significantly impede their career decision-making processes and aspirations (Bright, 2020).
Without the resources and networking opportunities more accessible to students in urban settings,
rural students may lack the guidance and mentorship crucial for exploring and pursuing diverse
careers. This lack of exposure to varied career pathways often contributes to limited occupational
aspirations, underscoring the need for targeted support and outreach initiatives that expand access
to career resources for rural students.
For BIPOC individuals in rural settings, the challenges of limited educational resources
are compounded by the pervasive impact of microaggressions—both covert and overt—that
affect their daily experiences and sense of belonging. Although microaggressions have been
widely studied in urban contexts, the specific effects on rural BIPOC individuals remain
insufficiently explored (O'Hara & Cook, 2018). This study aims to unravel the complexities of
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students’ lived experiences. By delving into these dimensions, the
research seeks to bridge existing knowledge gaps and contribute to establishing more inclusive,
supportive, and equitable training environments for rural BIPOC CES doctoral students in the
United States.
Identified Gap
The existing literature on career decision-making within the context of rural BIPOC
students enrolled in CES doctoral programs remains limited and calls for a focused exploration.
Lent, Brown, and Hackett's (1994) SCCT, when viewed through a constructivist lens, posits that
career decisions are intricately intertwined with an individual's personal experiences and social
environment, emphasizing the active construction of self-efficacy beliefs amid diverse cultural
contexts (Perez & Carney, 2018; Turner & Griffin, 2020). Spellman et al. (2022) underscore the
unique challenges faced by marginalized students in counselor education and supervision
programs, particularly those from rural backgrounds who may experience compounded barriers
due to both racial and geographical isolation. This study identifies a crucial gap in understanding
the career decision-making processes and development of rural BIPOC doctoral students within
CES programs, an area that has not been thoroughly examined in the existing literature.
Brown and Grothaus (2019) illuminate the challenges encountered by BIPOC faculty
members in higher education, notably in terms of microaggressions, oppression, and tokenism.
However, there is a distinct lack of understanding about whether similar challenges are
encountered by rural BIPOC doctoral students aspiring to pursue higher education in the field of
CES. Spellman et al. (2022) highlight the need for research that specifically addresses the
experiences of marginalized students in counselor education, providing the foundation for this
study. This research seeks to explore this significant gap by examining the lived experiences of
rural BIPOC students currently enrolled in CES doctoral degree programs. Specifically, the study
aims to investigate their decision-making processes, the challenges encountered during these
decisions, and the core values influencing their choices. This knowledge is crucial, as it can
inform the development of targeted interventions and support mechanisms and thereby enhance
training, recruitment, and retention techniques within counselor education programs.
The study aligns with the essential principles highlighted by Spellman et al. (2022)
regarding the importance of fostering growth-promoting relationships within counseling
programs. Understanding the dynamics of privilege and oppression in the daily lives of
individuals, particularly those residing in rural settings, is imperative. By comprehending the
complexities of these experiences, counselor educators and faculty members can create
supportive and validating environments, facilitating positive educational outcomes for rural
BIPOC doctoral students. Examining these aspects through the lens of SCCT, developed by Lent,
Brown, and Hackett (1994), offers insights that could possibly improve the enrollment rates of
rural BIPOC students in CACREP-accredited doctoral programs.
This study also acknowledges the distinctive challenges presented by the educational
landscape in rural areas, such as limited access to role models, higher education institutions, and
career opportunities, along with the pervasive impact of microaggressions on BIPOC individuals
within these settings (Bright, 2020; Harris et al., 2019; Spellman et al., 2022). By employing
Lent, Brown, and Hackett's SCCT, this research seeks to explore how their lived experiences of
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students shaped the career decision-making process. Addressing these
critical knowledge gaps, particularly those identified by Spellman et al. (2022), contributes to
understanding the lived experiences of these students, which is essential for creating inclusive,
supportive, and equitable training environments that can foster their success and representation
within the United States.
Overview of the Methodology
This dissertation employs a phenomenological qualitative research approach to
investigate the lived experiences of rural BIPOC students enrolled in CES doctoral programs
across the United States. Phenomenology, as a methodology, is deeply grounded in understanding
and interpreting individuals' subjective experiences, facilitating an in-depth exploration of their
perceptions and emotions (Creswell & Poth, 2024; Giorgi, 2020). Drawing from Amedeo
Giorgi's phenomenological approach (2020), the primary objective is to unveil the intricate layers
of career decision-making processes, mentorship interactions, and responses to microaggressions
among rural BIPOC CES doctoral students.
Definition of Terms
BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and People of Color): An acronym used to collectively refer
to individuals from racially and ethnically diverse backgrounds who have historically
experienced systemic marginalization and discrimination (Clarke, 2020; Holliday et al., 2020).
Career Decision-Making: The process of identifying, evaluating, and choosing among
career options based on personal interests, values, skills, and external factors. It involves
selfreflection and assessment of various influences, including individual self-efficacy, available
opportunities, cultural and social context, and potential outcomes (Lent et al., 1994; Storlie et al.,
2018). For BIPOC and rural students, career decision-making can be further influenced by
unique challenges such as limited mentorship, geographic isolation, and experiences with
cultural dynamics and microaggressions (Lent et al., 1994; Storlie et al., 2018).
CES Doctoral Programs: Doctoral programs in CES focus on preparing counseling
professionals for advanced roles in academia, research, clinical practice, and leadership within
the field of counseling (CACREP, 2024). These programs extend the knowledge base of the
counseling profession through scholarly inquiry and equip students to assume positions of
leadership and specialization. Doctoral students are trained in five core areas: counseling,
supervision, teaching, research and scholarship, and leadership and advocacy. This
comprehensive preparation is designed to develop professional identities and foster skills
necessary for their future roles as counselor educators and leaders (CACREP, 2024).
Rural: Refers to geographic areas characterized by low population density, limited access
to resources, and distance from urban centers (United States Department of Health and Human
Services, 2020). In this study, rural areas are defined according to the United States. Department
of Health and Human Services (2020) classification, which identifies regions with fewer than
50,000 inhabitants as urban clusters and classifies as rural.
These definitions provide clarity on the key terms used in the study and establish a
common understanding of the concepts relevant to the research population and sample.
Additionally, they serve as a foundation for operationalizing these terms within the context of the
study, ensuring consistency and accuracy in data collection and analysis.
Research Design and Data Collection
A qualitative research design has been chosen to capture the complexity and depth of
human experiences, aligning with the phenomenological approach (Creswell & Poth, 2024;
Giorgi, 2020; Moustakas, 1994). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with purposively
selected participants who self-identify as rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, ensuring a diverse
representation within the sample. Semi-structured interviews allow participants to express their
experiences in their own words, preserving the richness of their narratives (Moustakas, 1994).
These interviews were transcribed verbatim, maintaining the nuances of participants' expressions.
Data Analysis
Data analysis followed a rigorous descriptive phenomenological approach, as outlined by
Giorgi (2020), involving several stages to ensure the depth and authenticity of the findings.
Initially, the transcribed interviews were meticulously reviewed to identify recurring patterns,
themes, and significant statements within the data. Following the approach outlined by Creswell
and Creswell (2022), a descriptive phenomenological analysis was used to emphasize emergent
themes that encapsulated the essence of participants' experiences. This method allowed the
researchers to capture the depth of the lived experiences shared by rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students. Through iterative coding and analysis, the researchers thoroughly explored the layers of
meaning, uncovering the core aspects of career decision-making processes and mentorship
interactions.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical guidelines and principles were paramount throughout the research process,
following the standards set by the ACA Code of Ethics (American Counseling Association,
2014). Informed consent was diligently obtained from all participants, ensuring their voluntary
participation, confidentiality, and anonymity. Participants were reassured of their right to
withdraw from the study at any point without facing repercussions.
Assumptions and Limitations
In any research endeavor, certain assumptions are inherent, guiding the methodology and
interpretation of findings (Creswell & Poth, 2024). Similarly, limitations constrain the scope and
generalizability of the study, necessitating a clear delineation of what is and is not within the
purview of the research (Williams, 2021). This section addresses both the assumptions that
underpin this study and the limitations that shape its boundaries. By acknowledging these factors,
researchers can ensure transparency and rigor in their investigations, ultimately contributing to
the credibility and validity of their findings (Yin, 2018).
Assumptions
This study is grounded in several philosophical and theoretical assumptions that shape its
qualitative methodology. It adopts a constructivist epistemology, recognizing that knowledge is
socially constructed through individual experiences and interactions, and a constructivist
axiology, acknowledging the researcher’s values as integral to the research process (Creswell &
Creswell, 2022; Creswell & Poth, 2024). These assumptions align with the study’s focus on
understanding the subjective realities of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, emphasizing the
importance of exploring diverse cultural perspectives.
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) provides the theoretical framework for this
study, offering a lens to examine how self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goals
interact with personal and environmental factors to shape career development (Lent et al., 2023).
SCCT’s intersectional approach accounts for the influence of race, gender, and socioeconomic
status on career trajectories, making it particularly suited to the experiences of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students. This framework highlights the reciprocal relationship between individual
agency and systemic constraints, providing insights into the challenges and opportunities these
students encounter (Brown & Lent, 2023; Johnson, 2019; Wang et al., 2022).
SCCT’s adaptability is especially relevant in exploring the complex, identity-driven
career development of underrepresented populations. By integrating personal aspirations with
contextual influences, the theory captures the multifaceted nature of career decision-making
processes, particularly in rural and socioeconomically constrained contexts (Perez & Carney,
2018; Kemer et al., 2022). This framework underscores the importance of tailored support and
interventions to address the unique needs of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students.
The language used in this study will be carefully selected to reflect a respectful and
empathetic approach to the participants' lived experiences. Emphasis will be placed on capturing
the complexity of their career development journeys while avoiding deficit-based perspectives or
stereotypes. This approach underscores the importance of honoring their resilience and agency,
ensuring their narratives are authentically represented. By doing so, the study aims to contribute
meaningful insights to the CES field and advocate for more inclusive practices that support
underrepresented populations.
Limitations
One limitation of this study is its reliance on self-reported data, which may introduce
biases or inaccuracies as participants may consciously or unconsciously alter their responses.
The qualitative nature of the research restricts the study’s ability to establish causal inferences or
broad generalizations. Researcher bias is another potential limitation, as the investigators’
perspectives and backgrounds may influence the study design, data collection, or interpretation
of findings (Creswell & Poth, 2024). Although efforts were made to mitigate this bias through
reflexivity and transparency, complete objectivity is challenging to achieve in qualitative
research, leaving some degree of subjectivity.
The relatively small sample size typical of qualitative research may also limit the
representativeness of the findings, as it may not capture the full diversity of experiences within
the rural BIPOC CES doctoral student population. Additionally, limited demographic diversity
within the sample, such as variations in age, gender identity, socioeconomic status, and specific
cultural backgrounds, may restrict the study’s ability to capture the full range of career
decisionmaking factors. Using a single method of data collection, specifically semi-structured
interviews, may restrict the depth of understanding, as triangulating with other data sources, such
as observations or archival data, might have provided additional insights. The cross-sectional
design of the study, capturing data at one point in time, does not account for changes in
participants' experiences or perspectives over time, which could be explored in a longitudinal
study to gain a more comprehensive understanding of career decision-making processes.
Delimitations
This study intentionally focuses on the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students, specifically excluding urban populations, non-BIPOC students, and other demographics
outside this target group. By narrowing the scope to rural BIPOC doctoral students, the research
aims to provide an understanding of their unique challenges, and career decision-making
processes. However, this delimitation may limit the transferability of findings, as it does not
address the experiences of students in urban settings or those from different racial or ethnic
backgrounds, who may encounter distinct challenges and resources in their educational journeys.
This narrow focus limits the study’s applicability to CES students from broader geographic,
racial, or ethnic backgrounds and excludes insights that might be drawn from comparative
analyses across these groups.
The research also excludes faculty, administrators, or other stakeholders within CES
programs, which might provide insights into how institutional dynamics influence doctoral
students’ experiences. Focusing solely on doctoral students' perspectives enables a concentrated
analysis of their personal experiences but does not consider the broader CES environment and
policies that may affect these experiences indirectly. The omission of master’s and undergraduate
students means the study does not capture the full educational pipeline, which could reveal how
career decision-making evolves at different stages within counselor education.
This study examines the lived experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students,
focusing on the full range of factors influencing their career decision-making processes. Rather
than isolating specific aspects, the research considers a holistic view that could include the
expectations of family and friends, socio-economic conditions, and institutional policies. By
embracing these interconnected influences, the study seeks to capture the complexity of
participants’ experiences and the ways these factors collectively shape their career paths. This
broad approach allows for a deeper understanding of how personal, social, and institutional
dynamics intersect to impact the professional trajectories of rural BIPOC CES students,
providing a foundation for insights that could inform more inclusive and supportive educational
environments.
By framing these delimitations, the study maintains a focused lens on the career
decisionmaking processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. This specificity supports a
comprehensive exploration of the research question, though the findings may not apply
universally across other populations or educational contexts. Despite these limitations, the study
aims to contribute valuable insights into the unique experiences of this underrepresented group,
fostering greater understanding of the challenges and supports influencing their career
trajectories.
This study uses a phenomenological approach to explore the lived experiences of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students, focusing on how self-efficacy, mentorship, and professional
identity influence their academic and professional development. Grounded in SCCT, the research
addresses gaps in understanding the unique challenges and opportunities faced by this
population, emphasizing the role of cultural and contextual factors within CES. Through an
exploration of participants’ perspectives, the study highlights the significance of their
experiences and the need for equitable support systems in counselor education.
The following chapters frame this exploration. Chapter 2 introduces SCCT and other
relevant theoretical frameworks, offering a review of literature on self-efficacy, mentorship, and
professional identity in CES. Chapter 3 details the phenomenological methodology, including
participant recruitment, data collection, analysis, and ethical considerations. Chapter 4 presents
the findings, thematically organized to reflect the participants’ challenges, strategies, and
influences on their development. Chapter 5 discusses the findings in relation to existing
literature, providing practical recommendations for CES practices and policies to better support
rural BIPOC doctoral students.
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this literature review is to explore the lived experiences and career
decision-making processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. This chapter examines the
unique challenges and opportunities these students encounter within the context of counselor
education. It focuses on common themes such as mentorship, institutional support, and systemic
barriers that shape their academic and professional journeys. By synthesizing existing research,
this review aims to identify gaps in the current literature and provide a foundation for
understanding the complex factors influencing the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students. This foundational knowledge is essential for contextualizing the phenomenological
exploration of their experiences and for informing practices that support diversity, equity, and
inclusion in counselor education.
Methods of Searching
The researcher conducted a comprehensive review of articles and dissertations
encompassing various aspects of doctoral experiences, with a particular focus on issues pertinent
to minorities. Initially, the literature review aimed to encompass research related to doctoral
students across all fields. Subsequently, attention was directed towards studies specifically
addressing doctoral programs in CES. While studies involving minorities were noted throughout
these phases, a dedicated research phase was undertaken to identify literature specifically
addressing minorities in doctoral programs, particularly within CES doctoral programs.
To identify relevant articles, a combination of searches on the Capella University Library
website was employed, utilizing search tags tailored to the study's research interests. Key
research databases used included Google Scholar, EBSCOhost, Education Research Complete,
and ProQuest Central, which provided access to a broad range of academic literature and studies.
These searches were further supplemented by additional sources such as conference papers,
dissertations, books, and websites that offer demographic data and statistics related to doctoral
completion rates. In addition, articles were sourced from reputable platforms like CACREP, the
Journal of Counseling & Development, the Pew Research Center, SAGE, and PsycINFO. These
sources collectively provided a comprehensive view of existing research, enriching the study's
literature base with diverse perspectives and insights relevant to the experiences of rural BIPOC
CES doctoral students.
The focus of the literature review was on recent research, particularly studies published
since 2018, pertaining to doctoral students and CES programs. Topics of interest included
doctoral attrition, the experiences of BIPOC Americans in doctoral programs, and studies
specific to CES doctoral programs, especially those focusing on rural communities. Keywords
such as “Rural BIPOC Doctoral Students,” “Rural BIPOC,” “Minority Doctoral Completion,”
“Minority Doctoral Persistence,” “Doctoral Student Attrition,” “Career decision-making
process,” “BIPOC Career development,” “BIPOC career decision making,” “Rural Career
development,” “self-efficacy in career development counselor education supervision,”
"Counselor Education and Supervision Experience,” “Rural Doctoral Student Experiences,”
“Diversity in Counselor Education,” “Challenges in CES Programs,” “Doctoral Program
Retention for BIPOC,” “Support Systems for BIPOC Doctoral Students,” “Mentorship in
Doctoral Programs,” “Barriers to Doctoral Completion,” “Social Support in Career
DecisionMaking,” “Doctoral Student Well-being,” “Resilience in Doctoral Education,” “BIPOC
Career
Challenges,” “Doctoral Student Persistence Factors,” “Identity and Career Decision-Making,”
“Multicultural Competence in Counselor Education,” “Rural Higher Education Access,”
“Educational Equity in Doctoral Programs,” “Role of Self-Efficacy in Career Development,” and
“Cross-Cultural Supervision in CES” were utilized to refine the search. In total, the exploration
of literature identified approximately 300 articles in the original search, with an additional 50
articles added during the review process due to their recent publication dates.
Theoretical Framework for the Current Study
This section examines the theoretical foundations that inform the study, focusing
specifically on SCCT within the context of CES. The foundational work of Lent, Brown, and
Hackett (1994) provides a rich framework through SCCT for understanding the intricacies of
career development, particularly when applied to the unique challenges of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students. SCCT sheds light on the distinctive barriers and opportunities these students
encounter as they navigate academic and professional spaces. Expansions by Lent and Brown
(2019) emphasize the dynamic nature of self-efficacy and outcome expectations within diverse
educational contexts, which support an examination of the lived experiences of rural BIPOC CES
students. By anchoring this study in established career theories, a clearer perspective on the
factors influencing the career decisions of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students is achieved. This
approach underscores the importance of considering cultural and educational contexts in career
research.
The SCCT framework includes three interconnected models: interest, choice, and
performance (Lent et al., 1994). These models illustrate the interaction between individual
characteristics, contextual influences, and cognitive processes (Lent & Brown, 2019). The
interest model explores how personal interests are shaped by contextual factors, showing how
socio-cultural environments in rural areas impact career interests for CES students (Wang et al.,
2022). The choice model examines the role of self-efficacy and outcome expectations, shaped by
personal and environmental factors, in guiding career decisions within challenges and
opportunities. This model reflects SCCT’s flexibility in diverse settings (Wang et al., 2022).
SCCT extends beyond academic theory, with the choice model broadening the framework
to incorporate self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goals (Lent et al., 1994; Lent &
Brown, 2019). This expansion is vital for understanding how CES doctoral students navigate
their career paths amid challenges, emphasizing goal-setting processes shaped by cultural
identities, community aspirations, and shared experiences. The performance model, which
focuses on the outcomes of career-related decisions and actions, is also essential for exploring
how rural BIPOC CES doctoral students’ career journeys are influenced by their unique
interactions and responses within the CES community (Harris et al., 2019).
SCCT, which serves as the guiding theory for this study, originates from Bandura's (1977)
social learning theory. This foundational theory highlights observational learning and self-
efficacy as central to human behavior. Lent et al. (1994) expanded Bandura’s ideas to address the
complexities of career development by emphasizing human agency. Bandura’s (2020) later work
on agency reinforces the concept that individuals are active agents in their lives, capable of
setting goals and adapting to challenges. This sense of agency is critical to SCCT, as it explains
how students, including rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, actively shape their career paths
within socio-cultural contexts. Research on socio-cultural influences in career development
supports this framework (Spellman et al., 2022; Turner & Griffin, 2020), as does work on the
barriers and supports in educational settings (Johnson, 2019).
Rooted in the theoretical framework developed by Lent, Brown, and Hackett, SCCT
provides a comprehensive perspective to explore how rural BIPOC CES doctoral students
construct their career trajectories within rural socio-cultural settings (Johnson, 2019; Spellman et
al., 2022). As Wang et al. (2022) explain, SCCT integrates aspects from cognitive and social
psychology, offering a multifaceted understanding of career decision-making. The theory
highlights the reciprocal interactions between individuals and their socio-cognitive environments,
focusing on self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and goal-setting processes (Brown & Lent,
2023; Lent & Brown, 2019; Wang et al., 2022).
Although SCCT remains a valuable framework, it does have limitations that should be
considered. One primary limitation is its reliance on quantitative methodologies, which may not
fully capture the depth and complexity of career decision-making across varied cultural contexts,
particularly in qualitative research settings (Wang et al., 2022). Additionally, SCCT’s emphasis
on self-efficacy and learning experiences, while foundational, can sometimes overlook the
complex interdependencies of socioeconomic factors and institutional barriers that significantly
impact career choices. These limitations suggest that while SCCT provides a solid foundation for
examining career trajectories, integrating complementary qualitative insights could enhance the
richness and applicability of its findings in understanding the career development of rural BIPOC
CES doctoral students.
Despite these limitations, SCCT offers valuable insights into the processes of career
decision-making among rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. It provides a framework for
understanding how these students navigate and shape their educational and professional journeys
within socio-cultural contexts. Related research (Johnson, 2019; Kemer et al., 2022; Spellman et
al., 2022; Turner & Griffin, 2020; Wang et al., 2022) confirms SCCT’s relevance in examining
the interplay of personal agency, socio-cultural influences, and cognitive processes, making it a
critical theoretical foundation for understanding career development in this unique demographic.
Relevance to Proposed Study
The relevance of Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s (1994) SCCT to this study is deeply rooted
in its comprehensive and dynamic approach, offering a nuanced understanding of the
multifaceted career development experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students (Brown &
Lent, 2023). SCCT emphasizes the pivotal role of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and
personal goals in shaping career decision-making, which is central to understanding how rural
BIPOC students navigate the unique challenges they face. The theory’s focus on environmental
influences, such as barriers linked to geographic isolation, limited mentorship, and financial
constraints, provides a robust framework to explore how these external factors impact career
choices. SCCT also highlights the importance of social support and role models, which makes it
especially relevant for examining the role of mentorship and advocacy in shaping the academic
and professional journeys of rural BIPOC students.
The interest model, a core component of SCCT, underscores the reciprocal relationship
between personal interests and contextual factors (Brown & Lent, 2023; Lent & Brown, 2019).
This model will be particularly significant in understanding the context of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students, where the socio-cultural environment of rural communities could possibly
shape their interests and aspirations. The interplay between individual interests and the unique
characteristics of rural settings provides a powerful lens through which to examine how these
communities influence career interests within the BIPOC demographic. By focusing on the
interest model, this study aims to capture how rural contexts shape the career trajectories of
BIPOC students and how these students adapt their aspirations in response to the social,
economic, and educational environments they navigate.
Expanding the theoretical framework, the choice model of SCCT incorporates
selfefficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goals (Brown & Lent, 2023). This expansion is
crucial for unraveling how rural BIPOC CES doctoral students navigate their career trajectories
amidst challenges. The choice model sheds light on the active goal-setting process deeply rooted
in cultural identities, community aspirations, and collective experiences. Understanding the
interplay of self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goals becomes essential in
comprehending how individuals within this demographic make decisions about their academic
and professional paths, particularly within the unique socio-cultural contexts of rural
communities.
The performance model of SCCT adopts a pragmatic approach, focusing on the outcomes
of career-related actions and decisions (Brown & Lent, 2023). This model is instrumental in
comprehending how the career paths of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students are influenced by
their lived experiences, and interactions within the CES community. It allows the researcher to
scrutinize the tangible results of the decisions made by individuals in this demographic, offering
valuable insights into the consequences of their actions on overall career development outcomes.
Lent, Brown, and Hackett’s SCCT, with its interest, choice, and performance models, offers a
holistic framework that aligns with the goals of the proposed study (Brown & Lent, 2023; Lent &
Brown, 2019). By emphasizing the reciprocal relationship between personal interests and
contextual factors, incorporating self-efficacy beliefs and goals, and addressing the outcomes of
career-related actions, SCCT provides a comprehensive foundation for exploring the unique
career development experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students within the intricate socio-
cultural contexts of rural communities.
Review of the Literature
Bright (2020) and Davidson et al. (2020) highlight the critical need for further exploration
into the career development experiences of students in rural areas, particularly those attending
institutions in these regions. Bright (2020) emphasizes that many rural communities lack
proximity to higher education institutions, creating significant challenges related to exposure to
educational resources and adding financial constraints for individuals pursuing a college
education. The lack of access to higher education in rural areas profoundly affects the
educational trajectories of these students, often limiting their exposure to career development
opportunities, professional networks, and mentorship that urban students may take for granted.
As these rural students often attend institutions situated far from urban centers, they experience a
sense of disconnection from broader academic communities and professional networks, which
can influence their academic engagement and career decision-making.
The demographic landscape in counseling education mirrors these disparities, as
highlighted by the most recent CACREP report from 2023, which indicates that over 59% of
CACREP full-time faculty in higher education institutions identify as White (CACREP, 2023).
This lack of faculty diversity, combined with limited racial/ethnic demographic data, could
present a further challenge for students of color, especially those in rural communities where
BIPOC faculty members are even less represented. The 2023 CACREP Vital Statistics Survey,
which derived data from over 3,700 CACREP-accredited programs, underscores the persistent
racial and ethnic disparities within the field, profoundly affecting the experiences of students
from historically underrepresented backgrounds. Several studies reveal that the lack of diversity
within university faculties accredited by CACREP contributes to higher attrition rates among
BIPOC students (Ju et al. 2020, Kumar et al., 2023; 2020; Spellman et al., 2022), suggesting that
these disparities may lead to feelings of isolation and inadequate support, ultimately affecting
their academic success and professional aspirations.
This gap in faculty diversity, coupled with the isolation experienced by rural students,
highlights the need for targeted mentorship programs within CES doctoral programs. While there
has been some acknowledgment of these barriers in rural education, research still lacks sufficient
examination of how geographic isolation specifically affects BIPOC students in these settings.
The shortage of culturally responsive mentors and role models in rural communities significantly
hampers these students’ career development. Scholars have argued that a lack of representation in
faculty and mentorship roles exacerbates feelings of alienation and decreases students’ sense of
belonging, making it harder for them to access the professional guidance that is crucial for their
success (Borders et al., 2020). Addressing these gaps through diversity-focused recruitment
efforts and creating mentorship frameworks that account for the unique challenges of rural
BIPOC students is critical for fostering an inclusive academic environment where these students
can thrive.
Diversity and Challenges Among Colleges and Universities
The increasing diversity within the U.S. population, projected to continue through 2060,
signals an urgent need for CES programs to emphasize diversity and inclusion (Singh et al.,
2020a). This demographic evolution necessitates that higher education institutions actively
respond to the specific needs of underrepresented groups, including BIPOC students, by fostering
supportive and inclusive academic environments (Borders et al., 2020). Within CES doctoral
programs, the lack of representation among BIPOC students impacts critical aspects of their
academic and professional journeys, such as access to mentorship, availability of role models,
and the overall sense of belonging within their programs (Pérez & Carney, 2018). Addressing
these gaps remains essential for supporting the development and retention of BIPOC individuals
in CES.
The structural challenges within CES programs reflect broader issues in higher education,
where White students often represent the majority in research samples, potentially leading to
biased findings that fail to account for the unique experiences of BIPOC students
(HipolitoDelgado et al., 2021). This overrepresentation may limit the generalizability of
conclusions regarding career decision-making processes within CES. CACREP's 2024 report
highlights disparities, with White students comprising over 51% of doctoral enrollment,
exacerbating feelings of isolation and contributing to higher attrition rates among BIPOC
students (CACREP, 2024). These statistics underscore the need for faculty diversity, as the
absence of BIPOC representation among both students and faculty members limits mentorship
opportunities and the establishment of supportive networks (Schuermann et al., 2018).
Singh et al. (2020b) emphasizes the importance of multicultural competence among
faculty in creating an inclusive academic climate. Faculty awareness of identity development
issues is crucial to effectively mentoring BIPOC students (Singh et al., 2020a). Additionally,
Hipolito-Delgado et al. (2021) found that culturally competent supervision enhances students’
sense of community and belonging, a significant factor for BIPOC individuals who may
otherwise feel marginalized within predominantly White institutions. Hays (2020) also
underscores that effective multicultural supervision practices are pivotal for fostering an
environment where BIPOC students can thrive and feel supported in their academic and
professional journeys. Without such supports, BIPOC students may face challenges that impede
their academic and career aspirations, particularly within CES, where the field's lack of diversity
remains a pressing issue (Pérez & Carney, 2018).
Efforts to enhance recruitment, retention, and completion rates for BIPOC students in
CES programs must be informed by a commitment to diversity, as reiterated by various scholars
in the field (Borders et al., 2020; Pérez & Carney, 2018). Cartwright et al. (2018) identified that
BIPOC professionals often experience concerns about perceived professionalism in interview
settings, where appearing "too ethnic" may hinder their employment prospects. This finding
highlights the additional challenges BIPOC individuals face in CES, including discrimination
that can contribute to increased burnout and decreased wellness, as noted by Basma et al. (2021).
Addressing these barriers through targeted support and policy interventions remains essential to
the well-being and success of BIPOC students in CES doctoral programs.
Intersectionality in Career Decision-Making
Collins' (2000) foundational work on intersectionality provides a critical framework for
understanding how overlapping identities and systems of oppression shape experiences. This
framework can be applied to explore the intricate identities and career decision-making processes
of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. This concept emphasizes that individuals hold multiple,
intersecting identities, such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, and educational background,
that significantly shape their experiences within academic settings. For BIPOC students, the
interplay of these identities can exacerbate systemic challenges and biases within higher
education, leading to feelings of marginalization and affecting their academic engagement
(Spellman et al., 2022). O’Hara and Cook (2018) and Perez and Carney (2018) highlight that
BIPOC students often experience microaggressions from peers and faculty, which can negatively
impact their confidence and sense of belonging in counselor education programs. These
dynamics highlight the necessity for educators to recognize the multifaceted identities of their
students to foster a more inclusive and supportive learning environment.
Intersectionality underscores the importance of mentorship and role models in shaping the
career trajectories of BIPOC students. According to Brown and Grothaus (2019), positive
mentoring relationships can provide essential support, helping students navigate their academic
paths and build professional networks. The influence of mentors is particularly crucial for
BIPOC doctoral students, who may face unique barriers due to their intersecting identities
(Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021). By understanding how various aspects of identity interact to
affect career decisions, counselor educators can implement targeted mentorship programs that
address the specific needs of BIPOC students, ultimately enhancing their academic success and
professional aspirations.
The implications of intersectionality extend to the institutional level as well, prompting
educational programs to critically evaluate their policies and practices. Institutions must
prioritize diversity and inclusion efforts to create environments where all students feel valued and
supported (Singh et al., 2020a). This may involve revising recruitment strategies to attract a
diverse faculty that can relate to the experiences of BIPOC students or implementing training
programs focused on cultural competency for faculty and staff (Hays, 2020). By recognizing and
addressing the unique challenges faced by rural BIPOC CES doctoral students through an
intersectional lens, counselor education programs can better equip these individuals to navigate
their educational journeys and achieve their career goals.
Impacts of Technology and Online Learning
The integration of technology and online learning into higher education has significantly
transformed the educational landscape, particularly for CES doctoral students (Davidson, 2021;
Robertson & Lowell, 2021). This shift offers unique opportunities for rural students, who often
face geographical barriers to accessing traditional in-person education (Bender & Werries, 2021).
Online learning platforms enhance flexibility, allowing students to engage with coursework at
their convenience and potentially reducing commuting costs and time (Davidson, 2021).
However, this transition also presents challenges, particularly regarding the effectiveness of
online programs in providing the necessary mentorship and support essential for student success
(Robertson & Lowell, 2021). Bender and Werries (2021) note that the lack of face-toface
interactions may limit the development of meaningful relationships between students and faculty,
which are crucial for fostering academic engagement and motivation.
Beginning supervisors frequently encounter ethical challenges that can impede effective
supervision, challenges that may be exacerbated in online learning environments (Blalock,
Ybanez-Llorente, & Morman, 2021). The absence of direct, face-to-face interactions in online
supervision limits the immediacy and quality of feedback, making it difficult to address ethical
complexities in supervision. For BIPOC students, who may already face systemic barriers, these
challenges can heighten feelings of isolation and limit access to essential guidance. Developing
online mentorship frameworks to account for these ethical challenges is critical to ensuring that
BIPOC students receive the support needed to succeed in virtual learning environments (Singh et
al., 2020b).
This approach is particularly valuable for understanding the unique needs of BIPOC
students in online counselor education programs, where feelings of isolation and a lack of
representation among faculty and peers can impact engagement and retention. By employing a
mixed methods approach that incorporates qualitative insights, counselor education programs can
more effectively address the challenges faced by marginalized students, including the need for
culturally responsive support systems and mentorship frameworks. This approach allows for a
deeper understanding of student experiences, facilitating more targeted interventions that can
enhance retention and support among BIPOC students in online environments.
The reliance on technology in counselor education can create disparities in the learning
experiences of BIPOC students, particularly for those who may encounter feelings of isolation in
online environments, exacerbated by a lack of representation among faculty and peers (Natal et
al., 2021; Spellman et al., 2022). The absence of a supportive online learning community can
contribute to higher attrition rates, particularly among marginalized groups (Spellman et al.,
2022). Bender and Werries (2021) emphasize that creating a collaborative online environment
that promotes engagement is essential for reducing feelings of disconnection and ensuring that
BIPOC students receive the guidance they need to navigate their educational journeys
successfully.
To address these challenges, counselor education programs could adopt strategies that
leverage technology to create inclusive and supportive learning environments. This includes
developing robust mentorship frameworks that extend beyond the virtual classroom, allowing
BIPOC students to cultivate professional networks and access resources that can enhance their
career decision-making processes (Singh et al., 2020b; Ngadjui & Doughty, 2024). By
implementing culturally responsive practices and fostering collaborative learning experiences,
educational institutions can help ensure that the benefits of online learning are equitably
distributed, thereby supporting the success of all students, particularly those from
underrepresented backgrounds (Hays, 2020).
As technology becomes increasingly central to education, it is crucial to consider how
these tools can be leveraged to promote equity and inclusivity for students who may face
geographical, cultural, and institutional barriers. This includes not only ensuring access to digital
resources but also providing culturally relevant mentorship and creating virtual communities that
foster a sense of belonging (Singh et al., 2020b). By adopting practices that address the
challenges faced by rural BIPOC students, counselor education programs can help level the
playing field, allowing these students to thrive academically and professionally, despite the
systemic barriers they may encounter. Culturally inclusive practices in online learning
environments can significantly enhance the educational experience for rural BIPOC students,
offering them the support and resources they need to succeed in their academic and career
aspirations.
Rural Areas
A foundational step in understanding the experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral students in
rural settings is establishing a practical definition of “rural.” Definitions vary widely, often based
on administrative criteria such as counties, zip codes, and census tracts, which are commonly
used in studies and governmental reports (Long et al., 2021). However, these administrative
definitions may not fully capture the lived realities of rural life, as they fail to account for
environmental and cultural elements that define these communities. More descriptive portrayals,
focusing on landscapes, natural surroundings, and patterns of social interaction, provide a richer
understanding of rural areas (Flora, 2018; Yang & Loopman, 2023). For instance, rural areas are
frequently characterized by limited access to healthcare, education, and other essential services,
as well as distinctive cultural practices shaped by geographical isolation.
In addition to these cultural and geographic influences, rural students encounter
significant challenges in accessing and succeeding in postsecondary education. Logistical,
financial, and informational barriers disproportionately affect rural students, limiting their
opportunities for academic and career advancement (Um & Bardhoshi, 2022). These barriers are
often compounded for rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, who must navigate additional cultural
and economic factors specific to their communities. Understanding these access issues is
essential to grasping the full range of obstacles rural students face as they pursue advanced
education and careers.
The unique characteristics of rural life, such as limited access to essential services and
strong cultural ties shaped by geographical isolation, profoundly influence the aspirations and
values of rural students (Perez-Felkner et al., 2018). These factors often lead rural students to
develop career goals that align with the needs of their communities, while also presenting
challenges that may limit their educational and career opportunities (Perez-Felkner et al., 2018).
For rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, navigating these influences involves balancing personal
and cultural values with the demands of higher education. Understanding how rural contexts
shape aspirations is essential for addressing the distinct barriers these students face in career
decision-making. This perspective provides a foundation for exploring the intersection of rural
identity and professional aspirations in the present study.
The absence of a consistent and universally accepted definition of “rural” from the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services (2020) further complicates matters, as researchers
must decide on the most suitable criteria for their specific studies. This inconsistency often leads
to challenges in comparing findings across studies, as the criteria for what constitutes “rural” can
vary widely. For this study, “rural” refers to geographic areas, tracts, or blocks with populations
of 49,999 or fewer residents, aligning with the demographic and geographic characteristics
commonly associated with rural America. This definition was selected to ensure that the study
focuses on areas where populations are sparse, infrastructure may be limited, and community
resources are often stretched thin.
Establishing a clear and consistent definition of “rural” is essential, as it provides a
framework within which to examine the distinctive challenges encountered by rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students. These students often face unique educational, social, and financial barriers that
differ significantly from those of their urban counterparts. A precise definition allows for a more
focused examination of the systemic obstacles and cultural dynamics that are prevalent in rural
settings, including issues related to accessibility, social networks, and resource availability. Every
component of this analysis hinges on a shared understanding of these limitations, which are
crucial in understanding the lived experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral students in rural
communities. This framework not only supports the current research objectives but also
contributes to a broader understanding of rural life in America, emphasizing the need for policies
and interventions tailored to the realities of rural communities.
Limited Resources
BIPOC doctoral students in rural areas face unique challenges related to limited
resources, which are often less prominent in urban or metropolitan settings. One significant
limitation is the lack of access to professional development opportunities, which are essential for
career growth and academic success (Borders et al., 2020; Pulliman et al., 2019). These students
frequently encounter fewer chances to participate in workshops, conferences, and networking
events that are more accessible to their urban counterparts. This limited access can stifle their
ability to develop professionally, gain exposure to new ideas, and connect with influential figures
in the CES field, further isolating them from the broader academic community (Borders et al.,
2020; Bright, 2020a; Long et al., 2021).
Another critical issue is the scarcity of role models who share similar cultural
backgrounds and professional aspirations with rural BIPOC students. In many rural areas, there
are few professionals of color within academia or counseling, creating a gap in representation
that leaves students without mentors who understand their unique experiences (Pérez & Carney,
2018; Schuermann et al., 2018). This lack of cultural representation in mentorship roles may lead
to feelings of isolation and limit the support available to navigate the academic and professional
challenges specific to BIPOC individuals (Borders et al., 2020). Without these connections,
students may feel disconnected from the broader professional community, which can impact their
motivation and sense of belonging (Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021).
Access to qualified counseling supervisors is also notably constrained for rural BIPOC
doctoral students. Due to geographic limitations, students may not have regular or in-person
access to supervisors who can provide essential guidance and feedback (Robertson & Lowell,
2021; Branco & Jones, 2021). In some cases, rural programs may need to rely on distance
supervision, which can present challenges in building strong supervisory relationships and may
impact the quality of mentorship students receive (Borders et al., 2020). This restriction in
supervision resources can hinder students' skill development and limit their preparedness for
future roles in CES (Um & Bardhoshi, 2022; Um & Nam, 2024).
Finally, these limitations collectively underscore the disparities in resources between rural
BIPOC doctoral students and those in urban areas. The lack of professional development, limited
access to mentors, and constrained supervision opportunities make it difficult for rural students to
fully engage in the educational process and maximize their learning experiences (Harris et al.,
2019). Addressing these resource gaps is crucial to creating equitable conditions for BIPOC
students in rural settings, enabling them to thrive academically and professionally. Without
interventions to increase resource access, rural BIPOC students may continue to face significant
barriers that impact their educational and career outcomes (Drinane et al., 2021).
Social Support
Social support from family, peers, and community networks plays a crucial role in
enhancing resilience among BIPOC doctoral students in CES programs. This support helps
mitigate feelings of isolation, provides emotional stability, and reinforces students' commitment
to their career goals. Research on SCCT highlights the importance of interpersonal relationships
in shaping self-efficacy and career expectations, particularly for students from marginalized
backgrounds (Lent et al., 2000; Borders et al., 2020). Hipolito-Delgado et al. (2021) and Perez
and Carney (2018) highlight how limited representation and resource constraints can create
unique challenges for BIPOC students in academic programs, which may also be relevant to
those in CES contexts.
Family support serves as a foundational pillar for many BIPOC students, offering both
emotional encouragement and practical assistance that enable persistence in the face of adversity
(Borders et al., 2020). The emotional stability provided by family members helps students
manage academic stress, while the belief in their potential reinforces resilience against self-doubt
and uncertainty (Borders et al., 2020; Perez & Carney, 2018). This support often includes
financial assistance, which alleviates some of the economic pressures associated with pursuing
higher education. For students from underrepresented backgrounds, this type of practical aid is
particularly valuable, as it addresses financial barriers that might otherwise hinder their academic
progression (Borders et al., 2020; Harris et al., 2019). Family encouragement and support
therefore play an essential role in enabling BIPOC students to navigate the challenges of their
CES programs (Borders et al., 2020; Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021).
Peer relationships within CES programs further contribute to the persistence and
resilience of BIPOC students, providing a sense of belonging and mutual support that counters
feelings of isolation. Studies indicate that peers offer empathy, shared understanding, and
academic guidance, which help students navigate program requirements and access resources
that may not be readily available to them (Borders et al., 2020; Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021).
This sense of community fosters a stronger commitment to career goals, as students feel
reassured that they are not alone in facing these challenges (Borders et al., 2020). Such peer
support is particularly important in predominantly White academic settings, where BIPOC
students may otherwise feel marginalized or disconnected (Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021).
Borders et al. (2020) and Perez and Carney (2018) emphasize the importance of peer
relationships in supporting academic persistence and emotional well-being among students.
While their findings are not specific to BIPOC students in CES, these insights can inform
understanding of similar challenges in such contexts.
In some rural settings, extended community networks provide additional support, offering
mentorship and role models that are often lacking within academic institutions. Community
leaders and local mentors can provide culturally relevant guidance that resonates with the unique
experiences of BIPOC students (Harris et al., 2019; Perez & Carney, 2018). This type of support
is particularly significant for students in rural areas, where access to formal mentorship in
academia may be limited due to geographic isolation (Perez & Carney, 2018). By fostering a
sense of connection to their communities, local mentors help students view their educational and
career paths as opportunities to give back, which can reinforce their commitment to succeed
(Borders et al., 2020; Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021). Such community support not only addresses
practical challenges but also helps students build a sense of purpose within their professional
journeys (Borders et al., 2020; Perez & Carney, 2018).
Borders et al. (2020) and Perez and Carney (2018) highlight the critical role of social
support systems, including family, peer, and community networks, in fostering resilience and
career commitment among students. These findings provide valuable insights into addressing
challenges such as limited resources, geographic isolation, and underrepresentation within CES
programs. Without these support networks, students may struggle to navigate the unique
pressures associated with their academic journeys, potentially impacting their educational and
career outcomes (Harris et al., 2019; Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021). By grounding themselves in
these supportive relationships, BIPOC students are better positioned to persist and succeed in
their CES programs, despite the significant obstacles they encounter (Borders et al., 2020; Perez
& Carney, 2018).
Challenges and Support for Rural BIPOC CES Students
The literature highlights persistent challenges related to accessing higher education for
individuals in rural areas, particularly those pursuing careers in CES. A significant barrier is the
limited number of higher education institutions in these regions, which restricts opportunities for
rural residents to pursue advanced degrees (Pérez & Carney, 2018; Turner & Griffin, 2020).
Rural communities often lack proximity to universities and colleges offering CES doctoral
programs, making it challenging for students to find programs that align with their academic and
career goals (Davidson et al., 2020). This lack of nearby institutions can be especially
burdensome for BIPOC students, who may already face systemic obstacles in accessing higher
education (Borders et al., 2020).
For many potential doctoral students, the option of relocating to attend a CES program is
not financially feasible. The costs associated with moving, housing, and other living expenses
can place a considerable strain on students, particularly those from low-income backgrounds
(Bright, 2020; Long et al., 2021). Financial barriers are compounded for BIPOC students, who
may face additional economic disparities and limited access to financial support, which can
discourage rural students from pursuing advanced education and lead to a lack of representation
from these communities in CES programs (Pulliman et al., 2019; Spellman et al., 2022). These
financial constraints further perpetuate educational inequities within rural communities.
In response to these geographic and financial challenges, some rural students turn to
online doctoral programs as an alternative to traditional, face-to-face education (ERIC, 2023;
National Science Foundation, 2023). However, the completion rates in online programs are
notably lower than those in conventional programs, with rates fluctuating between 40% and
50%, which suggests potential limitations in meeting the needs of rural students (ERIC, 2023;
Robertson & Lowell, 2021). Factors such as limited interaction with faculty, lack of peer support,
and potential challenges with distance learning technology may contribute to these lower
completion rates (Robertson & Lowell, 2021).
Mentorship and guidance are critical factors that can help rural BIPOC students overcome
these access challenges. Establishing mentorship programs that target rural areas can provide
students with the support and encouragement needed to navigate the higher education landscape
(Borders et al., 2020; Pérez & Carney, 2018). Effective mentorship can help bridge the gap in
access to resources, offer guidance on academic and career decisions, and foster a sense of
community (Schuermann et al., 2018). By implementing targeted support programs, educational
institutions can create pathways for rural students to pursue CES degrees and contribute to the
diversification of the counselor education field (Bright, 2020; Branco & Jones, 2021).
Personal Obstacles
Personal hurdles for rural BIPOC doctoral students often reflect challenges faced by
individuals from marginalized backgrounds, including poverty, psychological stressors, and
educational barriers. In rural communities, these challenges are amplified due to geographic and
economic isolation, which limits access to essential resources and opportunities for advancement
(Merrell-James et al., 2019; Turner & Griffin, 2020). Research suggests that rural BIPOC
students are more likely to experience poverty-related educational stressors than their urban
counterparts, as they face environments with fewer educational supports and limited
infrastructure (Perez & Carney, 2018). These poverty-related challenges contribute to an
educational landscape where pathways to academic success are restricted, creating additional
barriers that urban students may not encounter.
Persistent poverty, which is often linked to physical isolation, impacts rural BIPOC
students through limited access to educational and career resources, restricted economic
opportunities, and a reduced availability of social and human capital (Merrell-James et al., 2019;
Turner & Griffin, 2020). The scarcity of resources in these communities’ places considerable
psychological stress on students who must navigate academic challenges without adequate
support systems. The absence of vital resources not only affects academic achievements but also
intensifies the emotional toll associated with pursuing higher education under these conditions
(Merrell-James et al., 2019).
Growing up in underprivileged environments with underfunded schools and limited
parental access to educational resources often perpetuates cycles of poverty, increasing the
likelihood of individuals remaining in poverty as adults (Merrell-James et al., 2019). For rural
BIPOC students, these barriers shape their educational and career paths, creating a reality where
the pursuit of higher education is significantly more difficult than it is for more privileged peers
(Turner & Griffin, 2020). The lack of parental resources and support further compounds these
difficulties, as students may lack the guidance needed to navigate academic and career decisions
effectively. This ongoing struggle underscores the impact of systemic inequality on rural BIPOC
communities and the additional challenges they face in breaking out of generational poverty.
Regrettably, generational poverty remains a harsh reality in many predominantly rural
BIPOC areas, reinforcing the social and economic obstacles that hinder upward mobility
(Merrell-James et al., 2019; Perez & Carney, 2018). The combined effects of limited resources,
economic hardship, and social isolation create conditions where educational and professional
progress becomes exceedingly difficult (Turner & Griffin, 2020). For rural BIPOC doctoral
students, these personal obstacles are not only a continuation of systemic inequities but also a
significant challenge to their career and academic aspirations. Addressing these barriers requires
a targeted approach that recognizes the unique needs of rural BIPOC communities and actively
works to provide the resources necessary for academic and professional success (National
Science Foundation, 2023).
Barriers to Success
Borders et al. (2020) identify numerous barriers that rural BIPOC CES doctoral students
face, which impact their academic journey and career decision-making processes. Limited access
to higher education institutions, competing family responsibilities, and challenges in maintaining
motivation all contribute to these obstacles. Bright (2020) emphasizes that job scarcity in rural
areas, along with the responsibility many students have toward household support, often
intensifies these barriers, particularly for those balancing familial obligations with academic
demands. Perez and Carney (2018) echo these findings, highlighting the unique pressures that
rural students encounter, which frequently lead to deprioritizing coursework and research in
favor of immediate family needs.
Feelings of imposter syndrome, low self-confidence, and limited prior research exposure
are further exacerbated by a lack of consistent mentorship within CES programs (Borders et al.,
2020). Glover et al. (2020) explain that BIPOC students often experience more negative than
positive feedback from faculty, contributing to a sense of discouragement and reduced
motivation. The absence of faculty who share similar racial or cultural backgrounds can create an
environment where students feel isolated or unsupported in their academic pursuits (Schuermann
et al., 2018). Additionally, the scarcity of job opportunities in rural settings places greater
pressure on students to excel academically, as their career paths may be more constrained than
those in urban areas with wider professional networks (Bright, 2020).
Barriers related to mentorship and access to supportive supervision pose significant
challenges to underrepresented minority students pursuing careers in CES. Blalock et al. (2021)
discuss ethical roadblocks within supervision that complicate licensure and professional
advancement for BIPOC students. Schuermann et al. (2018) further note that gatekeeping
practices in CES programs can act as obstacles, particularly when faculty decisions on student
readiness are influenced by biases or subjective criteria. Without addressing these ethical and
structural barriers, CES programs risk perpetuating inequities in completion and licensure rates,
which are essential for the career advancement and retention of BIPOC students in the
counseling field (Borders et al., 2020; Perez & Carney, 2018; Glover et al., 2020).
Role of Mentorship
Mentorship plays a crucial role in supporting underrepresented minority students as they
navigate the complexities of academia and pursue research careers. Lent et al. (2023) highlights
that mentorship offers a collaborative and supportive environment, allowing students to receive
personalized guidance that aligns with their unique academic and career goals. For BIPOC
students, who often encounter unique challenges in higher education, mentorship provides
essential resources such as advice, networking opportunities, and emotional support (Pérez &
Carney, 2018). Access to these resources can be transformative, offering BIPOC students the
tools to overcome academic and professional barriers more effectively. Baltrinic et al. (2020)
further emphasize the diversity of mentorship styles in counselor education, which allows
mentors to adapt their approaches to meet students’ individual needs. This flexibility in
mentorship style is essential in fostering a supportive environment that respects students' unique
backgrounds and aspirations. However, Blalock et al. (2021) note that beginning supervisors
often face ethical challenges that can hinder effective mentorship, particularly when these ethical
roadblocks remain unaddressed. Addressing these ethical complexities is essential to creating
mentorship practices that adequately support the development and licensure of BIPOC students
in CES programs.
Beyond providing academic and career guidance, mentors serve as role models, offering
insights into the research process and various career pathways, which can inspire and motivate
students to achieve their academic and professional aspirations (Ngadjui & Doughty, 2024). This
modeling is particularly impactful for students who may lack representation in their chosen
fields, as mentors can embody the successes that students hope to attain. Additionally,
mentorship initiatives are essential for promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion within
academia, as they empower underrepresented students to succeed in environments that may not
always be fully supportive (Martinez et al., 2023). These initiatives contribute to a more inclusive
academic culture, which is essential for the long-term success and retention of minority students
in higher education.
This research addressed the voices and perspectives that are often marginalized in
traditional academic settings, highlighting the importance of inclusive curriculum design.
Through qualitative analysis of student feedback, the study identified key themes, such as the
necessity for increased representation of BIPOC scholars and viewpoints in the curriculum, and
the significance of cultural humility and awareness among faculty. The findings also revealed a
strong desire among students for more inclusive and pedagogically diverse approaches that
recognize and value cultural differences. These results underscore the need to incorporate diverse
perspectives into psychology education to foster a more equitable and supportive learning
environment for BIPOC students (Martinez et al., 2023).
Identity Development
Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) emphasize that the development of professional identity is a
critical aspect for emerging counselors. This is especially true for BIPOC individuals, who often
navigate unique challenges and complexities within their graduate programs. Borders et al.
(2020) emphasize that professional identity formation is a multi-dimensional process, influenced
by interactions with faculty, supervisors, and peers. Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) highlight the
significant role that counselor educators play in shaping this identity, stressing the necessity of
mentorship as a guiding force in helping students navigate academic and career paths. Effective
mentorship supports the development of essential counseling skills while also fostering resilience
in students facing challenges associated with their cultural identities (Borders et al., 2020; Glover
et al., 2020). Such mentorship is vital for helping BIPOC students understand their place in the
counseling profession and develop confidence in their abilities to serve diverse populations
(Branco & Jones, 2021).
The formation of professional identity is further complicated by supervisory dynamics
that may include microaggressions, adversely impacting the supervisory alliance. According to
O’Hara and Cook (2018), there is a strong correlation between experiences of microaggressions
and poor supervisory relationships, which underscores the need for supportive and culturally
responsive supervisory practices. Such practices are particularly significant for rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students, as negative supervisory interactions can hinder their career decision-making
processes and overall professional growth (Borders et al., 2020; Wilcox et al., 2022). Harris et al.
(2019) also suggests that microaggressions within supervisory relationships can lead to feelings
of isolation and self-doubt, reinforcing the importance of addressing these challenges to promote
healthy identity development and professional confidence.
Borders et al. (2020) and Perez and Carney (2018) emphasize the structural and systemic
challenges faced by marginalized students in counselor education, particularly in navigating
supervision and academic advancement. These challenges include limited access to mentorship,
systemic inequities within CES programs, and a lack of faculty representation that reflects the
diversity of the student body. Integrating anti-oppression principles, as outlined by Shaikh et al.
(2024), directly addresses these barriers by fostering equitable practices within CES programs.
Combining the insights from these works highlights the necessity of embedding cultural
competence and anti-oppression frameworks into CES training, mentorship, and supervisory
practices to support the success of marginalized students and faculty
This alignment is particularly relevant for understanding how rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students navigate their career paths within these frameworks. The unique challenges they face,
influenced by geographic and cultural contexts, require educational and mentorship experiences
grounded in cultural awareness and competence. A holistic approach to identity development not
only supports their professional aspirations but also enhances the counseling profession's
effectiveness in serving diverse populations (Bright, 2020; Drinane et al., 2021; Um &
Bardhoshi, 2022).
Multicultural Orientation Framework (MCO)
In response to the ongoing challenges in achieving multicultural competency within
counseling practices, the Multicultural Orientation (MCO) framework was introduced by Davis
et al. (2018). This framework emphasizes the importance of cultural humility, cultural
opportunities, and cultural comfort as essential components in therapeutic settings. Cultural
humility involves recognizing one's limitations regarding cultural knowledge and being open to
learning from clients about their cultural experiences. Engaging in cultural opportunities refers to
actively seeking moments during therapy to incorporate cultural discussions, which can lead to a
richer therapeutic process. Additionally, cultural comfort reflects the emotional readiness of both
clients and counselors to engage with cultural topics openly, fostering a supportive environment
that enhances therapeutic rapport. These elements are proposed to significantly improve
psychotherapeutic and supervisory outcomes (Davis et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2021).
The MCO framework’s focus on cultural humility, cultural opportunities, and cultural
comfort highlights the critical need for supervisors to be culturally responsive in their
interactions with diverse supervisees. Research underscores that cultural competence is essential
for building trust and rapport in cross-cultural dyads, which is fundamental to the supervisory
relationship (Lee et al., 2021). For BIPOC supervisees, having a supervisor who values cultural
differences and is open to engaging in cultural discussions can significantly enhance their
professional development and satisfaction. Lee et al. (2021) also emphasize that effective
crosscultural interactions rely on the supervisor’s willingness to recognize and adapt to cultural
dynamics, further supporting the relevance of the MCO framework for BIPOC students.
Recent studies have begun to empirically examine the impact of the MCO framework on
supervision, indicating that the incorporation of cultural humility and the recognition of cultural
opportunities by supervisors can significantly influence supervisees’ satisfaction and
development (Drinane et al., 2021; Wilcox et al., 2022). However, the existing literature
predominantly features findings based on White cohorts, highlighting a critical gap in the
research concerning the experiences and perspectives of BIPOC supervisees. This lack of
representation underscores the necessity for inclusive research that addresses cross-racial
supervisory dynamics, as BIPOC supervisees may face unique challenges and experiences that
differ from those of their White counterparts.
Incorporating the MCO framework into supervision practices can facilitate more effective
mentorship and guidance for BIPOC doctoral students (Borders et al., 2020; Perez & Carney,
2018). By fostering cultural humility and awareness among supervisors, the MCO framework
encourages an environment where diverse perspectives are valued and addressed (Schuermann et
al., 2018; Bright, 2020). Furthermore, recognizing cultural opportunities during supervision can
empower BIPOC supervisees to explore their identities and experiences, which is vital for their
professional development (Shaikh et al., 2024). As the field moves forward, it is imperative to
prioritize research that investigates how the MCO framework can be adapted to better serve the
needs of BIPOC students, ultimately enhancing their educational experiences and career
trajectories within the counseling profession (Blalock et al., 2021; Borders et al., 2020).
Self-Efficacy
The concept of self-efficacy is fundamental in shaping the career decision-making
processes of individuals, particularly within the context of CES. Self-efficacy refers to an
individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific tasks or situations, significantly
influencing both career choices and everyday interactions in the field (Bandura, 1977; Lent et al.,
1994; Wade-Ball et al., 2024). Wade-Ball et al. (2024) identified a notable mismatch between
perceived and actual self-efficacy among CES faculty, suggesting that faculty members may
overestimate or underestimate their capabilities. This disconnect complicates the educational and
supervisory environment, potentially leading to misalignments in expectations and support that
can hinder the development of students.
Such discrepancies in self-efficacy are particularly impactful for BIPOC students
navigating the challenges of graduate education. When faculty members lack an accurate
understanding of their own self-efficacy, they may inadvertently project these uncertainties onto
their students. This situation can create barriers for BIPOC doctoral students, who already
contend with systemic challenges and biases within academic settings (Borders et al., 2020;
Perez & Carney, 2018). The pressure to meet high expectations, compounded by limited
representation, can further diminish their self-efficacy and confidence in pursuing their career
aspirations (Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021; Spellman et al., 2022).
To foster an environment that enhances self-efficacy among students, it is crucial for
supervisors to cultivate a comprehensive understanding of self-efficacy and its relationship with
actual capabilities. By doing so, supervisors can create a supportive atmosphere that encourages
students to take risks and engage in professional development opportunities. This support is
particularly vital for BIPOC students, as mentors who acknowledge and validate their
experiences can significantly bolster their confidence and motivation (Borders et al., 2020;
Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021; Glover et al., 2020). The reinforcement of positive self-efficacy
beliefs can empower these students to overcome obstacles and persevere in their academic
pursuits.
In the context of CES, enhancing self-efficacy among BIPOC doctoral students involves
not only addressing immediate academic challenges but also considering the broader systemic
factors that shape their educational experiences. This includes promoting mentorship initiatives
that focus on culturally responsive practices, helping students build networks, and fostering their
professional identities (Perez & Carney, 2018; Hipolito-Delgado et al., 2021). Ultimately,
nurturing self-efficacy is essential for empowering BIPOC students to navigate their educational
journeys and achieve their career goals, as it plays a critical role in shaping their resilience and
commitment to the counseling profession.
Career Development
Defined as the management of life, learning, and work over one's lifespan, career
development plays a pivotal role in guiding individuals through education, training, employment,
and the pursuit of work-life balance (Tang, 2019; Zacher et al., 2019). This multifaceted process
involves not only exploring one's potential through self-awareness but also researching various
career options, understanding decision-making processes, and developing essential career
management skills (Lent et al., 1994). Effective career development training is crucial as it
provides individuals with the tools necessary to navigate the complexities of modern job markets
(Vande Griek et al., 2020; Bright, 2020). Furthermore, the effectiveness of this training can be
significantly influenced by geographical location, which shapes the availability of resources and
support systems that are crucial for successful career navigation (Davidson et al., 2020; Um &
Bardhoshi, 2022).
In rural contexts, several barriers restrict career development opportunities, including a
lack of access to role models, limited local development resources, and geographical distance
from professional industries and higher education institutions (Bright, 2020; Davidson et al.,
2020). The isolation experienced by individuals in these areas can hinder their ability to connect
with mentors and networks that are often vital for professional growth (Saba, 1991; Pulliam et
al., 2019). For instance, without accessible role models or networking opportunities, aspiring
professionals may struggle to envision their career paths or understand the steps necessary to
achieve their goals. Additionally, the lack of local training programs tailored to the specific needs
of rural communities can exacerbate these challenges, leaving individuals without the guidance
necessary to navigate their career journeys effectively (Zacher et al., 2019; Bright, 2020).
Consequently, there is a pressing need for more comprehensive research on career development
in rural areas to fully understand the unique challenges these individuals face, and the resources
required for effective career planning (; Davidson et al., 2020; Um & Nam, 2024).
Vande Griek et al. (2020) highlight that proactive career management is essential for
navigating these challenges, as individuals who take an active role in seeking growth
opportunities and resources may be better positioned to advance despite geographical limitations.
By fostering a proactive mindset, rural professionals could develop strategies to overcome
barriers, creating more effective pathways for career growth within limited-resource settings.
This approach can be instrumental in helping rural professionals navigate their unique career
journeys and build fulfilling careers in underserved areas (Pulliam et al., 2019; Storlie et al.,
2018).
Historically, literature on counselor education and career development in rural areas has
been limited, although there has been increasing interest in this field over the last few decades.
One of the foundational resources from Saba (1991) emphasized the importance of practical
experiences, such as practicums and internships, for the success of counselors working in rural
settings. More recent studies continue to underscore the need for these experiences, along with
cultural competence and community engagement, as crucial for preparing counselors for the
unique challenges faced in rural environments (Davidson et al., 2020; Um & Bardhoshi, 2022).
Bright (2020) highlights how rural counselors can benefit from targeted training that integrates
local community dynamics and cultural responsiveness to better serve their populations. Despite
these insights, there has been a lack of follow-up research or adaptations to training programs
that specifically address the ongoing and evolving needs of rural counselors (Pulliam et al., 2019;
Davidson et al., 2020). This gap highlights an urgent area for further inquiry, as addressing these
deficiencies is crucial for enhancing the professional development of counselors working in
underserved rural communities. Ultimately, fostering effective career development strategies in
rural settings not only benefits individual counselors but also strengthens the overall mental
health infrastructure within these regions, leading to improved outcomes for the populations they
serve (Storlie et al., 2018; Um & Nam, 2024).
Career Decision-Making Process
Career decision-making is a crucial aspect of career development, significantly influenced
by the interplay of Bandura's (1977) Social Learning Theory and the SCCT developed by Lent,
Brown, and Hackett (1994). These comprehensive frameworks posit that career choices and
work-related behaviors emerge from the dynamic interactions among genetic influences, self-
efficacy, and personal goals. Bandura's Social Learning Theory underscores the importance of
observational learning and modeling as mechanisms through which individuals acquire and
refine their skills and behaviors (Bandura & Walters, 1977). In the context of career
decisionmaking, individuals observe and learn from the experiences and career choices of others,
shaping their vocational paths and influencing their perceptions of what is achievable. This
process allows individuals to develop not only the skills needed for their careers but also an
understanding of the contextual factors that shape these experiences, creating a robust framework
for navigating their future paths.
SCCT builds upon Bandura's foundational concepts, integrating critical elements such as
self-efficacy, outcome expectations, personal goals, and contextual supports. According to Lent
et al., (1994) self-efficacy beliefs—reflecting one’s confidence in their ability to execute
necessary actions for career management—significantly influence career decision-making
processes. This alignment with Bandura’s emphasis on self-efficacy highlights how an
individual's belief in their capabilities can drive their decisions and actions in the career realm
(Bandura, 1977). Furthermore, SCCT emphasizes the impact of environmental and contextual
factors on individuals' career choices, reinforcing Bandura's assertion that the surrounding
environment plays a crucial role in observational learning and behavior development (Bandura &
Walters, 1977). Understanding these dynamics is particularly important for BIPOC individuals,
who may face additional contextual challenges that impact their self-efficacy and overall career
decision-making processes.
In the realm of career decision-making theories, two prominent models emerged during
the 1960s: rational and alternative (Boychuk, 2018). The rational approach posits that
decisionmaking is a logical and systematic process, often tested primarily on Caucasian men,
which can limit the applicability of its findings across diverse populations. Conversely,
alternative theories recognize that decisions often involve intuition, emotions, and subjectivity,
acknowledging the influence of unplanned events and external consultations (Boychuk, 2018).
This broader understanding of decision-making processes is essential, particularly for rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students who may encounter unique challenges that require more than a
purely rational approach to career navigation. For instance, the systemic barriers faced by these
students often shape their decision-making in profound ways, necessitating a comprehensive
view that encompasses their social, cultural, and economic contexts.
The literature surrounding career decision-making tends to favor processes that
encompass information gathering, alternative comparison, and the selection of careers aligned
with one's personality and values (Boychuk, 2018; Kulcsár et al., 2020). Notably, mentorship
plays a pivotal role in guiding students through the complexities of selecting appropriate
graduate programs and making informed career decisions, especially in the journey toward
becoming counselor educators. Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) highlights that well-developed
mentorship relationships significantly contribute to the refinement of professional identity and
the successful growth of counselor educators. This underscores the critical need for robust
mentorship frameworks that support BIPOC students, facilitating their career decision-making
processes in ways that are sensitive to their unique backgrounds and experiences. By cultivating
environments that not only enhance self-efficacy but also empower students to pursue their
aspirations, these mentorship initiatives play a vital role in shaping the future landscape of the
counseling profession.
The career decision-making process for African American students is often influenced by
unique cultural and social factors, which can add complexity to their educational and
professional pathways. Storlie et al. (2018) found that African American female college students
frequently encounter challenges related to identity, support networks, and limited access to career
resources, all of which impact their career trajectories. These factors may create additional
barriers that rural BIPOC CES doctoral students similarly experience, as they navigate their
educational paths within predominantly White and often under-resourced environments.
Recognizing the specific cultural and social influences on career decision-making is essential for
developing mentorship frameworks that are culturally responsive and supportive. Such
frameworks can empower students to overcome barriers and make informed career decisions that
align with their goals and values (Storlie et al., 2018).
Motivation
The landscape of motivations among CES doctoral students is complex, shaped by a
combination of external factors, such as economic conditions and job market trends, as well as
internal factors, including personal aspirations and values (Paquette & Groman, 2023). Paquette
& Groman (2023) found that doctoral students often navigate their academic journeys with a
focus on practical career benefits, seeking fields with strong job availability and stability. Such
motivations are particularly relevant in CES, where students must consider the fluctuating needs
of the counseling profession alongside their own aspirations. Furthermore, Brown and Lent
(2023) highlight that for CES students, career decision-making often involves evaluating
longterm professional goals and the fulfillment of personal values related to helping others and
contributing to the well-being of communities.
Mentorship emerges as a critical motivator in shaping the career paths of doctoral
students, particularly in the CES field (Borders et al., 2020). Borders et al. (2020) found that
supportive mentorship not only provides essential academic guidance but also fosters a sense of
belonging and reinforces professional confidence among doctoral students. Effective mentorship
relationships help students navigate the complexities of graduate programs, offering emotional
support and affirming their professional identities (Nagadjui & Doughty, 2024). Additionally,
mentorship can serve as a source of resilience for students facing unique challenges, such as
underrepresentation or a lack of role models in academia (Vande Griek et al., 2020). These
supportive relationships contribute to students' motivation by validating their experiences and
encouraging persistence despite challenges.
The desire to excel within a specific profession and to assume leadership roles within the
field is another significant motivator for CES doctoral students (Spellman et al., 2022). Research
suggests that CES students are often driven by an ambition not only to achieve academic success
but also to make a meaningful impact on the counseling profession (Garcia, 2020). Spellman et
al. (2022) further emphasize that students with leadership aspirations tend to approach their
studies with a heightened sense of purpose, as they recognize the potential for career
advancement and the opportunity to influence future counseling practices. This drive for
leadership often intertwines with a commitment to social justice, as students seek to address
systemic barriers within CES and advocate for more equitable and inclusive practices (Spellman
et al., 2022).
An understanding of students' diverse motivations is crucial for CES educators and
mentors, as it informs the type of support and guidance needed to facilitate successful outcomes
(Ngadjui & Doughty, 2024). Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) underscore the importance of
providing structured opportunities for professional identity development, as well as offering
resources that align with students' career goals and personal values. By fostering a
comprehensive approach to motivation that considers both individual aspirations and systemic
supports, educators can better support students in achieving their academic and professional
objectives.
Doctoral Programs in CES
With a strong focus on preparing counseling professionals for advanced roles in
academia, research, clinical practice, and leadership within the field of counseling (CACREP,
2024), these programs extend the knowledge base of the counseling profession through scholarly
inquiry and equip students to assume positions of leadership and specialization. Doctoral
students are trained in five core areas: counseling, supervision, teaching, research and
scholarship, and leadership and advocacy. This comprehensive preparation is designed to develop
professional identities and foster skills necessary for their future roles as counselor educators and
leaders (CACREP, 2024).
For rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, the structure and goals of these programs play a
crucial role in their career decision-making processes (Bright, 2020; Davidson et al., 2020). The
extensive training in diverse areas provides these students with the necessary skills and
knowledge to navigate and overcome the unique challenges they face in rural settings (Ngadjui &
Doughty, 2024). Many rural students rely on online learning modalities, which are increasingly
structured to maintain the quality and engagement of traditional in-person programs. The
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) provides guidelines to support
online learning environments in counselor education, ensuring they meet standards for
accessibility, student engagement, and effective technology use (ACES Technology Interest
Network, 2017). These guidelines are essential for rural students, as they help ensure that the
online components of their education align with the field’s best practices.
The emphasis on leadership and advocacy within these programs empowers rural BIPOC
CES doctoral students to become influential advocates for change in their communities (Vande
Griek et al., 2020).). This advocacy is particularly essential in fostering inclusive practices and
addressing systemic barriers that affect marginalized populations. The training in supervision and
teaching prepares them for roles where they can mentor and support future generations of
counselors, further enhancing their career prospects and impact (Ghoston et al., 2020). The
comprehensive nature of CES doctoral programs thus not only supports the professional growth
of rural BIPOC students but also equips them to contribute significantly to the field of counseling
and their communities (Tang, 2019; Zacher et al., 2019). Through a blend of academic rigor and
practical application, these programs lay the foundation for students to engage effectively in their
professional journeys and address the pressing needs within their local contexts.
Intersectional Marginalization
In addition to the challenges outlined in the existing literature, it is crucial to recognize
the intersecting forms of oppression experienced by BIPOC individuals within the field of
counseling education (Vue, 2021). Vue (2021) has shed light on the complex navigation of
educational experiences by first-generation college students (FGS) and first-generation
faculty/administrators (FGF/A), particularly those who are BIPOC. This intersectional analysis
reveals how race, gender, socioeconomic status, and educational background intersect to shape
the unique challenges faced by BIPOC individuals as they pursue careers in counseling education
(Borders et al., 2020; Spellman et al., 2022).
In addition to the broader systemic challenges, microaggressions are a pervasive issue
within academic settings, subtly but significantly impacting the experiences of women counselor
educators with intersecting marginalized identities (Harris et al., 2019). These unintentional
discriminatory remarks contribute to a hostile environment, creating additional barriers that
affect BIPOC and female professionals' sense of belonging and well-being ((Harris et al., 2019;
Perez & Carney, 2018)). Such microaggressions add another layer of difficulty for BIPOC
individuals who already navigate systemic racism, classism, and patriarchy within counseling
education (Harris et al., 2019). Addressing these often-overlooked daily experiences is essential
to fostering a more inclusive and supportive academic environment for all counselor educators.
Vue’s study explores the disproportionate challenges faced by BIPOC first-generation
students (FGS) and first-generation faculty/administrators (FGF/A), emphasizing how systemic
racism, classism, and patriarchy contribute to the invalidation and disempowerment of these
individuals (Vue, 2021). Narratives from BIPOC first-generation faculty and administrators in
Vue’s study underscore the importance of understanding and addressing structural inequalities to
support the success of BIPOC students and professionals in higher education (Hipolito-Delgado
et al., 2021; Vue, 2021). For example, one participant in Vue’s study described a struggle to find
mentorship that acknowledged the unique pressures associated with being a first-generation
student, highlighting a broader systemic issue where traditional mentorship models may not
adequately address the needs of diverse populations (Borders et al., 2020; Vue, 2021).
Incorporating an intersectional perspective, as suggested by Vue, enables a more
comprehensive framework for understanding the challenges faced by BIPOC individuals in
counseling education (Vue, 2021). This approach allows for a thorough analysis of how multiple
social identities intersect to shape the experiences of BIPOC students and faculty (Vue, 2021).
Recognizing these intersecting challenges provides valuable insights into the unique obstacles
that may hinder academic and professional progress for these individuals (Vue, 2021). This
understanding paves the way for targeted strategies that promote inclusivity and equity within the
field, such as mentorship programs tailored to specific cultural and socio-economic challenges
and curriculum reforms that prioritize diverse perspectives and experiences ((Borders et al.,
2020; Perez & Carney, 2018; Vue, 2021).
Applying an intersectional lens not only highlights the need for systemic change but also
informs future research directions. It suggests an exploration of how institutions can adapt their
support services and curricula to better meet the needs of BIPOC individuals (Spellman et al.,
2022). Ultimately, fostering a more inclusive academic environment can significantly enhance
the success and well-being of BIPOC individuals within counseling education, allowing for a
richer, more diverse field that benefits all stakeholders involved (Borders et al., 2020; Perez &
Carney, 2018).
Synthesis of the Literature
Geographic isolation is a well-documented barrier faced by students in rural areas,
limiting access to vital educational resources, mentorship, and professional networks (Bright,
2020; Davidson et al., 2020). These barriers, compounded by financial and logistical challenges,
could make it difficult for rural BIPOC students to engage in professional development
opportunities. Bright (2020) emphasizes that rural students frequently lack proximity to
institutions offering advanced programs, hindering their access to critical academic and career
resources. Furthermore, rural students often face financial constraints that limit their ability to
participate in networking events and access the resources necessary for career growth (Bender &
Werries, 2021).
As noted by Davidson et al. (2021), geographic isolation also leads to social isolation,
which significantly affects students' academic engagement and career decision-making. These
barriers to professional networking are particularly detrimental to students seeking to enter
highly competitive fields like counseling. Bender and Werries (2021) argue that without the same
access to career fairs, internships, and other professional opportunities, rural students may
struggle to visualize career pathways that are readily available to their urban peers. This sense of
isolation contributes to the challenges of career decision-making, as students may feel
disconnected from the broader professional community and unable to develop the necessary
connections to succeed in their fields.
The lack of faculty diversity in rural educational settings further compounds these
challenges for underrepresented students. The 2023 CACREP report reveals that over 59% of
CACREP faculty members identify as White (CACREP, 2023), a statistic that reflects the
broader trends of racial homogeneity in counselor education programs. Hays (2020) points out
that a lack of faculty diversity limits mentorship opportunities for students from diverse
backgrounds, particularly those from rural areas who may already face isolation. Without faculty
members who can relate to their students’ cultural and social experiences, rural students may
struggle to find mentorship that resonates with their lived realities. Singh et al. (2020a)
emphasize that faculty multicultural competence is critical for creating inclusive learning
environments, but the lack of diversity within the faculty exacerbates feelings of marginalization
among rural and BIPOC students.
Schuermann et al. (2018) assert that mentorship is one of the most significant factors
influencing student success, particularly for those navigating systemic barriers. However, as
Borders et al. (2020) observe, rural students often struggle to find mentors who share similar
cultural or professional backgrounds, further perpetuating a cycle of isolation and academic
disadvantage. As Schuermann et al. (2018) highlight, this lack of culturally relevant mentorship
impacts students' academic engagement and sense of belonging, both of which are critical for
success in doctoral programs. Singh et al. (2020b) stress the importance of mentorship
frameworks that not only address academic guidance but also provide emotional support and
career advice that align with students’ unique cultural contexts.
Social support from family and peers also plays a critical role in helping rural BIPOC
students navigate the compounded challenges posed by geographic isolation and intersecting
systemic barriers. Family support, both emotional and financial, can provide stability and
reassurance, helping students persevere through academic and personal difficulties (Borders et
al., 2020; Bright, 2020). Encouragement from family members reinforces resilience, while
practical assistance, such as financial aid, alleviates some of the educational burdens these
students face (Borders et al., 2020; Bright, 2020). Peer networks further enhance students'
experiences by offering a sense of community and shared understanding, helping reduce feelings
of isolation and supporting persistence in their career paths (Davidson et al., 2020). Having peers
who empathize with their struggles reduces feelings of isolation and strengthens their
commitment to their career paths (Davidson et al., 2020). These social support systems
contribute to a well-rounded foundation that complements formal mentorship, emphasizing the
importance of both personal and academic support for the success of rural BIPOC students.
Singh et al. (2020b) also advocates for the development of mentorship programs that
integrate cultural competence to better serve the needs of rural students. Effective mentorship
should go beyond academic instruction and actively engage with students’ social and cultural
identities. However, these types of mentorship frameworks are still underdeveloped, particularly
in rural contexts where resources are already limited. A lack of mentorship tailored to the specific
challenges faced by rural students leads to further disengagement from academic life and fewer
career development opportunities (Hays, 2020).
In addition to mentorship, intersectionality plays a significant role in understanding the
educational experiences of rural students. According to Collins (2000), intersectionality is a
framework for analyzing how overlapping identities, such as race, gender, and socioeconomic
status, interact to shape individuals' experiences and opportunities. For rural students, this
intersectional framework is crucial as they navigate not only geographic isolation but also the
social and cultural challenges that come with their rural, often underrepresented identities.
Spellman et al. (2022) argue that the experiences of rural students are deeply shaped by both their
geographic isolation and the cultural expectations tied to their communities. This intersectional
lens helps explain why rural students from marginalized groups face unique academic challenges
that cannot be fully understood by focusing on geographic isolation alone.
The lack of research on the intersectionality of race, geographic location, and
socioeconomic status in counselor education programs remains a significant gap in the field.
According to Hipolito-Delgado et al. (2021), addressing these intersecting barriers is essential for
providing rural BIPOC students with the support they need to succeed. However, as Singh et al.
(2020a) argue, much of the current literature still fails to address how these intersecting identities
shape students’ experiences and career decisions in counselor education. Further research on
intersectionality in rural counselor education programs would provide valuable insights into how
geographic isolation, combined with racial and socioeconomic barriers, impacts students'
academic journeys.
Online education has emerged as a potential solution to some of the challenges faced by
rural students, offering flexibility and access to coursework regardless of geographic location
(Davidson, 2021). However, the shift to online learning has also introduced new barriers,
particularly in terms of maintaining meaningful mentorship and ensuring student engagement.
Robertson and Lowell (2021) highlight the challenges of providing effective mentorship in
online programs, noting that the lack of face-to-face interaction can hinder the development of
supportive, personal relationships between students and faculty. Natal et al., (2021) further
emphasize that the absence of direct interaction in online learning environments can make it
difficult for students to feel connected to their academic community, exacerbating the feelings of
isolation that rural students already experience.
Robertson and Lowell (2021) suggest that online counselor education programs must
develop robust mentorship structures that are specifically tailored to address the needs of rural
students. These mentorship frameworks should include regular virtual check-ins, opportunities
for peer networking, and faculty engagement that goes beyond the classroom. Without these
supports, rural students may struggle to stay connected to their academic programs and may face
higher attrition rates. As Bender and Werries (2021) argue, counselor education programs must
ensure that the benefits of online learning are equitably distributed, with specific attention paid to
the unique needs of rural students.
Fostering an inclusive and culturally responsive learning environment is essential for
supporting the success of rural students in counselor education programs. As Hays (2020)
suggests, the success of BIPOC students depends not only on the availability of resources but
also on the inclusivity of the academic climate. Counselor education programs must prioritize
diversity and inclusion initiatives that actively work to create an environment where all students
feel valued and supported. Singh et al. (2020a) emphasize that institutions must move beyond
token efforts and implement systematic changes that promote equity in both faculty hiring
practices and curriculum design. By doing so, programs can better support the academic success
of rural students and equip them with the skills and knowledge needed to thrive in their careers.
Research Opportunities
Some studies in the literature may lack rigor in their research design, raising questions
about the validity of their findings. For instance, studies that rely solely on self-report measures
of career decision-making may be susceptible to social desirability bias or memory recall errors.
Future research could benefit from employing more robust research designs, such as longitudinal
studies or experimental interventions, to enhance the validity and reliability of findings.
Within CES doctoral experiences, the existing literature paints a nuanced picture marked
by contradictions and knowledge gaps. Despite numerous studies exploring various aspects of
CES doctoral journeys and examining the experiences of different demographic groups, there
remains a noticeable lack of consensus on critical elements (Bourabain, 2021; Johnson, 2019;
Kemer et al., 2022; Natal et al., 2021; Paquette & Groman, 2023; Peterson & Brooks, 2024;
Spellman et al., 2022; Turner & Griffin, 2020). The prevalence of qualitative studies underscores
the importance of understanding participants' perspectives; however, the literature struggles to
synthesize these varied viewpoints into a cohesive understanding of the career decision-making
process for CES doctoral students.
A consistent reliance on Bandura's social cognitive theory and the concept of selfefficacy
as a guiding theoretical framework raises concerns about potential limitations in
comprehensively understanding the multifaceted factors influencing career decisions within CES
doctoral programs (Bourabain, 2021; Johnson, 2019; Kemer et al., 2022; Paquette & Groman,
2023; Peterson & Brooks, 2024 Spellman et al., 2022; Turner & Griffin, 2020; Vernam et al.,
2022)). While self-efficacy is a valuable lens through which to explore confidence and
decisionmaking, the literature acknowledges the necessity of exploring alternative theoretical
perspectives to enrich the understanding of the career decision-making process for CES doctoral
students. Critically evaluating the overreliance on Bandura's theory prompts a reconsideration of
the theoretical frameworks employed in research, encouraging scholars to explore alternative
perspectives that may offer deeper insights into the complexities of career decision-making
within this context. By acknowledging potential limitations and advocating for theoretical
diversity, this critical evaluation contributes to a more robust understanding of career
development processes among CES doctoral students.
The literature also recognizes the paramount importance of diversity and representation in
creating an inclusive academic climate but needs to look deeper into the root causes behind the
observed lack of diversity in CES doctoral programs (Bright, 2020; Davidson et al., 2020). For
example, the demographic landscape in counseling education reflects disparities, with a
significant portion of CACREP full-time faculty identified as White, contributing to a lack of
diverse role models for BIPOC students (CACREP Vital Statistics, 2024).
Significant gaps and contradictions in the literature warrant further exploration. These
include a lack of focused research on the unique challenges faced by rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students and an overreliance on quantitative methods, which often fail to capture the depth and
complexity of personal experiences (Bright, 2020; Davidson et al., 2020). Additionally, the
literature emphasizes the importance of mentorship but lacks comprehensive strategies for
effectively supporting rural BIPOC students (Pérez & Carney, 2018; Ngadjui & Doughty, 2024).
The proposed research addresses these critical gaps by explicitly focusing on
understanding the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students during the career
decisionmaking process. This study will employ a phenomenological approach to provide rich,
qualitative insights into their lived experiences. Additionally, this research will integrate insights
from SCCT to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamic interplay of
individual and contextual factors influencing career decisions within this academic context (Lent
& Brown, 2019).
By addressing these gaps, the proposed study aims to contribute significantly to the
academic discourse and inform the development of more effective support systems and policies
tailored to the needs of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. This research will provide valuable
insights for developing effective policies and support systems tailored to the needs of this
underrepresented group, ultimately supporting their academic and professional success.
Contradictions in the Literature
The literature on CES doctoral students presents a landscape with significant
inconsistencies, particularly regarding factors influencing career decision-making and academic
engagement. While several studies emphasize the importance of self-efficacy in shaping the
career trajectories of students, such as the works of Bourabain (2021) and Kemer et al. (2022),
others like Paquette & Growman (2023) and Vernam et al., (2022) provide contrasting views on
the limitations of self-efficacy as a sole explanatory framework. These differing perspectives
highlight the complexity of applying Bandura's (1977) Social Cognitive Theory as a
comprehensive model for career decision-making in CES doctoral students. Some scholars argue
that while self-efficacy plays a significant role, there is a need for more multifaceted approaches
that also incorporate the impact of institutional factors, mentorship, and intersectionality
(Peterson & Brooks, 2024; Spellman et al., 2022). This calls for a broader exploration of how
other elements, such as faculty support and access to resources, interact with self-efficacy to
influence career decisions in CES programs.
A notable contradiction in the literature involves the role of faculty diversity and its
impact on the educational experiences of students. Several sources, including Hays (2020) and
Singh et al. (2020a), underscore the importance of a diverse faculty in creating an inclusive
academic climate that supports BIPOC students. However, while the literature acknowledges the
critical need for multicultural competence, the root causes of the lack of faculty diversity in CES
programs remain underexplored. Bright (2020) and Davidson et al. (2020) mention the
challenges faced by rural BIPOC students, noting a scarcity of role models and mentors who can
relate to their unique experiences. However, this body of work fails to fully investigate how these
gaps in diversity within CES faculty and programs directly affect career decision-making
processes for rural students. The literature suggests that these disparities not only hinder
academic success but may also create systemic barriers that prevent these students from fully
participating in the professional networks necessary for career advancement.
Another area of contradiction centers around the experiences of rural BIPOC doctoral
students in CES programs. While the literature acknowledges the difficulties faced by rural
students in terms of geographic isolation, limited access to higher education, and the scarcity of
professional development opportunities (Bender & Werries, 2021; Bright, 2020), there is a lack
of consensus on how these factors intersect with race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Studies
like those of Schuermann et al. (2018) and Pérez & Carney (2018) focus on the challenges faced
by BIPOC faculty and students in academia, including microaggressions and tokenism. However,
there is limited exploration of whether rural BIPOC CES doctoral students encounter these same
issues in their academic pursuits. While Natal et al. (2021) highlight the additional barriers faced
by students with marginalized identities, Spellman et al. (2022) argue that rural isolation itself
may have a more significant impact on their academic and professional outcomes. These
differing perspectives indicate the need for a more detailed investigation into how geographic
and cultural factors interact to shape the career decision-making processes of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students.
Spellman et al. (2022) reflect contrasting perspectives on the role of mentorship in
shaping the academic and professional outcomes of CES doctoral students. Schuermann et al.
(2018) and Borders et al. (2020) assert that mentorship is one of the most critical factors
influencing success, particularly for those navigating systemic barriers. However, while
mentorship is widely considered beneficial, there is a contradiction regarding its availability and
quality for rural students. Bright (2020) emphasize that rural students often struggle to access
quality mentorship due to their geographic isolation, yet Singh et al. (2020b) contend that even
within urban settings, BIPOC students often lack mentors who can relate to their cultural and
professional experiences. This discrepancy points to the need for a deeper exploration of how
mentorship structures within CES programs can be adapted to address the unique needs of rural
students. The development of culturally competent mentorship programs that go beyond
academic guidance to include career advice and emotional support is crucial for ensuring the
success of rural students, particularly those from underrepresented backgrounds (Singh et al.,
2020b).
The contradictions in the literature regarding self-efficacy, faculty diversity, mentorship,
and intersectionality underscore the complexities involved in the career decision-making of CES
doctoral students. For example, while Bright (2020) emphasize the importance of self-efficacy
and its influence on career decisions, other scholars, such as Spellman et al. (2022), challenge
this framework, arguing that factors like socioeconomic status and institutional support play
equally critical roles in shaping students' career paths. The role of faculty diversity in creating
inclusive environments remains contested. Hays and Singh (2021) suggest that faculty
multicultural competence is crucial for student success, while Peterson and Brooks (2024) argue
that the lack of diversity in CES programs contributes to marginalization and isolation among
underrepresented students. These differing perspectives highlight the need for further
investigation into how faculty diversity impacts students' academic and professional
development.
Mentorship, too, appears to be a factor with conflicting findings. While Schuermann et al.
(2018) and Singh et al. (2020b) advocate for the importance of culturally responsive mentorship
programs, studies by Bender and Werries (2021) indicate that rural students often face challenges
in accessing mentorship opportunities due to geographical isolation and lack of resources. These
findings emphasize the need for a more nuanced understanding of how mentorship frameworks
should be tailored to address the unique challenges faced by rural students. Finally,
intersectionality remains a key but underexplored area in CES doctoral research. Spellman et al.
(2022) suggest that intersectionality—considering how race, gender, and geographic location
shape students’ academic and professional trajectories—should be central to understanding the
experiences of marginalized groups, but other scholars, such as Hipolito-Delgado et al. (2021),
argue that these factors have not been fully integrated into the research on CES doctoral students.
These contradictions and gaps in the literature point to the need for more targeted,
intersectional research that explores how these various factors interact to influence the career
decision-making process. A comprehensive approach that incorporates the academic, social, and
professional dimensions of CES doctoral students’ experiences is crucial for understanding the
full scope of their career development. This would allow for a more accurate understanding of
the barriers and opportunities faced by underrepresented groups, including rural students, in
counselor education. Through further research, it will be possible to identify the specific factors
that contribute to the academic success and career advancement of CES students, particularly
those from backgrounds.
Identified Knowledge Gaps
The literature on career development in CES doctoral programs exposes several
significant gaps, particularly in relation to marginalized populations, including rural and BIPOC
students. While there has been considerable qualitative exploration of CES experiences,
theoretical frameworks predominantly grounded in Bandura’s social cognitive theory and
selfefficacy often narrow the lens through which these experiences are understood. Bright (2020)
notes that this theoretical monoculture restricts the ability to comprehensively capture the
diversity of student experiences, especially for those from rural or underrepresented
backgrounds. Expanding the theoretical frameworks to include other models would allow for a
more inclusive exploration of career development, providing a richer understanding of the
challenges these students face.
While Davidson et al. (2020) and Bright (2020) acknowledge the importance of diversity
within CES doctoral programs, they fall short of exploring the root causes behind the lack of
diversity and representation, particularly among faculty members. Both Davidson et al. (2020)
and Bright (2020) point out the absence of comprehensive exploration into how this lack of
diversity impacts the career decision-making process for students from marginalized
communities. This gap highlights the need for more targeted research that delves into the
systemic and contextual factors contributing to these deficiencies. Understanding these
underlying factors is essential for developing interventions that address the specific needs of
underrepresented groups, particularly in rural academic settings.
Another critical gap in the existing research is the lack of exploration into the unique
challenges faced by BIPOC CES doctoral students, despite acknowledgment of the difficulties
encountered by BIPOC faculty members. Pérez and Carney (2018) highlight this gap as a
significant oversight, stressing the need for more focused research on the specific barriers that
BIPOC doctoral students experience. While BIPOC faculty members’ challenges have been
explored in depth, the experiences of BIPOC students navigating their doctoral programs remain
understudied, and their distinct challenges require tailored support mechanisms to ensure
success. Future research should focus on identifying these barriers and developing interventions
that support the academic growth and career development of BIPOC CES doctoral students.
While Bright (2020) and Davidson et al. (2020) recognize barriers such as limited access
to higher education and the absence of professional role models faced by rural students, they do
not fully explore how these factors uniquely affect the career trajectories of rural BIPOC doctoral
students. Bright (2020) identifies geographic isolation and financial constraints as significant
challenges for rural students but does not examine how these barriers intersect with racial and
cultural identities to shape career decision-making. Similarly, Davidson et al. (2020) discuss rural
students' struggles with limited access to resources yet fail to analyze the compounded effect of
these barriers on BIPOC students specifically. Bridging this gap is crucial for advancing the field
and developing targeted strategies that support rural BIPOC students in navigating their doctoral
programs and achieving long-term career success.
Proposed Research
The literature review accentuates a significant gap in understanding career
decisionmaking experiences among rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. While existing studies
have extensively explored various facets of CES doctoral programs, a distinct lacuna persists in
comprehending the intersectionality of being BIPOC and residing in rural areas during the career
decision-making process. This research gap is cogently articulated in the work of Bright (2020)
and Davidson et al. (2020), underlining the limited exploration of career development in rural
areas and its consequential impact on BIPOC CES doctoral students.
Current literature primarily focuses on the broader experiences of CES doctoral students,
encompassing elements such as self-efficacy, mentorship, and multicultural competency
(Johnson, 2019; Kemer et al., 2022; Ngadjui & Doughty, 2024; Turner & Griffin, 2020).
However, the specific challenges encountered by rural BIPOC students within this context have
not received adequate scrutiny. This notable gap in the literature underscores the necessity for
targeted research that comprehensively examines the intricate interplay of factors influencing
career decisions among this demographic.
The synthesis reveals that the deficiency of diversity and representation in CES doctoral
programs contributes to higher attrition rates among BIPOC students (Bright, 2020; Kumar et al.,
2023). The identified knowledge gap extends beyond a mere absence of research; it points to a
systemic issue with implications for recruitment, retention, and overall programmatic success.
Recognizing the limited exposure, resources, and role models available to rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students, it becomes evident that additional research is imperative for understanding and
addressing their unique needs (Bright, 2020; Pérez & Carney, 2018).
In this context, the proposed research aiming to explore the lived experiences of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students during the career decision-making process emerges not only as a
scholarly endeavor but as a critical step toward rectifying a substantial gap in the current
knowledge landscape. By grounding the proposed research in the specific gap identified by
Bright (2020) and Davidson et al. (2020), the argument gains precision and strength, reinforcing
the urgency and significance of this inquiry in contributing to a more equitable and supportive
environment for rural BIPOC CES doctoral students.
Critique of the Previous Research Methods
An examination of the quality of the research reviewed reveals both methodological
strengths and limitations. Many studies utilize qualitative methods, such as interviews and
thematic analysis, which provide rich, descriptive data about the experiences of CES doctoral
students (Kemer et al., 2022; Turner & Griffin, 2020). However, the reliance on self-report
measures can introduce biases such as social desirability and recall bias, which may compromise
the validity of the findings. Furthermore, the small sample sizes often used in these studies may
limit the generalizability of the results.
The predominance of cross-sectional designs in the literature also limits the ability to
infer causal relationships between variables. For example, Bright (2020) critiques the reliance on
cross-sectional studies in examining rural BIPOC students’ career decision-making processes,
highlighting their inability to capture dynamic interactions over time. Similarly, Spellman et al.
(2022) emphasize that cross-sectional designs often provide only a snapshot of participants'
experiences, limiting insights into developmental changes. Borders et al. (2020) argue that such
designs fail to explore the long-term impacts of mentorship on career trajectories in CES, while
Harris et al. (2019) note their inadequacy in understanding the cumulative effects of
microaggressions. Furthermore, Perez and Carney (2018) underscore that cross-sectional studies
are insufficient for examining the progression of systemic barriers and coping mechanisms over
time. Longitudinal studies could provide more robust insights into how career decision-making
processes evolve over time among CES doctoral students. Additionally, the lack of diversity in
research samples, particularly the underrepresentation of rural BIPOC students, highlights the
need for more inclusive sampling strategies to ensure that findings are representative of the
broader population.
In terms of theoretical frameworks, the heavy reliance on Bandura's social cognitive
theory and self-efficacy as guiding concepts may restrict the exploration of other potentially
influential factors in career decision-making. Incorporating alternative theories, such as
intersectionality or ecological systems theory, could provide a more comprehensive
understanding of the complexities involved in the career development of CES doctoral students.
These perspectives can expand the lens through which career decision-making is examined,
accounting for systemic inequities and environmental contexts that shape students’ experiences.
The review of the literature reveals significant gaps and contradictions in understanding
the career decision-making processes of CES doctoral students, particularly those who are rural
BIPOC individuals. While existing studies provide valuable insights, there is a pressing need for
more nuanced and comprehensive research that addresses the specific challenges and experiences
of this demographic. By exploring these gaps, the proposed research aims to contribute to a more
inclusive and equitable understanding of career development within CES doctoral programs. This
research seeks to inform targeted interventions and support mechanisms to enhance the academic
and professional trajectories of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students.
This review highlights the importance of methodological rigor, theoretical diversity, and
inclusive sampling in advancing the field and addressing the unique needs of underrepresented
groups in academia. Chapter three will outline the research methodology, detailing the design,
data collection, and analysis strategies employed to explore the lived experiences of rural BIPOC
CES doctoral students during their career decision-making process. This approach aims to
provide a comprehensive framework for understanding and addressing the identified knowledge
gaps, thereby contributing to the broader academic discourse on career development in CES
doctoral programs.
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research design and methodology used to examine the career
decision-making experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. The purpose of the study is
to address a specific research problem: understanding the unique factors that influence career
choices for this population within the field of CES. While the general problem highlights a gap in
the broader understanding of rural and culturally diverse doctoral students' career pathways, this
research focuses on the nuanced, contextual factors impacting their decisions within CES.
Guided by Giorgi’s (2020) phenomenological approach, this study aims to uncover the
essential structures of participants’ lived experiences through descriptive analysis, staying as
close as possible to the participants' own perspectives. Giorgi’s approach provides a rigorous,
systematic process for analyzing data without imposing external interpretations, which aligns
with the study’s goal of authentically capturing participants' career decision-making experiences.
This chapter outlines the sampling procedures, data collection methods, and ethical
considerations, establishing the methodological foundation for presenting the findings in Chapter
4.
Research Design
Qualitative research design is a research methodology that focuses on exploring and
understanding people's experiences, behaviors, and beliefs (Bhangu et al., 2023). Qualitative
research design can explore various research questions and topics, including cultural beliefs and
practices, social norms and values, individual and group identities, and more (Bhangu et al.,
2023; Tomaszewski et al., 2020). Unlike quantitative research, which typically involves
collecting numerical data that can be statistically analyzed, qualitative research uses
nonnumerical data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, to gain insights into
people's perceptions and experiences (Bhangu et al., 2023; Tomaszewski et al., 2020). It is a type
of research that focuses on understanding the meaning and context of social phenomena rather
than measuring and quantifying them (Bhangu et al., 2023; Tomaszewski et al., 2020).
Qualitative research design can be used to explore more complex research questions and topics,
including cultural beliefs and practices, social norms and values, individual and group identities,
and more (Bhangu et al., 2023; Tomaszewski et al., 2020). For this research, which focuses on
the lived experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral students who have attended or are currently
attending CACREP-accredited universities, a qualitative research design was chosen. This
approach enables the collection of in-depth data, providing a detailed understanding of the
complexity and diversity of their experiences.
Qualitative research design generally involves collecting data through methods such as
semi-structured interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis (Tomaszewski et
al., 2020). Qualitative research involves a smaller sample size than quantitative research, but the
data collected is typically more detailed and provides rich information about the research topic.
The data collected is often analyzed using various techniques such as thematic analysis,
grounded theory, and content analysis (Bhangu et al., 2023). Researchers using qualitative
research design aim to generate rich, detailed, and in-depth descriptions of the phenomenon
being studied, which can provide insights into the social and cultural context in which it occurs
(Bhangu et al., 2023; Tomaszewski et al., 2020).
Qualitative Research Methodologies
Qualitative research encompasses several methodologies, but four main methods are
commonly used. Ethnography involves observing and interacting with a particular culture or
social group over time to gain an in-depth understanding of their beliefs, practices, and social
norms (Cypress, 2018). This approach typically includes fieldwork, participant observation, and
interviews (Cypress, 2018). Grounded theory is a research method that involves developing a
theory based on data collected from interviews, observations, and other methods. The data are
analyzed to develop a theory grounded in the data (Cypress, 2018). Case studies involve an
indepth exploration of a specific case or phenomenon (Cypress, 2018). This approach often
includes multiple data collection methods, such as interviews, observation, and document
analysis, to provide a detailed understanding of the specific case or phenomenon (Cypress,
2018). Lastly, phenomenology focuses on exploring the subjective experiences of individuals or
groups. It delves into the essence of a particular experience, phenomenon, or concept through
indepth interviews or other data collection methods (Cypress, 2018). However, neither
ethnography, grounded theory, nor case studies are workable or preferable for this study because
they do not align with the focus on exploring the lived experiences and career decision-making
processes of BIPOC CES doctoral students in a manner that captures the complexity and
diversity of their experiences. The chosen qualitative research design aligns with the exploratory
and descriptive nature of the study. A phenomenological approach, as advocated by Giorgi (2020)
in his work on "phenomenological psychology," emphasizes capturing the essence of lived
experiences. Giorgi's contribution underscores the importance of delving deeply into individuals'
subjective experiences, aligning with this study's aim to uncover unique perspectives of BIPOC
CES doctoral students within the educational and professional context, particularly regarding
their career decision-making processes.
Phenomenological Methodology
Phenomenological research is particularly well-suited for exploring lived experiences
because it focuses on individuals' subjective experiences and perceptions (Giorgi, 2020;
Williams, 2021). Phenomenological researchers aim to explore the essence or structure of a
particular phenomenon or experience rather than simply describing or measuring it (Creswell &
Poth, 2024; Giorgi, 2020). In other words, phenomenological research seeks to understand how
people experience and make sense of the world around them (Giorgi, 2020; Williams, 2021). For
this reason, phenomenological research design is often used in disciplines such as psychology,
sociology, and education, where understanding human experiences is a crucial research goal
(Cypress, 2018; Giorgi, 2020). This approach is beneficial for exploring complex and
individualized experiences that are difficult to quantify or measure using traditional research
methods. For example, phenomenological research has been used to explore a wide range of
lived experiences, such as chronic illness, bereavement, and spiritual experiences (Cypress,
2018; Giorgi, 2020;). This design allowed the researcher to explore the interplay between cultural
and socio-economic factors that shape their career choices in the context of graduate education.
Phenomenological research aims to closely examine the essence of a particular phenomenon or
experience, focusing on how individuals subjectively experience and make sense of their world
(Giorgi, 2020; Williams, 2021).
Phenomenological research typically involves in-depth semi-structured interviews or
other qualitative data collection methods, which allow participants to describe their experiences
in their own words and from their perspectives (Giorgi, 2020; Williams, 2021). Researchers then
use a process of analysis to identify common themes or patterns in the data, which can provide
insights into the underlying structure or essence of the phenomenon being studied (Cypress,
2018; Giorgi, 2020;). This analysis process allows researchers to capture the complexity and
richness of individual experiences and to gain a deeper understanding of the subjective meaning
and significance of these experiences for the individuals involved (Giorgi, 2020; Williams,
2021).
To address the research question, this study used qualitative data collection methods,
particularly in-depth interviews, to gather rich and detailed descriptions of the experiences of
BIPOC CES doctoral students. Participants were encouraged to share their perspectives,
emotions, and thoughts in their own words, providing a nuanced insight into their career
decision-making processes. These semi-structured interviews were conducted in a way that
respected the cultural and individual diversity of the participants, allowing for a comprehensive
exploration of their experiences.
A phenomenological study was appropriate for this study to capture detailed descriptions
of the lived experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students during their career
decisionmaking process. Giorgi (2020) observed that a phenomenological study was vital to
discovering the essence of the career decision-making process and self-efficacy as future
counselor educators. This methodology revealed a deeper understanding of how cultural and
socioeconomic factors shape career decision-making processes for BIPOC CES doctoral students
in graduate education. While using phenomenological methods to study these lived experiences,
it is also important to understand the strengths and weaknesses of this study design.
Strengths
The phenomenological research design offers several strengths that align with the
research goal and methodology. One of its key advantages is its ability to provide an in-depth and
holistic understanding of subjective experiences (Cypress, 2018; Giorgi, 2020). By capturing the
unique narratives and viewpoints of BIPOC CES doctoral students, this design generated a rich
and authentic portrayal of their career decision-making journey. Focusing on individual
perspectives enables a deeper exploration of the cultural, social, and economic factors
influencing their choices.
The flexibility and adaptability of phenomenological research design will allow the
researchers to tailor the interviews and analysis to the specific needs and contexts of the
participants. This flexibility is crucial when dealing with diverse experiences and perspectives
within the BIPOC CES doctoral student population. Furthermore, the insights derived from this
design have the potential to contribute to the development of new theories and frameworks,
shedding light on underexplored areas of research and creating opportunities for deeper
exploration (Creswell & Poth, 2024).
Phenomenological research design can help generate new insights and understandings
about the phenomenon being studied, mainly when applied to underexplored or complex research
areas (Creswell & Poth, 2024). This allows the researcher to dive deep into underexplored areas
of research and create new knowledge for deeper exploration as well as new theories. Overall, a
phenomenological research design is a valuable approach that can provide rich, detailed insights
into individuals' subjective experiences and interpretations, helping to deepen our understanding
of the world around us.
Weaknesses
While the phenomenological research design offers valuable insights, it is important to
acknowledge its limitations and potential weaknesses. One significant challenge is establishing
reliability and validity, which are essential concepts in research methodology (Creswell &
Creswell, 2022; Giorgi, 2020). Reliability is the extent to which a research study can consistently
produce the same results across various instances and different researchers (Creswell &
Cresswell, 2022). A research study is considered reliable when it produces the same or similar
results when repeated under the same conditions. Methods such as test-retest reliability and
interrater reliability are used to establish reliability (Creswell & Creswell, 2022; Giorgi, 2020).
Validity refers to the degree to which a research study accurately measures the intended
concept or construct (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). Establishing validity ensures that the research
findings genuinely reflect the phenomenon under investigation (Creswell & Creswell, 2022).
Different types of validity, such as content, construct, and criterion validity, each address unique
aspects of measurement accuracy. These can be achieved through various methods, including
triangulation, peer review, and pre-testing of research instruments (Creswell & Creswell, 2022;
Giorgi, 2020). Employing these techniques enhances the credibility and reliability of the research
results.
Another concern that was addressed was researcher bias, also known as experimenter bias
or researcher effects. Researcher bias refers to the influence of the researcher's personal beliefs,
values, and expectations on the research process and outcomes (Creswell & Poth, 2004). It can
occur at any stage of the research process, including study design, data collection, and data
analysis. Researcher bias can impact the validity and reliability of research results, as well as the
generalizability of the findings. Methods such as blinding, peer review, and reflexivity are used
to reduce the impact of bias (Creswell & Creswell, 2022; Giorgi, 2020).
Giorgi's (2020) phenomenological research method provides a structured approach to
minimizing researcher bias by emphasizing the suspension of preconceived notions and
assumptions about the phenomenon under study. This is achieved through the process of
bracketing, where researchers consciously set aside their biases and preconceived ideas to fully
immerse themselves in participants' experiences (Giorgi, 2020). Additionally, Giorgi incorporates
epoché, a process where researchers suspend all judgments and preconceptions to view the
phenomenon with fresh eyes (Giorgi, 2020). The method also involves imaginative variation,
considering different perspectives and possibilities to uncover the essence of the phenomenon.
Multiple stages of analysis are employed, including extracting meaning units and developing
thematic clusters, ensuring that interpretations are grounded in data rather than preconceptions
(Giorgi, 2020). This structured approach is particularly effective for exploring the lived
experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral students, as it allows for a comprehensive examination of
their career decision-making processes and the complexities of their educational and professional
journeys. To enhance research credibility, researcher journaling is employed, involving detailed
notes on the research process and the researcher’s own thoughts and reactions (Creswell &
Creswell, 2022). Reflexivity, a continuous process of self-reflection to identify and mitigate
personal biases, is also utilized, encouraging researchers to critically examine their assumptions
throughout the process, fostering a more objective understanding (Creswell & Creswell, 2022;
Ozuem et al., 2022). By integrating these practices, researchers can actively mitigate bias and
bolster the rigor and validity of their qualitative inquiries.
In looking at these weaknesses, reliability, validity, and researcher bias, it is easy to see
how they interact with the challenge of a small sample size. First, the small sample size may
limit the generalizability of the findings, as the results may only apply to the smaller sample
group or individuals within it (Creswell & Poth, 2024). Second, the researcher's interpretation of
the data may introduce bias or subjectivity into the analysis, reducing the transferability of the
findings. This could reveal researcher bias and potentially only reflect the researchers' opinions.
Furthermore, the researcher's ability to establish validity and ensure replicability of findings may
be compromised. Third, the phenomenological research design's emphasis on standardized
procedures and methods may impact the study's reliability, making it challenging to duplicate and
compare findings across different studies (Creswell & Poth, 2024). Additionally, the approach's
in-depth interviews and data collection methods can be time and resource-intensive (Creswell &
Poth, 2024).
Despite these challenges, the phenomenological research design is well-suited to provide
rich and nuanced insights into the lived experiences of individuals or groups (Cypress, 2018).
This approach is particularly valuable for exploring subjective experiences, emotions, and
perspectives, making significant contributions to fields like psychology, sociology, and
education, where understanding human experiences is paramount (Cypress, 2018). Researchers
should thoroughly consider these factors when determining whether to adopt this approach
(Creswell & Poth, 2024). Given the central focus on delving into subjective experiences and
attaining a profound comprehension of a specific phenomenon, the phenomenological research
design method harmonizes effectively with the objectives of the current study (Bhangu et al.,
2023).
Phenomenological research design is aptly suited to deeply explore the lived experiences
of individuals or groups, yielding intricate and profound insights into complex phenomena
(Cypress, 2018; Giorgi, 2020). It is particularly relevant for investigating subjective experiences,
emotions, and perspectives, which can prove challenging to capture using alternative research
methods (Cypress, 2018; Giorgi, 2020). This is why the phenomenological research design finds
frequent application in disciplines such as psychology, sociology, and education, where the
elucidation of human experiences is a pivotal research aim (Cypress, 2018). Notwithstanding the
inherent strengths and weaknesses of the phenomenological research design, researchers are
encouraged to thoroughly assess all pertinent factors when determining the appropriateness of
this approach for their research endeavors (Creswell & Poth, 2024). Given the primary objective
of the researcher to delve into subjective experiences and achieve a profound understanding of a
specific phenomenon, the phenomenological research design method emerges as the most
suitable choice.
This qualitative approach was selected because it aligns with the study's goal of
comprehending the complex interplay of cultural and socio-economic factors influencing
participants' career choices (Bhangu et al., 2023; Cypress, 2018; Giorgi, 2020). The design's
strength in eliciting detailed descriptions, accommodating diverse perspectives, and fostering
potential theoretical advancements underscores its appropriateness (Cypress, 2018; Giorgi, 2020;
Creswell & Poth, 2024). While facing challenges like reliability, validity, and researcher bias,
these issues will be carefully addressed through methods like triangulation, peer review, and
reflexivity (Creswell & Creswell, 2022; Creswell & Poth, 2024; Giorgi, 2020). In essence, a
phenomenological research design is the optimal choice for illuminating the distinctive
experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral students and advancing our understanding of their career
decision-making journeys in this study. The phenomenological approach is well-suited to explore
the lived experiences of individuals and understand the essence of their experiences (Bhangu et
al., 2023; Giorgi, 2020; Houser, 2020).
Rationale for Methodological Approach
The choice of Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological method for this study is driven by
its ability to capture the richness and depth of lived experiences, making it an ideal approach to
exploring the career decision-making processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. This
method prioritizes understanding participants' subjective realities and focuses on uncovering the
essence of shared experiences, which aligns with the study's aim to explore how intersecting
factors such as race, geography, and systemic inequities influence career paths. Giorgi’s method
provides a rigorous, systematic framework for data analysis, including breaking data into
meaning units, transforming them into psychological insights, and synthesizing them into themes
that reflect the essence of participants' experiences (Giorgi, 2009). Its emphasis on a
contextsensitive approach allows researchers to delve into the complex interplay of personal,
sociocultural, and structural factors shaping career decision-making, particularly among
underrepresented populations. Additionally, the method builds on a strong tradition of
phenomenological research, which has been effectively employed in similar studies to examine
the lived experiences of marginalized groups in education and career development (Creswell &
Poth, 2018; Moustakas, 1994). For example, Giorgi’s approach has been utilized in studies
addressing systemic barriers faced by minority students in higher education, underscoring its
applicability in understanding nuanced and underexplored phenomena (Abendstern et al., 2019).
Although this study is primarily qualitative, the insights gained from Giorgi’s method could
inform or complement quantitative findings in future research, reinforcing the importance of
integrating qualitative depth with broader patterns identified through mixed methods approaches
(Abendstern et al., 2019; Creswell, 2014). By employing Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological
method, this study ensures a robust, nuanced exploration of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students’
career decision-making processes, capturing both the depth of individual experiences and the
shared themes essential to understanding this complex phenomenon.
Sampling
The qualitative research design chosen for this study is phenomenological, focusing on
the lived experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral students. Phenomenological research allows for a
deep understanding of participants' personal perceptions and subjective experiences. This section
will describe the characteristics of the sample, the sampling frame, and the specific inclusion and
exclusion criteria used to select participants. The goal is to ensure that the sample is
representative of the broader population of BIPOC CES doctoral students, facilitating an indepth
exploration of their career decision-making processes.
Sample and Population
The target population for this study comprises rural BIPOC CES doctoral students in the
United States. This population is characterized by individuals pursuing advanced degrees in
counseling, to become educators and supervisors within the counseling profession. These
individuals often face unique challenges and experiences related to their racial and cultural
backgrounds, as well as the rural settings in which they live and study.
Sample Characteristics
For this study, a purposive sampling strategy was employed to select participants who met
the inclusion criteria. The criteria for inclusion were: current enrollment as a doctoral student in a
CES program or previous enrollment within the last year; enrollment or prior enrollment in a
CES doctoral program accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related
Educational Programs (CACREP); identification as BIPOC; current or prior residence in a rural
community, defined as a population of 49,999 or less, within the past year; being at least 18 years
old; and willingness to consent to have responses used for research purposes. These criteria
ensured that participants had the necessary background and context to provide relevant insights
into the research questions.
The sample aimed to reflect the diversity within the target population in terms of
racial/ethnic identity, gender, age, and socioeconomic background. Efforts were made to recruit
participants from various geographic regions to capture a broad range of rural experiences. The
final sample size consisted of 10 participants, which was sufficient to provide rich, in-depth data
for phenomenological analysis while maintaining feasibility for conducting semi-structured
interviews.
By carefully selecting a diverse sample, the study sought to capture the nuanced
experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. This approach allowed for a deep exploration
of how their unique cultural, social, and professional backgrounds influenced their career
decision-making processes, shedding light on factors that might be overlooked in more
homogeneous populations. The insights gathered from this diverse group were aimed at
broadening the understanding of career pathways within CES doctoral programs, particularly for
individuals from rural and underrepresented communities.
Population Characteristics
The population for this study comprises individuals from a diverse mix of racial and
ethnic identities, including those who identify as Black or African American, Native American,
Hispanic or Latino, Asian, and Pacific Islander. According to the most recent data from the
American Psychological Association (APA, 2022), individuals from these backgrounds represent
a significant portion of the field, though exact statistics may vary by subfield and geographic
location. The gender distribution in this population includes male and female individuals, as well
as non-binary and gender non-conforming persons (CACREP, 2024). National trends indicate a
higher percentage of female students in counseling programs, with the latest data from CACREP
(2024) showing that a substantial proportion of doctoral students in CES programs are female
(Bender & Werries, 2021). Additionally, participants in this study will have completed a master's
degree in counseling or a closely related field, which is a prerequisite for admission into CES
doctoral programs (CACREP, 2024). Many students also bring prior professional experience in
counseling practice, which provides a strong foundation for their doctoral studies (Kemer et al.,
2022).
The age range of CES doctoral students typically spans from the mid-20s to late 40s,
reflecting varying career stages when individuals pursue advanced education (Davidson et al.,
2020). Many students in this population enter doctoral programs after accumulating professional
experience, often in their early 30s, which can influence their academic trajectories (Davidson et
al., 2020). Socioeconomic status within this group varies, with many CES doctoral students
coming from low- to middle-income backgrounds, often balancing academic demands with
financial pressures and family obligations (Bright, 2020; Hays, 2020). Understanding the
intersection of socioeconomic challenges with educational pursuits is key to exploring their
career decision-making processes, as it significantly shapes their access to resources and
opportunities (Johnson, 2019; Singh et al., 2020).
Sample Size Rationale
The sample size was chosen based on Creswell and Creswell’s (2022) recommendation
for Phenomenological studies as well as Capella University guidelines, which recommend a
minimum of 10 participants. However, the study continued recruiting participants until data
saturation was reached. The rationale for selecting a sample size of approximately 10-15
participants in this phenomenological study on the lived experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral
students is based on several key considerations. As emphasized by Giorgi (2020),
phenomenological research seeks a profound understanding of individual experiences, and a
smaller sample size allows for a thorough examination of each participant's unique perspective,
contributing to the richness of qualitative data. This approach aligns with the qualitative tradition
that values depth over breadth, emphasizing a detailed exploration of individual cases (Giorgi,
2020; Williams, 2021).
Given the complexity of the phenomena under investigation, a smaller, more manageable
sample size is deemed appropriate. Qualitative studies, including phenomenological research,
demand significant time and resources for data collection, transcription, and analysis (Cypress,
2018; Giorgi, 2020). Therefore, a moderate sample size aligns with available resources, ensuring
a thorough and rigorous analysis within the confines of the study's scope.
In qualitative research, the emphasis is on the quality rather than the quantity of data. A
smaller sample size allows for a comprehensive examination of individual cases, contributing to
a nuanced understanding of the experiences under investigation (Giorgi, 2020; Williams, 2021).
This approach aligns with the principles of phenomenological research, where the goal is to
uncover the essence of the phenomenon.
Saturation, a key concept in qualitative research, is the point at which new information
ceases to emerge (Cypress, 2018). By focusing on a smaller sample size, the researcher aims to
achieve saturation more effectively, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon
(Cypress, 2018). This strategy aligns with the phenomenological tradition, acknowledging that
meaningful insights can be gained from a focused exploration of fewer cases (Giorgi, 2020).
Additionally, interview length can play a crucial role in increasing the validity of qualitative
research findings.
In Giorgi's phenomenological approach, the duration of interviews is not rigidly
prescribed; instead, researchers conduct interviews until they feel they have obtained a
comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon and have reached saturation, where new
information ceases to emerge. Saturation is achieved when the data collected from participants
becomes repetitive and no new themes or insights are discovered, indicating that the
phenomenon has been thoroughly explored (Giorgi, 2020). Creswell and Creswell (2022)
describe saturation as the point in qualitative research where additional data does not lead to new
information or understanding, ensuring that the research findings are comprehensive and
wellfounded. Low (2019) also emphasizes that longer interviews, typically ranging from 60 to 90
minutes, contribute to reaching saturation by allowing for a deeper exploration of participants'
experiences and perspectives. Integrating strategies such as longer interviews alongside a focused
exploration of a smaller sample size enables researchers to gather in-depth and comprehensive
data, contributing to the validity of their qualitative inquiries.
The chosen sample size considers the diversity within the BIPOC CES doctoral student
population. A smaller but diverse group of participants allows for a detailed exploration of the
influence of cultural and socio-economic factors on career decision-making processes (Williams,
2021). This aligns with the study's overarching goal of capturing the complexity and richness of
individual experiences within the specific context of counselor education.
The selected sample size reflects a carefully considered balance between the need for
depth in phenomenological exploration, available resources, and the desire to capture the diverse
and nuanced experiences of BIPOC CES doctoral students. This rationale ensures that the study
remains rigorous, focused, and capable of providing valuable insights into the complex nature of
career decision-making within the context of counselor education.
Procedures
This section delineates the comprehensive methods employed in the research study to
safeguard participant rights and ensure the accurate reflection of experiences within the targeted
population. Purposive sampling was the primary sampling method, selecting participants based
on specific criteria related to their demographic characteristics and career decision-making
experiences (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). Participants were selected based on predetermined
factors related to demographic characteristics and their experiences in career decision-making.
The purposive sampling approach involved a prescreening process through a screening
questionnaire using Google Forms, allowing for the identification of eligible participants.
Eligible participants received a recruitment email providing detailed information about the study
and inviting them to participate in semi-structured individual interviews lasting approximately
60-90 minutes. Upon expressing interest, participants were contacted by phone to schedule their
interview date and time. Participants were then emailed the adult consent form via DocuSign, a
secure electronic signature platform, providing study details and securing their informed consent
(DocuSign Inc., 2022). This method ensured that participants had access to comprehensive
information about the study and could provide their consent securely.
To address any questions or concerns, participants were given the opportunity to
communicate with the researcher before signing the consent form. Additionally, a tentative date
and time for the semi-structured interview was provided, and the participant was asked to sign
and return the consent form before the scheduled interview. This process ensured that
participants were fully informed, willingly consented to participation, and had the opportunity for
clarifications as needed. In-depth semi-structured interviews served as the primary data
collection method, allowing for an in-depth exploration of participants' experiences (Cypress,
2018). The interviews were recorded to capture participants' responses comprehensively, and the
recordings were transcribed verbatim using Zoom for easy analysis. The researcher then listened
to the recorded audio while reviewing the Zoom transcription to ensure accuracy. This allowed
the researcher to comprehensively capture the participants' responses for accurate analysis. The
iterative data analysis process involved data reduction, categorization, and interpretation to
identify common themes and patterns (Creswell & Creswell, 2022). Through these rigorous
procedures, the researcher gained a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students during the career decision-making process in the U.S.
Participant Selection
In qualitative research, purposeful sampling is utilized to select information-rich cases
relevant to the phenomenon being investigated (Kalu, 2019). For this study, purposive sampling
was combined with snowball sampling to identify participants capable of providing in-depth
insights within the context of descriptive phenomenological research. The participant selection
process began with outreach through online platforms, including Facebook groups, Listservs, and
professional counseling association forums, strategically chosen to reach communities likely to
include rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. These platforms served as initial recruitment
channels to connect with individuals who met the study's criteria.
Once potential participants expressed interest, each was sent an email inviting them to
schedule a phone call to discuss their eligibility and arrange the interview. During this
prescreening call, participants were informed about the study’s purpose, confidentiality
protocols, and the voluntary nature of their involvement. Following this initial recruitment,
snowball sampling was employed, where current participants were encouraged to recommend
other individuals who met the study’s criteria. This secondary recruitment method allowed the
study to reach additional participants who might not have been accessed through purposive
sampling alone, broadening the range of perspectives included in the research.
As an incentive for participation and in appreciation of their time, each participant who
successfully completed the study received a $25 Amazon gift card. By combining purposive and
snowball sampling methods, this study ensured a diverse and information-rich participant pool,
providing a comprehensive understanding of career decision-making among rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students. This approach not only strengthened the study’s methodological rigor but also
fostered a sense of community and trust among participants, enhancing the depth of the data
collected.
Eligible participants who were invited to interview received the informed consent form
via DocuSign. The researcher then contacted each participant to review the consent form, answer
any questions, and schedule the interview. Once the signed informed consent form was received,
it was securely stored on an encrypted hard drive in accordance with the data security protocols
outlined in the study. This process ensured that participants fully understood the study's purpose,
procedures, and their rights before proceeding with the interview
Data Collection
After prescreening and providing informed consent, eligible participants were invited to
participate in an in-depth, semi-structured interview, which served as the primary data collection
method for this study. The semi-structured interviews were conducted in a private and secure
location to ensure confidentiality. Interviews were scheduled at a convenient time for each
participant and conducted over the phone or via a virtual platform, allowing for flexible
participation regardless of geographical location. The interview protocol was designed to
encourage open, reflective responses, providing participants with the opportunity to share
detailed insights into their career decision-making experiences. Each interview lasted
approximately 60 minutes, with questions structured to explore themes relevant to the research
objectives while allowing for organic discussion. This approach helped capture the complexity
and richness of participants' perspectives, essential for the descriptive phenomenological
approach of the study. As a token of appreciation, participants received a $25 Amazon gift card
upon completion of their interview, recognizing their valuable contributions to the research.
In line with best practices for qualitative research, the interview process aimed to achieve
theoretical saturation, as defined by Low (2019), focusing on the point at which further data
collection fails to yield new insights or deepen the understanding of existing themes. Saturation
was monitored throughout data collection, with ongoing analysis to assess when no additional
information emerged across interviews. By the 10th interview, theoretical saturation was
achieved, ensuring a comprehensive capture of participants' experiences in alignment with the
study's phenomenological approach. An 11th interview was conducted due to a data loss issue
with participant P06; however, this interview aligned with the themes established in the previous
interviews and did not yield additional insights or deepen the understanding of existing themes.
No physical transportation of data was necessary. Audio recordings and transcriptions
were handled using secure, encrypted devices and platforms. The research used Zoom to conduct
the virtual interviews and Zoom’s secure transcription service. All electronic data, including
audio recordings and transcriptions, were encrypted using strong encryption standards (e.g.,
AES-256) during storage and transmission. Data collected via Google Forms was downloaded to
an encrypted, password-protected hard drive immediately after collection. Electronic data was
stored on a secure, password-protected computer and backed up on an encrypted external hard
drive. Both devices were kept in a locked cabinet when not in use. Personal identifiers were
stored in a separate encrypted file, ensuring they are not linked to the data directly. Backup
copies of all audio files, transcripts, original data, and surveys were made regularly. These
backups were stored on an encrypted, password-protected external hard drive, which is kept in a
separate locked file cabinet. Although physical transport of data is not necessary, if it becomes
necessary, encrypted USB devices or password-protected hard drives will be used and carried in
locked containers to prevent unauthorized access during transport.
Upon completing the informed consent process, participants were asked demographic
questions regarding their age, gender, and race verbally by the researcher. They then scheduled a
remote, semi-structured interview. The interviews were conducted using the HIPAA-compliant
video conferencing platform Zoom, ensuring remote accessibility for all participants. Each
interview, lasted a minimum of 60 minutes, was conducted in a setting chosen by the participant
to facilitate open and candid discussions about their career decision-making experiences
(Cypress, 2018).
Throughout these interviews, participants shared their experiences, emotions, and
thoughts related to their career decision-making process. Prior consent was obtained to record
audio, with participants' identities safeguarded through pseudonyms during transcription. Raw
interview data, transcripts, and consent forms are securely stored on encrypted,
passwordprotected USB drives and computer hard drives to ensure data confidentiality and
participant anonymity (Burr & Gibson, 2018).
Instruments
This study used a set of carefully chosen instruments aligned with the qualitative research
design and phenomenological approach, aiming to explore the career decision-making
experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students (Kalu, 2019). The instruments utilized in this
study include the researcher as the primary instrument, semi-structured interviews, screening and
demographic questionnaires, reflective journaling, Google Forms, Dedoose, DocuSign, Zoom,
and a digital recorder. Each of these tools plays a crucial role in ensuring a comprehensive and
nuanced understanding of the participants' lived experiences. Similar methods have been
successfully used in previous studies to capture rich, detailed data and provide deeper insights
into participants' perspectives (Spellman et al., 2022; Vernam et al., 2022; Williams, 2021).
Role of the Researcher
In qualitative studies, the researcher serves as the primary instrument of data collection.
The role of the researcher involves collecting demographic information, conducting
semistructured interviews, and engaging in reflective journaling. The researcher’s qualifications
include extensive training in qualitative research methods, particularly phenomenological
approaches, through both academic coursework and supervised research projects. Reviewing
prerecorded workshops and seminars focused on qualitative interviewing techniques and data
analysis was also done by the researcher. To mitigate potential biases, the researcher engaged in
bracketing, a process of acknowledging and setting aside preconceived notions and experiences
to approach the research with an open mind.
Screening Questionnaire
The screening questionnaire included specific criteria designed to identify participants
who matched the study’s focus. It gathered information on participants' demographics, academic
backgrounds, and geographical locations to confirm eligibility. This preliminary step was
essential in ensuring that only individuals who fit the study’s criteria proceeded to the next stage
of recruitment. By collecting these details, the questionnaire facilitated a focused selection
process, helping to create a sample that accurately represented rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students.
Demographic Questions
After screening potential participants and receiving informed consent, eligible individuals
were verbally asked demographic questions at the start of the semi-structured interviews. These
questions collect data beyond the initial eligibility criteria, including detailed information
regarding participants' age, race, and gender. This information was essential to ensure
participants met study requirements, to provide context for understanding the data, and to explore
how individual characteristics intersect with broader social contexts to influence career decisions
among rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. Additionally, collecting demographic data supports
subgroup analysis and helps evaluate the representativeness of the sample for broader
applicability.
Guiding Interview Questions
The primary method for gathering collective insights is through individual interviews
conducted via Zoom, a HIPAA-compliant and secure platform. This structured discussion forum
incorporates open-ended questions, allowing participants to openly share their career
decisionmaking experiences (Kalu, 2019). The guiding interview questions are designed to elicit
detailed responses and facilitate an in-depth exploration of participants' experiences:
1. Tell me about your career decision-making process throughout your
career journey?
2. Reflecting on your BIPOC identity, please provide examples of how
this has impacted your career choice of pursuing a doctorate in Counselor
Education and Supervision.
3. Describe how being in a rural setting has impacted your career
decisionmaking process.
4. In what ways do you believe your background has shaped your career
aspirations and goals?
Alongside the four primary interview questions, additional probing questions were used
as needed to explore participants' experiences in greater depth. These follow-up questions
provided richer context around areas such as financial barriers, mentorship influences, personal
motivations, and the impact of participants' BIPOC identities on their career decisions. This
flexible approach allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of participants' lived
experiences, aligning with the phenomenological intent to capture these unique perspectives.
Reflective Journaling, Bracketing & Epoche`
Reflective practices, including journaling, bracketing, and epoché, were pivotal
components of this study, particularly within its phenomenological methodology. These practices
enhanced the rigor, transparency, and trustworthiness of the research by addressing biases,
assumptions, and preconceptions that could influence data interpretation. By engaging in
systematic self-reflection, the researcher ensured that the analysis remained grounded in the
participants' lived experiences rather than their own perspectives. This comprehensive approach
allowed the study to maintain alignment with its phenomenological framework, emphasizing
authenticity and credibility throughout the research process.
Reflective journaling provided a structured process for documenting reflections,
observations, and methodological decisions throughout the study. Journaling entries were
recorded immediately after each interview and at the end of each day of data analysis to capture
fresh insights and immediate reactions to the data (Cypress, 2018). These entries included
detailed descriptions of interactions with participants, the researcher’s emotional responses, and
emerging themes or patterns. This practice fostered deeper engagement with the data and ensured
a systematic approach to documenting the research process (Aguas, 2022).
Reflective journaling also served as a valuable audit trail, tracking the evolution of the
researcher’s understanding of the phenomenon over time. Each entry included reflections on
preconceptions and how these might influence data interpretation, enabling the researcher to
proactively identify and address biases. Periodic reviews of earlier journal entries allowed for the
identification of shifts in understanding and interpretation, ensuring that the analysis remained
aligned with the participants’ experiences rather than the researcher’s assumptions. This iterative
review process reinforced the study's credibility and ensured its findings were grounded in
authentic participant narratives.
Additionally, journaling enabled the researcher to document methodological decisions
and the reasoning behind them, contributing to the overall rigor of the study. By maintaining a
consistent and introspective stance, the researcher addressed potential conflicts of interest
stemming from a vested interest in understanding the experiences of BIPOC individuals in higher
education and the counseling profession. The journal also served as a reflective mirror, helping
the researcher navigate emotional responses and remain attuned to the ethical responsibilities of
engaging deeply with participants' lived experiences.
Bracketing, a key element of phenomenological research, involved setting aside
preconceived notions, biases, and assumptions about the phenomenon under study. Before each
interview, the researcher engaged in bracketing exercises to consciously recognize and set aside
their assumptions, approaching participants’ experiences with an open mind (Giorgi, 2020).
These exercises were informed by the researcher’s reflective journal entries, which documented
immediate reactions and insights, providing a foundation for the bracketing process. This
deliberate effort required significant self-discipline and attentiveness, ensuring that the researcher
consistently upheld the principles of phenomenological inquiry.
Through careful documentation and reflective practices, the researcher remained vigilant
about minimizing the influence of personal biases on the data collection and analysis processes.
Bracketing emphasized the importance of suspending judgment, allowing the researcher to
engage fully with the data and respect the participants' unique perspectives. By systematically
applying bracketing techniques throughout the study, the research maintained alignment with the
core principles of phenomenology and upheld its commitment to credibility and rigor.
The concept of epoché, derived from phenomenological philosophy, was also employed
to minimize personal biases during the research process. Epoché involves suspending judgment
and setting aside preconceptions to gain a clearer understanding of participants’ experiences
(Moustakas, 1994). By engaging in epoché, the researcher actively sought to suspend their own
experiences and assumptions, allowing the participants' voices to emerge authentically in the
research findings. This intentional practice required continuous self-awareness and deliberate
focus on maintaining objectivity.
The process of engaging in epoché was documented in reflective journals, which served
as a record of the researcher’s efforts to maintain objectivity. These journal entries not only
provided insight into the researcher’s engagement with epoché but also supported the bracketing
process by reinforcing the commitment to minimizing biases. This systematic documentation
ensured that the analysis adhered to the phenomenological framework and maintained fidelity to
the participants' lived experiences.
Epoché played a crucial role in ensuring that the analysis reflected the lived experiences
of the participants rather than the researcher’s interpretations or preconceived notions. By
integrating this practice with reflective journaling and bracketing, the researcher was able to
enhance the transparency and authenticity of the findings. This disciplined approach aligned with
the phenomenological framework and ensured that the study’s outcomes were firmly rooted in
the participants’ realities.
Together, these reflective practices contributed significantly to the transparency and
credibility of the research. All journal entries were recorded in a secure digital format and stored
on encrypted, password-protected devices to ensure confidentiality. This secure documentation
process allowed the researcher to revisit insights throughout the analysis, facilitating a deeper
engagement with the data and enhancing the study’s trustworthiness.
By consistently recording shifts in interpretation and the reasoning behind
methodological decisions, the researcher minimized potential biases and strengthened the study’s
rigor. The integration of reflective journaling, bracketing, and epoché ensured that the research
process remained grounded in the participants’ experiences, contributing to a richer and more
authentic understanding of the phenomenon under study. This multifaceted approach to
selfreflection and bias management exemplifies the importance of transparency and credibility in
qualitative research, particularly within a phenomenological framework.
Google Forms
Google Forms was used for administering the screening questionnaire. This platform
allows for efficient distribution and collection of data, providing a user-friendly interface for
participants to submit their responses. Google Forms ensures that all data is systematically
organized and easily accessible for analysis.
Dedoose
Dedoose is a web-based qualitative data analysis software that supports the organization,
management, and analysis of qualitative data (Dedoose, 2021). It aids researchers in identifying
patterns and themes within large volumes of data, enhancing the depth and rigor of the analysis
by providing a structured approach to coding and categorizing participant experiences.
DocuSign
DocuSign was used to obtain informed consent from participants securely and efficiently.
This electronic signature platform ensures that the consent process is compliant with ethical
standards and provides a clear record of participants' agreement to take part in the study.
DocuSign streamlines the consent process, making it accessible and straightforward for
participants.
Zoom
Zoom, a HIPAA-compliant video conferencing software, was selected for conducting
semi-structured interviews. According to Zoom Video Communications (2023), the platform
offers secure data transmission and reliable recording features, supporting the integrity,
confidentiality and accuracy of captured data.
Data Analysis
This section outlines the systematic steps taken to analyze the data, establishing a solid
foundation of methodological precision, as recommended in phenomenological research (Bhangu
et al., 2023; Creswell & Poth, 2024). The primary data source for this study was semi-structured
interviews, which allowed for an in-depth exploration of participants' experiences. No other data
types, such as observations or artifacts, were utilized. Semi-structured interviews are particularly
useful in qualitative research for capturing complex and multifaceted experiences, as noted by
Bhangu et al. (2023). In qualitative research, aligning methods with the unique characteristics of
each data type is crucial to obtaining meaningful insights (Creswell, 2022; Braun et al., 2023).
The data analysis process began with verbatim transcription of interview recordings into
electronic text to accurately preserve participants' narratives. The researcher personally
conducted the transcriptions to enhance familiarity with the data. Master copies of transcripts
were securely stored on encrypted, password-protected devices, while working copies were used
in Dedoose, a qualitative analysis software. Dedoose Version 9.0.17 was employed to aid in
organizing, coding, and categorizing the data (Dedoose Version 9.0.17, 2021). This software
facilitated efficient data management by allowing the researcher to tag specific quotes and
passages, group similar codes, and track emerging themes across interviews, ensuring that the
analysis remained comprehensive and grounded in participants' narratives.
Each transcript was thoroughly reviewed toto identify and extract relevant quotes,
allowing for closer engagement with participants' narratives. Through this iterative process,
recurring themes and patterns began to emerge, forming the basis for further analysis and
categorization. Phenomenological research often recommends such an iterative approach, where
data collection and analysis continually inform each other, fostering a deeper understanding and
enabling themes to develop naturally (Creswell, 2022). By adhering to this iterative process, the
analysis remained grounded in the participants’ voices, gradually revealing overarching themes
that reflect their lived experiences.
The analysis followed Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological method, which emphasizes
a structured framework for uncovering the essence of participants' experiences. A key component
of this approach is epoché, a practice described by Moustakas (1994) and Giorgi (2020), where
personal judgments and biases are set aside to approach the data with openness and neutrality.
The researcher maintained a reflective journal throughout the study to bracket personal
perspectives, thereby enhancing objectivity and ensuring an accurate understanding of
participants’ narratives.
The process of transitioning from meaning units to themes involved several steps to
ensure that themes accurately reflected participants’ lived experiences. First, meaning units—
defined as the smallest data segments holding independent meaning—were extracted from each
transcript. These meaning units were carefully grouped into clusters based on similarities,
patterns, or shared significance, which allowed for an initial organization of the data. The
researcher utilized Dedoose’s coding tools, including co-occurrence matrices and frequency
charts, to identify clusters of meaning units that consistently appeared across transcripts.
To determine whether a cluster of meaning units qualified as a theme, the researcher
followed Giorgi’s (2020) descriptive phenomenological approach. Specifically, meaning units
were reviewed for their psychological significance and relevance to the research question, with a
focus on how they contributed to the essence of participants’ lived experiences. Themes were
identified as patterns that captured shared meanings and significant psychological insights into
the phenomenon, irrespective of their frequency of occurrence, as supported by Giorgi (2020).
Patterns that emerged from a subset of participants were elevated to themes when they provided
profound insights into the lived experience under study.
Dedoose supported this process by enabling systematic comparisons between codes and
ensuring consistency in the identification of themes. Creswell and Poth (2024) emphasize that
themes in qualitative research should represent significant aspects of the dataset that enhance
understanding of the research question, capturing both shared experiences and individual
nuances. Similarly, Ozuem et al. (2022) underscore that themes should reflect meaningful,
recurring patterns that provide rich insights into the data rather than being defined solely by
numerical thresholds.
In this study, themes were defined as recurring patterns or ideas that captured significant
psychological insights and shared meanings across participants, regardless of the frequency of
their occurrence. This approach aligns with Creswell and Poth’s (2024) guidance that themes
should capture meaningful aspects of the dataset while allowing for individual nuances.
Subthemes were not delineated, as all clusters of meaning units were treated as themes if they
contributed to understanding the phenomenon and answering the research question. Giorgi’s
(2020) method further supports this approach by emphasizing the psychological significance of
themes over rigid numerical thresholds. Ozuem et al. (2022) similarly advocate treating patterns
as themes when they offer rich and significant insights into participants’ lived experiences.
Software for Data Analysis
Qualitative analytic software enhances the efficiency and systematic nature of data
analysis, as recommended by Aguas (2022). Dedoose, a web-based qualitative and mixedmethod
analysis software, was selected for this study due to its user-friendly interface, robust features,
and versatility in organizing, coding, and categorizing extensive textual data (Dedoose, 2021).
The software played a critical role in the analytical process by enabling precise tagging of data
segments, grouping related codes into hierarchical categories, and visualizing data relationships
through tools such as co-occurrence matrices and frequency charts. These features facilitated the
identification of overarching themes, such as combining codes related to “financial barriers” and
“mentorship gaps” into broader systemic challenges.
Dedoose’s features were instrumental in bridging the gap between meaning units and
themes. Co-occurrence matrices, for instance, highlighted connections between frequently used
codes across participants, allowing the researcher to group meaning units into clusters that
reflected shared experiences. Frequency charts offered a quantitative perspective on recurring
patterns, providing insights into the prevalence of specific codes. These tools supported a
systematic comparison of data across participants, ensuring that themes were grounded in the
dataset while minimizing researcher bias.
Although Dedoose does not prescribe explicit criteria for theme development, its tools
were utilized in alignment with Giorgi’s (2020) descriptive phenomenological method, Creswell
and Poth’s (2024) qualitative research guidance, and Ozuem et al.’s (2022) thematic analysis
framework. Giorgi’s framework emphasizes the psychological significance of meaning units and
the synthesis of these units into themes that reflect the essence of participants’ lived experiences.
Creswell and Poth (2024) advocate for a structured, systematic approach to qualitative data
analysis, focusing on identifying significant patterns and insights within the dataset. Ozuem et al.
(2022) further underscore the importance of researcher reflexivity and the role of analytical tools
in supporting, rather than dictating, thematic development.
By bracketing preconceptions and focusing solely on the data, the researcher used
Dedoose to cluster and refine codes into themes based on their psychological significance and
relevance to the research question. This approach ensured that the software’s capabilities
facilitated, rather than constrained, analytical decisions, maintaining alignment with the
phenomenological framework and broader qualitative research principles.
Furthermore, Dedoose provided a secure platform for managing the data, ensuring compliance
with ethical standards of confidentiality. Its centralized, web-based interface allowed the
researcher to efficiently organize and retrieve data throughout the analytical process. By
integrating Dedoose’s robust features with Giorgi’s methodological principles, the analysis was
both systematic and grounded in phenomenological rigor, ensuring the credibility and depth of
the findings.
Ethical Considerations
Ethical principles were integral to safeguarding the rights and well-being of all research
participants (Kumar et al., 2020). This study strictly adhered to established ethical guidelines,
ensuring protection for both rural BIPOC and non-rural, non-BIPOC CES doctoral students.
Beyond minimizing risks, ethical considerations also accounted for the potential benefits
participants might gain from the study, aiming to create value for all involved (Wendler, 2020).
The ethical framework guiding this study was based on the American Counseling Association’s
(ACA) Code of Ethics, the Belmont Report's principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and
justice, and the guidelines of the Capella University Institutional Review Board (ACA, 2014;
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
Research, 1979).
Institutional Review Board Approval
IRB approval was obtained from Capella University before initiating the study, ensuring
that all procedures adhered to ethical standards for human research. This approval, referenced by
IRB Approval #2024-771, provided an essential layer of oversight to verify that participant
welfare was prioritized. The IRB’s review process confirmed that ethical considerations,
including confidentiality, informed consent, and risk management, were rigorously addressed.
This formal approval enhanced the transparency and credibility of the study's ethical foundation.
Informed Consent
Following best practices in ethical research, detailed informed consent documents were
provided to participants before data collection began. This approach aligns with established
ethical guidelines that emphasize the importance of informed consent (Yin, 2018). The consent
forms explained the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks, and anticipated benefits,
allowing participants to make an informed decision regarding their involvement. The voluntary
nature of participation and the right to withdraw without penalty were emphasized to reinforce
participants’ autonomy throughout the research. Informed consent was documented through
signed agreements from each participant, ensuring that all were fully aware of their rights.
Participant Rights
Participants were thoroughly informed of their right to ask questions, withdraw from the
study at any point without consequences, and seek clarification on any aspect of the research.
This approach aligns with ethical guidelines that emphasize respect for autonomy and
transparency (Yin, 2018). Encouraging participants to communicate any concerns helped build
an atmosphere of trust, reinforcing the ethical soundness of the study. This commitment to
participant rights contributed to an open, supportive research environment, prioritizing
participant well-being.
Data Protection
Maintaining data security and confidentiality was paramount, following best practices in
qualitative research (Creswell & Poth, 2018). All collected data was stored securely on an
encrypted, password-protected hard drive, with identifying details removed from transcripts to
protect participant privacy. Access to data was strictly limited to the researcher, minimizing the
risk of unauthorized access. These measures ensured that participants’ personal information
remained confidential throughout the study, enhancing the integrity of the research.
Data Destruction
To uphold ethical standards, all study data will be securely destroyed five years after the
study's conclusion, in alignment with standard practices in research (Um & Bardhoshi, 2022).
Digital files will be permanently erased using data-wiping software, and any physical documents
will be shredded to prevent data reconstruction. By adhering to this destruction timeline, the
study respects participant confidentiality beyond the research period, ensuring long-term data
protection. A detailed log of the destruction process will be maintained, documenting compliance
with IRB requirements.
Beneficence
Aligned with the principle of beneficence, the study aimed to maximize potential benefits
while minimizing harm to participants (HHS, 2022). A risk-benefit analysis confirmed that the
insights gained from this research outweighed any potential risks. The focus on rural BIPOC
CES doctoral students aimed to enhance understanding of their unique experiences, with
potential benefits for educational and professional practices. This ethical commitment
underscored the study's role in fostering positive social change and equity within the field
(Bright, 2020; Cartwright et al., 2018).
Justice
The principle of justice, emphasizing fair treatment and equitable distribution of research
benefits, was rigorously observed (HHS, 2022). Participant selection was conducted with fairness
to avoid exploitation, and data handling practices adhered to strict confidentiality measures.
Secure data storage, followed by thorough destruction protocols, ensured that privacy was
maintained from start to finish (Aguas, 2022). This approach exemplified a commitment to
justice, prioritizing participant rights throughout the research lifecycle.
Mitigation of Conflicts of Interest
Recognizing potential conflicts of interest, the researcher engaged in reflexivity to
address personal biases and maintain objectivity (Merleau-Ponty, 2019). Continuous reflection
on assumptions and perspectives minimized bias, while a peer review process provided external
evaluation of the research. External reviewers offered objective feedback on methodology,
analysis, and findings, supporting the study's credibility (Gold, 2021). These measures
safeguarded the integrity of the research and upheld the credibility of the study’s outcomes.
This research was conducted with a solid commitment to ethical principles, encompassing
informed consent, confidentiality, qualifications of the researcher, mitigation of conflicts of
interest, and a comprehensive ethical framework based on the Belmont Report and the ACA
Code of Ethics (; ACA, 2014; HHS, 2022). Ethical considerations extend beyond simply
minimizing risks; they should also include potential benefits for participants, as emphasized by
Wendler (2020). By prioritizing the welfare and rights of all participants, this study aimed to
ensure participants gained meaningful insights and value from their involvement, contributing
valuable knowledge on the experiences of CES doctoral students. This focus could foster positive
changes in counselor education programs, supporting these students' professional development.
Summary
Chapter 3 outlined the research methodology, detailing the phenomenological approach
used to explore the career decision-making experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students.
This chapter covered key elements of the study design, including sampling methods, data
collection, and data analysis, with a strong emphasis on ethical considerations such as IRB
approval, informed consent, and data protection. These methods and safeguards ensured a
rigorous, ethically sound approach to capturing participants' lived experiences. Building on this
foundation, Chapter 4 presents the study’s findings, highlighting the core themes and patterns
that emerged from participants' narratives. This analysis provides a nuanced understanding of the
unique challenges, motivations, and supports shaping the career paths of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS
This study provides rich insights into the career decision-making processes of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students. The purpose of this research was to explore the lived experiences
and perceptions that shape the career choices, goals, and aspirations of this group. Using SCCT
as a guiding framework, the study describes data collected through semi-structured interviews.
This approach offers a deeper understanding of how identity, rurality, and cultural factors
influence career trajectories for these students.
The chapter presents the results of data collection and analysis, focusing on participants’
perceptions of the challenges and facilitators in their career decision-making processes. Key
themes that emerged from the analysis include the influence of cultural identity, educational
access, and support systems in participants' career decisions. The findings also delve into how
rurality and systemic barriers impacted their career paths. This provides a comprehensive view of
the factors shaping these experiences, grounded in participants' narratives and complemented by
a demographic and contextual description of the sample.
An overview of the study and the researcher opens the chapter, detailing the researcher's
personal and professional background, which shaped the focus on rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students. The discussion then shifts to the training and methodological preparations for the study,
with particular emphasis on the use of Giorgi’s (2020) descriptive phenomenological method.
The bracketing process is explored, explaining how the researcher minimized personal biases
during data collection and analysis. Reflexivity follows, highlighting how the researcher’s shared
identity with participants influenced the research process while maintaining objectivity through
reflective journaling.
A detailed description of the study’s participants and recruitment process provides insight
into the diversity of their backgrounds, offering essential context for understanding the data. The
chapter transitions into the presentation of findings, organized by the study’s four primary
interview questions, with additional probing questions used to explore participants' experiences
in greater depth. Key themes were identified using Giorgi’s method, highlighting aspects of
participants' lived experiences in their career decision-making processes, particularly focusing on
financial constraints, cultural identity, and geographical isolation. The chapter concludes by
linking the findings to the SCCT framework, offering an integrated analysis of the structural and
contextual factors shaping the career trajectories of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students.
The Study and the Researcher
My personal and professional background significantly influenced my decision to study
the career decision-making processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. With over 20 years
of experience in career counseling, my passion for helping others grow and achieve their career
goals was fueled. Throughout my career, motivated by a desire to guide individuals on their paths
to success, particularly in underrepresented communities has been present.
As a BIPOC individual who grew up in a rural community, my career journey has been
shaped by the same systemic challenges that many of my participants face. My lived experiences
informed my interest in this research topic, with an understanding of the struggles of navigating
higher education as a BIPOC student from a rural background. During my educational journey, I
encountered difficulties such as access to transportation, internet connectivity issues, and the
long distances required to attend residency programs. These challenges were compounded by the
difficulty of finding internship opportunities while balancing work and family responsibilities.
As someone who meets the criteria for my study, I am deeply invested in understanding and
addressing these barriers.
I initially entered the field of psychology with the belief that all counselors were
psychologists. After completing a master’s degree in psychology, I realized that this path would
not lead me to my desired career. As a result, I shifted my focus to counseling, earned a second
master’s degree in counseling, and achieved several licenses and certifications. I now run my
own private practice in a rural community, where access to mental health services is limited, with
the nearest counselor located over 60 miles away. My own professors played a crucial role in
guiding me toward this field, and it is my hope to provide similar support and mentorship to
others.
Training and Methodological Preparation
In preparation for this research project, I invested significant time in understanding and
mastering Giorgi’s (2020) descriptive phenomenological method to ensure that I could rigorously
apply it to the data analysis process. While I did not undergo formal training in phenomenology
through a structured program, I sought out a variety of resources to deepen my understanding of
the methodology.
I began my training by reading key academic articles that focused on Giorgi’s (202)
approach to descriptive phenomenology, particularly his emphasis on capturing the essence of
lived experiences through the transformation of meaning units into psychological language. I
paid close attention to the process of identifying meaning units within participants’ narratives and
rephrasing them to reflect the core psychological aspects of their experiences, which is a
fundamental aspect of Giorgi’s method.
In addition to scholarly articles, I watched interviews and lectures featuring Giorgi
himself, where he discussed the nuances of his phenomenological approach in qualitative
research. These videos offered practical insights into how Giorgi’s method could be applied to
real-life research scenarios, helping me visualize how to translate raw interview data into
meaningful thematic findings. Giorgi’s emphasis on a structured yet flexible approach to
phenomenological reduction resonated with me and guided my data analysis process.
To further enhance my understanding, I sought guidance from two phenomenologists with
experience in Giorgi’s method. These experts provided me with valuable resources and advice,
helping me refine my approach to phenomenological analysis. I engaged in conversations with
them about the specific challenges I might face when applying Giorgi’s method to the unique
experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, and they offered strategies for managing the
complexities of analyzing data in such a context. Their input also helped me understand how to
remain mindful of the participants’ cultural and systemic challenges while adhering to Giorgi’s
methodological rigor.
Beyond theoretical training, I applied my knowledge of descriptive phenomenology
through practical experiences with data collection and analysis. As a career counselor and
clinician, I had prior experience conducting semi-structured interviews and qualitative research
with diverse populations. These skills were instrumental in ensuring that I could effectively
gather rich, in-depth data from my participants. My counseling background allowed me to build
rapport with participants during interviews, creating a comfortable environment in which they
could share their personal experiences openly and authentically.
I utilized various resources to ensure that my research methods aligned with qualitative
research best practices. I reviewed studies that employed phenomenology to explore complex
human experiences and compared their methodologies to Giorgi’s approach. This comparison
helped me sharpen my understanding of how to adapt Giorgi’s method to a unique research
population, such as rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, and guided me in crafting interview
questions that would elicit rich descriptions of their career decision-making processes.
As I progressed with the research, I continued to reflect on and refine my methodological
approach, ensuring that I adhered closely to Giorgi’s steps for analyzing descriptive data. This
included rigorously applying the four core steps of Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenology: reading
for a holistic understanding, delineating meaning units, transforming meaning units into
psychological descriptions, and synthesizing these into overarching themes. My preparation
allowed me to stay grounded in these steps while remaining open to the unique dimensions that
emerged from the participants' narratives.
My training in Giorgi’s method consisted of a combination of academic study,
consultations with experts, and hands-on application in data collection. This diverse approach
equipped me with the theoretical and practical tools necessary to conduct a robust
phenomenological study that captures the complexity of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students’
lived experiences.
Bracketing and Objectivity
Given my personal and professional proximity to the study's topic, the process of
bracketing was used to ensure that my own experiences and biases did not influence the data
collection and analysis. Bracketing, a critical component of phenomenological research, involved
deliberately setting aside my preconceptions and focusing solely on the participants' experiences.
This practice helped ensure that the data and themes that emerged were genuinely reflective of
the participants' perspectives.
To support this process, I kept a reflective journal throughout the data collection phase.
After each interview, I recorded my thoughts and reactions, which allowed me to acknowledge
my own experiences while maintaining a clear separation from the participants' narratives. This
journaling practice helped me become aware of moments when my own experiences could have
interfered with my interpretation of the data, adding an additional layer of rigor to the research
process. By continuously reflecting on and monitoring my reactions, I ensured that the
participants' voices remained at the forefront of the analysis, authentically representing their
unique perspectives.
Reflexivity
As a rural BIPOC CES doctoral student researching the lived experiences of similar
individuals, I was deeply aware of how my personal background could influence my interactions
with participants and the subsequent analysis. This required a high level of reflexivity, which I
engaged with through reflective journaling and bracketing practices.
Reflective Journaling
Throughout the data collection and analysis process, I maintained a reflective journal to
document my thoughts, emotions, and any potential biases that arose. For instance, after
interviewing P05, I noticed in my journal that I had faced similar challenges related to financial
instability and the emotional toll it takes on one's academic journey. Initially, I found myself
resonating with her story to the point where it could have influenced the themes I identified
during the coding process. However, reviewing my journal entries allowed me to recognize this
bias early on, and I consciously refocused my analysis on P05’s unique experience, ensuring her
voice remained distinct from my own narrative.
Bracketing
To further ensure objectivity, I employed bracketing throughout the analysis phase. This
practice involved deliberately setting aside my personal experiences and preconceived notions to
approach the data with fresh eyes. For example, when analyzing the interviews related to
geographic isolation, I initially found myself focusing more on the shared emotional impact of
isolation, based on my own experiences. Through bracketing, I consciously separated my
experiences from those of the participants, which allowed me to identify more nuanced aspects
of their geographic isolation, such as the logistical barriers to accessing residencies and
internships, which may not have been immediately apparent without this intentional process.
The shared identity between myself and the participants created a unique dynamic in the
research. Many participants expressed comfort in sharing personal and sometimes painful
experiences with someone they perceived to understand their struggles. However, I remained
vigilant to ensure that this closeness did not lead to assumptions about their experiences. By
consistently revisiting my reflective journal and using bracketing, I was able to balance the
rapport-building benefits with the need for objectivity. This approach ensured that the
participants' voices were centered throughout the research process.
Reflexive journaling and bracketing were crucial strategies that allowed me to navigate
my dual roles as both a researcher and someone with a shared identity. These practices helped
maintain the rigor of the study, ensuring that my personal experiences did not overshadow the
participants' unique stories and insights. By remaining aware of my positionality and actively
engaging in these reflexive practices, I was able to accurately represent the lived experiences of
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, while also acknowledging the role that my background
played in shaping the research process.
Description of the Sample
The sample for this study consisted of 10 participants, all of whom were rural BIPOC
CES doctoral students. Participants were recruited through various online platforms, including
Facebook groups, listservs, and professional association websites. Each participant self-identified
as a member of the BIPOC community and was either from a rural background or currently
living and studying in a rural setting. Their ages ranged from 27 to 46 years, and their academic
and professional experiences in the field of counseling varied.
The diverse backgrounds and experiences of the participants allowed for a comprehensive
exploration of the career decision-making processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students,
contributing to a rich understanding of the factors influencing their career trajectories. Table 1
presents the demographic information of the study participants, including their race/ethnicity,
age, gender, and rural background, offering a clear overview of the sample's diversity. This
diversity is essential for understanding the varied experiences reflected in the analysis.
While the sample provided a range of experiences, there were challenges during
recruitment. Some potential participants did not meet the CES doctoral program requirement, and
a few were enrolled in non-CACREP-accredited programs. Additionally, one participant's
interview data (P06) was lost due to a technical malfunction, leaving a final count of 10
interviews for analysis. To ensure confidentiality, each participant’s name and other identifying
information were removed, pseudonyms were assigned (P01-P11), and all data were securely
stored on an encrypted hard drive with restricted access.
Table 1
Participant Demographics
Participant Race/Ethnicity Age Gender Background
P01 Black 27 Female Rural
P02 Black 27 Male Rural
P03 Afro-Latino 32 Female Rural
P04 Black 33 Female Rural
P05 Black 46 Female Rural
P06 Caribbean 40 Female Rural (data lost)
P07 Pacific Islander 35 Female Rural
P08 Black 41 Female Rural
P09 Person of Color 36 Female Rural
P10 Black 41 Male Rural
P11 Nigerian 27 Female Rural
Each participant's experiences provided unique insights into the challenges faced by rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students. Below is a more detailed description of their backgrounds and the
factors that influenced their career decision-making process.
P01, a 27-year-old Black female, grew up in a rural area with limited access to higher
education resources. Despite the challenges, she was determined to pursue her CES doctoral
degree to become a role model for her community.
P02, a 27-year-old Black male, experienced significant geographic isolation during his
studies, which made it difficult for him to find mentorship and networking opportunities. He
relied heavily on online resources to build connections and progress in his career.
P03, a 32-year-old Afro-Latino female, balanced family responsibilities with her studies,
often facing financial strain. Her rural background, coupled with her identity as a first-generation
college student, shaped her career decisions and commitment to completing her doctoral journey.
P04, a 33-year-old Black female, had to navigate systemic barriers in her pursuit of a CES
career. Growing up in a rural area, she lacked exposure to career opportunities in counseling and
had to overcome significant challenges to access higher education.
P05, a 46-year-old Black female, pursued her doctoral degree after working for many
years in the counseling field. Her career trajectory was influenced by financial hardships, which
delayed her educational goals but ultimately strengthened her determination to succeed.
P06, (data was lost) a 40-year-old Caribbean female, faced technological barriers that
impacted her access to coursework and professional development opportunities. Although her
interview data was lost due to technical issues, her experiences reflected the challenges of
balancing multiple roles as a student, professional, and caregiver in a rural environment.
P07, a 35-year-old Pacific Islander female, described the financial and logistical
challenges of attending residencies far from her home. Her experience of feeling disconnected
from the academic community due to her rural location shaped her perceptions of career
opportunities.
P08, a 41-year-old Black female, was motivated to pursue her doctoral degree to address
the lack of representation of BIPOC individuals in counseling, particularly in rural areas. Her
career decisions were shaped by her desire to challenge systemic barriers and serve as a role
model for future generations.
P09, a 36-year-old person of color and female, faced significant challenges as a rural
student of color in a predominantly White academic environment. Her sense of isolation, both
geographically and culturally, influenced her approach to career decision-making and her
commitment to social justice within the counseling profession.
P10, a 41-year-old Black male, balanced his studies with the demands of family life and
full-time employment. The long distances he had to travel for residencies and the financial strain
of his studies were recurring challenges throughout his doctoral journey.
P11, a 27-year-old Nigerian female, described how her rural background limited her
exposure to career opportunities in the counseling field. Despite these challenges, she was
committed to completing her CES doctoral program and contributing to the representation of
BIPOC individuals in the profession."
Participant Recruitment
After receiving IRB approval number 2024-771 on 08/07/2024, recruitment for this study
began by posting the recruitment letter across various platforms. These included Facebook
groups, professional listservs, and association websites. The recruitment campaign generated
significant interest, resulting in over 276 people completing the initial screener within the first
two days. The screener was subsequently closed due to the high volume of responses.
From the 276 responses, the first 68 potential participants were contacted via phone and
email. These participants were asked to verify their responses to ensure that they met the
inclusion criteria for the study. This verification process revealed that several potential
participants were either enrolled in master’s programs or non-CACREP-accredited doctoral
programs, which led to their exclusion. Additionally, some participants were found to be in other
fields outside of CES, further narrowing the pool.
Snowball sampling also contributed to the recruitment process, with four of the final
participants being referred by those who had already completed the screener and interview.
Participants who met the study’s criteria were sent the consent form via email through DocuSign.
Prior to the interviews, participants were given the opportunity to review the consent form and
ask any questions they had regarding their participation in the study. Once the consent form was
signed and returned, interviews were scheduled.
In total, 16 interviews were conducted. However, two participants were found to not be
enrolled in CES doctoral programs, and three interviews were incomplete due to technical issues
on the participant’s end (internet connection), leaving a final sample size of 11 participants. One
interview, that of P06, was lost due to a technology malfunction on the researcher’s side. Data for
the remaining 10 participants were successfully collected and used for the analysis.
Participants were assigned pseudonyms (P01 through P11) to protect their confidentiality.
Identifying information was removed from the transcripts before they were uploaded into
Dedoose for coding and analysis. Dedoose, a web-based qualitative data analysis platform, was
used to manage and code the data. This software facilitated the organization and categorization of
emerging themes from the transcripts by allowing for the systematic coding of participants'
responses. It also supported the comparative analysis of various themes across different
participants, ensuring that the data was handled in a rigorous and organized manner.
Additionally, all data stored on Zoom were downloaded to an encrypted hard drive and deleted
from the platform.
Research Methodology Applied to the Data Analysis
This section describes the data analysis framework used in this study. Giorgi’s descriptive
phenomenological method provides a structured approach for examining lived experiences,
enabling researchers to uncover the essence of participants' narratives (Giorgi,
2020). This method guided the analysis of narratives provided by rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students as they navigated their career decision-making processes. The structured approach
allowed for the identification of essential themes that capture both the "what" and "how" of
participants' experiences. With each stage of analysis, the raw data were distilled into meaningful
insights addressing the study’s research questions. Through this process, specific challenges and
facilitators in participants’ experiences emerged, along with broader structural and contextual
factors influencing their career decisions.
Data Analysis Procedures
The data analysis was based on Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological method, which
focuses on capturing the essence of participants' lived experiences by considering both the
content and context of those experiences. Verbatim transcription was used to preserve
participants' voices accurately and maintain the integrity of their narratives. Each transcript was
read multiple times, allowing for immersion in the data to ensure a comprehensive understanding
of each participant’s perspective. This repeated engagement helped ground the analysis in
participants' experiences while setting a foundation for identifying themes.
Phenomenological reduction was applied to focus on participants' descriptions without
the influence of researcher assumptions or biases. To support objectivity, a reflective journal was
maintained throughout the process, documenting personal reactions and insights, which helped
prevent personal biases from affecting the analysis. This reflective practice contributed to an
analysis grounded firmly in participants' perspectives, enhancing the credibility of the findings.
Following the initial reduction, significant "meaning units" were identified within each
transcript. These meaning units consisted of important statements, phrases, or sections conveying
key aspects of participants' lived experiences. Breaking down the data into these segments
facilitated the extraction of essential elements of participants' stories. Using Dedoose, meaning
units were grouped into clusters that reflected recurring patterns across participants’ narratives.
These clusters were further refined into themes, following the threshold established in Chapter 3.
For example, meaning units describing challenges with accessing resources were combined to
form the theme of geographic isolation, reflecting its shared significance across multiple
participants.
For example, the theme of geographic isolation emerged from meaning units such as
participants describing challenges with accessing residencies, internships, and professional
networking opportunities due to their rural settings. Using Dedoose, codes related to travel
difficulties and feelings of professional isolation were grouped into clusters, which consistently
appeared across the responses of 10 out of 10 participants. These clusters were then categorized
as the theme of geographic isolation, reflecting its significance as a shared experience. This
process adhered to Giorgi’s (2020) method, ensuring that themes captured the essence of
participants’ lived realities.
Textural and structural descriptions were created to further explore participants'
experiences. Textural descriptions focused on what participants explicitly described, while
structural descriptions examined the conditions and contexts that influenced those experiences.
For example, some participants described logistical challenges, financial constraints, and
experiences of racial and cultural isolation that impacted their career decision-making processes.
These descriptions provided a comprehensive view of each participant’s lived experience,
reflecting both their personal narratives and the broader contexts in which these experiences
unfolded.
The final step involved synthesizing the textural and structural descriptions into
overarching themes. This synthesis allowed for a deeper exploration of the interplay between
personal, cultural, and environmental factors, highlighting individual struggles as well as shared
challenges across participants. The resulting thematic analysis offered valuable insights into the
complex factors influencing rural BIPOC CES doctoral students as they navigated their career
paths. Through these themes, the analysis presented a detailed and authentic portrayal of the
lived experiences of this unique group, capturing the multifaceted nature of their career
decisionmaking journey.
According to Giorgi (2020), the strength of this method lies in its ability to distill rich
experiential data into core meanings while preserving the depth of participants' perspectives. This
approach captures both the essence of participants' experiences and the contextual factors
influencing them. Phenomenological reduction, as described by Giorgi, involves setting aside
personal biases to remain fully open to participants' perspectives. This method, supported by
rigorous transcription and iterative engagement with the data, ensures that analysis remains
faithful to participants' voices. Additionally, identifying meaning units within each transcript
allows researchers to highlight significant statements that reflect critical experiential elements, as
emphasized by Creswell & Poth (2024) and Moustakas (1994). This structured process facilitates
the development of both textural and structural descriptions, ultimately leading to themes that
authentically represent participants' lived experiences.
Presentation of Data and Analyses
This section presents the findings in a thematic framework, illuminating the career
decision-making experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. The analysis centers on
themes that emerged from participants’ descriptions, capturing the multifaceted influences
shaping their journeys. Themes reflect both systemic and individual factors, highlighting how
participants navigate educational spaces and their evolving professional identities. These findings
are presented with illustrative quotes, preserving the authenticity of participants' voices and
grounding the analysis in their lived experiences.
The first theme underscores the systemic barriers encountered in higher education
settings. Participants discussed institutional limitations, resource constraints, and challenges
linked to advance level academic environments. These factors shaped their professional
perspectives and underscored the need for equitable access to resources and support. Participants’
narratives bring to light how systemic factors often intersect with personal and cultural identities,
influencing their sense of belonging and resilience.
Mentorship emerged as another essential factor, with participants highlighting varied
experiences with academic mentors. For some, mentorship offered vital guidance, reinforcing
their sense of direction and resilience. For others, an absence of culturally competent mentors
presented obstacles, contributing to feelings of isolation or lack of support. These insights reflect
the pivotal role mentorship plays in participants’ academic and career journeys, both as a source
of encouragement and, at times, as a reflection of the systemic gaps within CES.
Identity-based challenges also play a significant role in participants’ experiences, as they
navigate both racial and cultural dimensions in academic settings. Participants recounted
experiences of microaggressions, cultural dissonance, and the additional efforts required to
navigate predominantly White institutional spaces. This theme explores how these identityrelated
challenges impact participants’ professional aspirations, shaping their perceptions of fit within
their chosen fields and their resilience in confronting these dynamics.
The theme of rurality further contextualizes participants’ experiences, bringing attention
to the unique influences of rural backgrounds on career aspirations and professional resilience.
Participants discussed how growing up in rural settings shaped their values, motivations, and
career outlooks, as well as the distinct barriers they face, such as limited access to professional
resources. Their reflections offer insight into the intersection of geographical background with
the academic and professional spaces they inhabit, underscoring both the strengths and
challenges associated with rurality.
A final theme explores the strategies of resilience participants have cultivated in response
to systemic and individual challenges. Many participants shared methods of self-advocacy,
community-building, and the integration of personal values into their professional lives. These
strategies reveal their agency in navigating complex environments, highlighting their adaptability
and commitment to their career paths despite considerable obstacles.
Collectively, these themes offer a comprehensive view of participants’ experiences and
provide insight into how their identities, backgrounds, and relationships within the CES field
shape their career decision-making processes. The findings demonstrate both the systemic factors
and individual strengths at play, situating the narratives within a broader understanding of how
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students navigate their professional paths. Through this thematic
exploration, the study sheds light on the contextual influences that impact career decisionmaking
and the nuanced ways participants interact with their educational and professional environments.
Textural and Structural Descriptions
In phenomenological research, textural and structural descriptions are foundational to
comprehending both the "what" and "how" of participants' lived experiences. Textural
description focuses on identifying the specific experiences that participants articulate, offering
insight into the immediate, personal realities they encounter. Structural description, on the other
hand, examines the conditions and contexts that influence these experiences, revealing the
broader environmental and situational factors at play. By combining these two perspectives,
researchers gain a holistic understanding of the phenomenon under study, capturing both the
substance of participants' experiences and the framework within which these experiences unfold.
Textural Description (What Participants Experienced)
Participants in this study shared vivid narratives about their experiences as rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students navigating career decision-making. These narratives revealed a complex
interplay between their identities, environmental contexts, and career aspirations. Many
participants reflected on the unique challenges arising from their rural backgrounds, which
intersected with their identities as members of the BIPOC community. This combination of
factors shaped their career paths in ways that differed from their urban peers, highlighting the
unique obstacles they faced. These reflections offer insight into how identity and environment
influence career development within this group.
For example, one participant described the experience of growing up in a rural setting
with limited access to higher education resources, stating, "I didn’t even know what a CES
program was until I got to college. There were no role models, no guidance counselors who
could tell me what I needed to do to get into this field. I feel like I had to figure it out on my
own." This account underscores the lack of information and role models in rural areas, which left
participants feeling unprepared and unsupported in pursuing higher education. Similar sentiments
were expressed by others, who described the difficulties of navigating their career paths without
guidance, often feeling as though they were exploring uncharted territory.
Financial challenges also emerged as a recurrent theme, with several participants
discussing how financial instability affected their educational and career trajectories, creating
stress and uncertainty. One participant highlighted this issue, noting, "Money was always tight.
Even when I decided to pursue my doctorate, I had to think long and hard about whether I could
afford it. Every semester, I was on edge, worried about how I was going to pay for everything."
These financial concerns impacted participants' decisions to pursue advanced education and
contributed to an ongoing emotional burden. Financial strain went beyond tuition costs, affecting
daily living expenses and requiring constant adjustments to meet basic needs. Balancing
educational goals with financial constraints created tension, impacting participants' focus and
well-being.
A lack of access to networking opportunities and professional mentorship, which
participants attributed to their rural environments, also emerged as a prominent theme. One
participant described a sense of professional and personal isolation: "Being in a rural area, it’s
like you're in a bubble. There aren’t any professionals around you who can help guide you.
Networking is limited to what you can do online, and even that’s a challenge when your internet
goes out all the time." This isolation limited their ability to build meaningful professional
relationships essential for career growth. The challenges of inadequate infrastructure, such as
unreliable internet access, compounded the difficulties of networking and mentorship, limiting
engagement with peers and professionals who could provide guidance and support.
The experiences shared by participants align with the SCCT, illustrating how financial,
geographical, and social barriers impact self-efficacy and expectations for academic and career
success. Constraints like limited financial resources, coupled with a lack of mentorship and
networking, often diminished participants' confidence in completing their programs and pursuing
future career paths. These barriers shaped not only their academic choices but also their broader
career outlooks, impacting their ability to visualize a stable and rewarding professional future.
The textural descriptions from this study reveal that rural BIPOC CES doctoral students
frequently encountered obstacles that their urban peers did not face. Specific challenges included
limited access to mentorship, significant financial pressures, and minimal early exposure to
career opportunities, shaping their academic and professional experiences. These barriers
collectively fostered a sense of isolation and additional hardship, affecting their confidence and
progression in the field. By highlighting the experiences of these students, this study underscores
the importance of addressing the unique needs of rural BIPOC students within CES doctoral
programs and suggests the potential for targeted support systems to enhance their academic
journeys.
Structural Description (How Participants Experienced These Challenges)
In addition to exploring what participants experienced, understanding how these
experiences unfolded within their lives and careers provides essential insights. The structural
descriptions offer a deeper understanding of the underlying conditions that shaped participants'
educational journeys. This analysis reveals the impact of factors like geographic location, social
support systems, and systemic barriers on participants' identities and aspirations. By examining
these contextual influences, this section presents a comprehensive perspective on the
complexities rural BIPOC CES doctoral students face in their career decision-making processes,
highlighting both the challenges encountered and the resilience demonstrated in navigating these
obstacles.
Seven of the ten participants frequently described how the intersection of their rural
upbringing and BIPOC identity amplified the difficulties they faced in educational settings. P03,
for example, noted that racial and cultural isolation within rural communities increased the stress
of pursuing a CES doctoral degree. Reflecting on this experience, P03 shared, "It’s hard enough
being one of the few people of color in a rural community. When you add in the pressures of grad
school, it feels like you’re being pulled in every direction with no support. I was often the only
Black student in my program, and it made me feel like I didn’t belong." This sense of isolation
underscores the dual pressures participants faced as both racial minorities and rural students,
which affected their sense of belonging and support in academic environments.
The intersection of race and geographic location also shaped participants' sense of career
development and often reinforced the need to work harder to overcome these challenges. P09
highlighted this experience, saying, "I always felt like I had to work twice as hard. Not just
because I was Black, but because I lived in a rural area with no resources. My professors didn’t
understand the challenges I faced. They expected everyone to have the same level of access and
privilege, but that wasn’t the case for me." This sentiment reflects the additional layers of
difficulty participants encountered, due to limited awareness from academic institutions about the
unique obstacles rural BIPOC students face.
Participants also shared how their rural environments presented significant logistical
barriers to success, complicating their academic and career pursuits. P10 described the challenges
associated with residency requirements, explaining, "Residency was a nightmare. I had to drive
hours to get to campus, and it wasn’t just about the time—it was about the money for gas, the
overnight stays, and the time away from my family. It felt like everything was stacked against
me, but I didn’t have a choice." This account illustrates how logistical obstacles, such as long
commutes and financial strain, added both physical and emotional challenges to pursuing an
advanced degree in a rural context.
These logistical barriers often led to emotional exhaustion, as participants struggled to
balance their academic responsibilities with environmental demands. P04 shared, "The nearest
internship site was hours away. I would drive three, four hours for a single meeting and then
drive back the same day. It wasn’t just exhausting—it was demoralizing." The demands of travel
and rural isolation contributed to discouragement, as participants felt disadvantaged compared to
urban peers with more accessible resources.
Technological challenges added another layer of difficulty, impacting participants'
academic engagement. P09 expressed frustration over unreliable internet access, stating, "There
were days I just couldn't get online. Deadlines would pass, and I felt powerless. It’s hard to focus
on your studies when you’re constantly worrying about whether the internet will work." These
technological limitations not only hindered academic progress but also reinforced feelings of
isolation, as participants struggled to stay connected with their academic communities and
resources.
The structural descriptions demonstrate how systemic barriers—such as geographical
isolation, financial constraints, and cultural invisibility—significantly influenced participants’
experiences and career decision-making processes. These external conditions often intensified
the internal pressures participants felt as they navigated their professional journeys.
Understanding these structural factors provides a foundation for the subsequent thematic
analysis, which explores the lived experiences captured in the findings. Themes derived from
these descriptions correspond to the research questions guiding this study, analyzed through the
lens of the SCCT framework. This approach provides insights into how personal, environmental,
and behavioral factors shape career decisions among rural BIPOC CES doctoral students
Theme 1: Financial Constraints and Barriers to Education
Financial constraints and barriers to education emerged as a central theme, identified in
the narratives of all 10 participants. This theme was developed by clustering meaning units such
as participants’ descriptions of financial instability, emotional strain, and difficult choices
regarding essential expenses. Using Dedoose, codes related to financial challenges (e.g.,
“struggling with tuition,” “choosing between rent and textbooks”) were grouped together based
on co-occurrence and conceptual similarities. These clusters were then refined to form the
broader theme of financial constraints, capturing its pervasive impact across participants’ lives.
Interview questions such as, “Can you describe specific financial obstacles you've
encountered in your educational journey?” encouraged participants to reflect deeply on these
challenges. Many described how unpredictable financial stability caused distress and uncertainty
about continuing their studies. For instance, P07 reflected, "Every semester I wasn’t sure if I
could afford it… It was a gamble every time, and I often thought about stopping." These
statements, along with similar reflections, were categorized as meaning units that underscored
the profound toll financial instability had on participants' academic and personal well-being.
Participants often discussed how financial instability affected their mental health and
contributed to uncertainty regarding their educational goals. The recurring need to manage
limited resources created both logistical and emotional challenges. For some, this meant
choosing between essential living expenses and academic necessities, as illustrated by P05’s
experience of deciding between rent and textbooks. These reflections highlight the dual impact of
financial pressures on both academic and personal aspects of participants' lives, illustrating the
compounded challenges they faced.
The participants’ accounts reflect the tenets of SCCT by demonstrating how financial
challenges affect self-efficacy and expectations for academic success. Financial barriers often
diminished their confidence in completing their programs and pursuing future career paths.
These insights illustrate how limited financial resources constrained both academic choices and
career outlooks, impacting participants' ability to envision a stable professional future
Theme 2: Limited Access to Mentorship and Networking Opportunities
Limited access to mentorship and networking opportunities was identified as a significant
theme, with six participants sharing experiences of professional isolation tied to their rural
locations. This theme emerged from meaning units describing geographic barriers, lack of local
professionals, and difficulties forming mentorship relationships. Using Dedoose, codes related to
“mentorship gaps,” “geographic isolation,” and “difficulty building networks” were grouped into
clusters. These clusters were refined into a theme reflecting participants’ shared challenges with
mentorship access.
Questions like, “How has being in a rural area impacted your access to mentorship?”
prompted participants to reflect on their experiences of professional isolation. For instance, P02
noted, "There aren’t many professionals around where I live, so I mostly rely on what I can find
online, but it’s hard to build connections that way." Similarly, P07 shared how the absence of
inperson connections added to their sense of professional isolation, expressing that it often felt
like they were “on my own.” These meaning units collectively underscored the emotional and
logistical challenges associated with limited access to mentorship.
Geographic isolation further restricted participants' opportunities to establish crucial
mentorship relationships, often leading to feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt. Without nearby
role models, many struggled to feel confident about their career paths. P07 shared how the
absence of in-person connections often felt isolating, adding to the sense of being “on my own”
professionally. These experiences underscore the challenges rural participants face in accessing
mentorship, which in turn impacts their self-assurance and career decision-making processes.
The role of social networks, as emphasized by SCCT, is evident in participants’ accounts,
illustrating how the lack of such networks affected their confidence and professional growth.
Without mentorship, many found it challenging to envision long-term career development. These
insights highlight the importance of accessible support systems in fostering confidence and
resilience among rural BIPOC CES doctoral students
Theme 3: The Importance of Representation in Counseling
The importance of representation in counseling emerged as a significant theme, with four
participants highlighting how the absence of visible BIPOC professionals in the field influenced
their career aspirations. This theme was developed by clustering meaning units that reflected
participants’ desire to become role models and their observations about the lack of diversity in
counseling. Using Dedoose, codes such as “lack of representation,” “role modeling,” and “desire
to inspire others” were grouped into clusters that consistently appeared in the narratives of most
participants. These clusters were then refined into a theme that encapsulated the profound impact
of representation on participants’ career goals.
This theme was retained as a core theme and not a sub-theme because it uniquely captures
the distinct and central influence of representation on participants' career trajectories. The
participants’ reflections on representation were not merely supplemental but foundational to their
motivation and career aspirations. Representation shaped their sense of responsibility and
agency, driving them to address systemic inequities in the counseling profession and act as role
models for future generations. Unlike sub-themes, which often provide context or nuance to
broader categories, the importance of representation stood out as an independent motivator that
directly influenced participants’ career decisions and professional goals.
In discussing a follow up question to the main question of “In what way do you believe
your background has shaped your career aspirations and goals, four participants shared that the
lack of visible BIPOC professionals in counseling fueled their desire to become role models.
When asked, “How does seeing or not seeing people like you in this field impact your career
goals?” participants indicated that representation had a strong influence on their career paths. P11
explained, "I want to be a face that other people like me can look at and say, ‘I can do this too.’"
Similarly, P08 noted, "Seeing so few people who look like me in these roles makes me want to
change that for future generations." These insights show how participants viewed their careers as
opportunities to increase visibility for BIPOC individuals, addressing the gap they perceived in
the profession.
Four participants described this lack of representation as a gap they felt compelled to fill,
viewing their careers to set an example for future BIPOC individuals in the field. The desire to
become role models significantly shaped their career aspirations and reinforced their
commitment to contributing to the profession. Their accounts reflect a strong sense of
responsibility to create pathways for future generations, particularly for those from similar
backgrounds. By stepping into roles that have historically lacked diversity, these participants
aimed to challenge and reshape professional norms in counseling. This motivation underscores
their commitment to fostering inclusion within their chosen field.
The emphasis on representation aligns with SCCT’s focus on the importance of role
models in shaping self-efficacy and outcome expectations. SCCT suggests that seeing similar
individuals succeed in a field enhances one's confidence and motivation to pursue similar paths.
Participants’ goal to enhance visibility for BIPOC individuals reflects SCCT’s concept of
modeling as a crucial influence on career choices. Their narratives demonstrate how the lack of
representation not only shaped their career decisions but also reinforced their belief in the value
of their presence within the field. This desire to model success for others highlights the role of
self-efficacy in their persistence and ambition
Theme 4: Geographic Isolation and Its Impact on Career Opportunities
Geographic isolation emerged as a significant theme, with all 10 participants describing
how living in rural areas created unique barriers to accessing career opportunities in counseling.
This theme was developed by clustering meaning units related to travel difficulties, limited
professional connections, and reduced access to internships or training opportunities. Using
Dedoose, codes such as “geographic barriers,” “limited networking,” and “travel constraints”
were grouped into clusters that highlighted the pervasive impact of rural settings on career
development. These clusters were refined into a theme emphasizing how geographic isolation
shaped participants' professional experiences.
10 participants shared how living in rural areas restricted their ability to engage in key
career-building activities. For instance, P09 stated, "There are no local workshops or training
programs, and traveling to urban areas is not always feasible." Similarly, P08 added, "I’ve missed
out on networking events because it’s just too far, and I can’t always afford to travel." These
reflections underscore the logistical challenges participants faced, which often resulted in fewer
opportunities for professional growth and skill development.
Geographic isolation also impacted participants emotionally, fostering feelings of
professional isolation and inadequacy. Without access to local mentors or peer support networks,
many participants described a sense of being “on their own” in navigating their career paths. This
lack of proximity to professional resources often required participants to rely heavily on online
resources, which they described as insufficient for building meaningful connections. These
experiences highlight how geographic isolation compounded other systemic barriers, further
limiting participants' career trajectories.
This theme reflects SCCT’s emphasis on contextual influences in shaping career
opportunities and self-efficacy. SCCT posits that external barriers, such as geographic
limitations, can negatively impact individuals' confidence in pursuing and achieving career goals.
Participants’ narratives illustrate how rural settings constrained their ability to envision and
pursue broader career opportunities. Despite these challenges, their resilience and determination
to overcome geographic barriers underscore the importance of support systems in mitigating the
effects of isolation on professional development.
Theme 5: Technological Barriers and Access to Resources
Technological challenges emerged as a significant theme, with six participants
consistently highlighting the detrimental effects of unreliable technology on their academic and
career development. This theme was developed by clustering meaning units related to poor
internet connectivity, missed academic and professional opportunities, and feelings of
disconnection. Using Dedoose, codes such as “unreliable internet,” “missed deadlines,” and
“isolation due to technology” were grouped into clusters that reflected participants’ shared
experiences with technological barriers. These clusters were refined into a theme illustrating how
technological limitations disproportionately affected rural participants.
Questions such as, “Have technological issues affected your ability to engage in
coursework or networking?” prompted participants to share their experiences with unreliable
technology. For instance, P03 shared, "The internet would go down for days sometimes. I missed
deadlines, I missed meetings… It felt like everything was working against me." Similarly, P09
described the isolation caused by these disruptions, stating that it hindered access to essential
academic and professional resources. These reflections highlight how technological challenges
exacerbated participants’ struggles, limiting their ability to engage fully in both academic and
career-building activities.
Six participants expressed frustration over missed deadlines, professional events, and
networking opportunities caused by unreliable technology, which often left them feeling
disconnected from peers and resources. These participants described how unstable technology
contributed to a sense of being “cut off” from critical academic and professional networks. This
compounded participants’ sense of disadvantage, as they struggled to maintain consistent
engagement in their academic and professional pathways.
SCCT emphasizes the role of environmental factors, including technological access, as
critical to career-related self-efficacy. Participants' accounts reflect how technological barriers
diminished their confidence in participating in necessary academic and professional development
activities. SCCT’s framework helps explain how limited access to reliable technology
constrained participants’ professional outlooks and opportunities. By identifying the impact of
these external challenges on their self-efficacy, SCCT offers insight into how environmental
factors shape career perceptions and decisions. For these participants, technology access was not
merely a convenience but a vital component of sustaining their academic and professional
growth.
Theme 6: Family Support as a Critical Motivator
Family support emerged as a significant source of motivation, with six participants
emphasizing its importance in their academic and professional journeys. This theme was
developed by clustering meaning units related to emotional encouragement, financial assistance,
and unwavering belief in participants’ potential. Using Dedoose, codes such as “family
encouragement,” “belief in success,” and “financial support” were grouped into clusters that
consistently highlighted the critical role of family. These clusters were refined into a theme
underscoring how family support bolstered participants’ determination to overcome obstacles.
Questions such as, “What did some of those conversations look like that you had with
your family about your career goals?” prompted participants to reflect on the family's pivotal
role. For instance, P05 shared, "My family was always there, cheering me on. They kept pushing
even when I thought I couldn’t keep going." Similarly, P10 reflected, "I didn’t believe in myself
at times, but my family did, and that kept me going." These reflections illustrate how family
members provided consistent emotional reassurance, reinforcing participants’ determination to
persist through challenges.
Six participants consistently described family encouragement as a stabilizing force that
helped them persevere through challenges. The belief that family members had in their potential
provided participants with the strength to overcome moments of self-doubt and uncertainty. This
support extended beyond emotional reassurance; some family members offered practical
assistance, such as financial help, to ease academic pressures. Many participants emphasized that
their families’ commitment to their success was a crucial factor in their ability to persist in their
programs, highlighting the central role of social support in career resilience and persistence.
SCCT underscores the importance of social support in shaping self-efficacy, and
participants’ reliance on family closely aligns with this framework. With a dependable support
system, participants experienced an increased confidence in their ability to navigate the demands
of their academic and professional journeys. The encouragement from family members
reinforced their belief in their potential and motivated them to stay committed to their goals.
SCCT’s focus on social support as a critical factor in career development is clearly reflected in
these participants’ experiences. The presence of family support fostered resilience, enabling
participants to face challenges with a strengthened sense of purpose
Theme 7: Peers as a Source of Emotional and Academic Support
Peer relationships emerged as a crucial support system for participants, with six
participants emphasizing their importance in managing academic pressures and emotional
challenges. This theme was developed by clustering meaning units related to shared struggles,
emotional solidarity, and academic assistance. Using Dedoose, codes such as “peer support,”
“sense of belonging,” and “academic collaboration” were grouped into clusters that consistently
highlighted the pivotal role of peer relationships. These clusters were refined into a theme
underscoring how peer connections fostered a sense of community and resilience among
participants.
Interview follow up questions like, "How have your peers supported you during this
journey?" prompted participants to reflect on the sense of camaraderie they built with peers who
understood their unique struggles. For instance, P01 described peers as her “lifeline,” providing
essential academic assistance and emotional solidarity. Similarly, P05 stated, "We were there for
each other in every sense—whether it was for academic help or just someone to talk to." These
reflections illustrate how peers offered mutual understanding and guidance, creating a supportive
environment that mitigated feelings of isolation.
Six participants emphasized that support from peers was pivotal in their ability to
navigate program demands. They shared how their peers offered understanding, empathy, and
guidance through shared experiences, which helped alleviate feelings of isolation. This sense of
community provided reassurance that they were not alone in facing academic challenges.
Participants found strength in these relationships, often considering peers a critical component of
their support network. Peer connections contributed to participants’ academic perseverance and
emotional well-being, reinforcing their commitment to their career goals.
SCCT highlights the influence of peer networks on self-efficacy and career resilience,
which aligns with participants’ experiences. The encouragement and validation received from
peers bolstered participants’ confidence in their ability to succeed within their programs. Peer
support also served as a source of motivation, enabling participants to rely on one another for
both academic assistance and emotional encouragement. SCCT’s emphasis on the role of peer
networks in enhancing self-efficacy is reflected in these experiences, highlighting the value of
these connections. Peer relationships not only supported participants academically but also
strengthened their sense of belonging within the counseling field.
Theme 8: Career Decisions Shaped by Advocacy and Social Justice
Career decisions shaped by advocacy and social justice emerged as a prominent theme,
with four participants identifying their roles as counselors as opportunities to address systemic
inequities. This theme was developed by clustering meaning units related to participants’
commitment to creating equitable spaces and challenging injustices. Using Dedoose, codes such
as “advocacy,” “breaking barriers,” and “social justice motivation” were grouped into clusters
that consistently appeared across participants’ narratives. These clusters were then refined into a
theme emphasizing the alignment between participants’ personal values and their professional
goals.
This theme was maintained as a core theme and not a sub-theme due to its centrality in
shaping participants' career motivations and professional identities. Advocacy and social justice
were not merely ancillary aspects of participants’ career goals; they represented fundamental
drivers of their decision-making processes. Unlike sub-themes, which often add nuance to
broader categories, advocacy and social justice were integral components of participants’
professional aspirations, deeply rooted in their lived experiences and personal values. The
participants’ narratives highlighted how their personal encounters with systemic inequities
directly informed their desire to challenge barriers and create inclusive opportunities, reinforcing
the foundational nature of this theme.
Follow-up questions such as, “How do you see your role as a counselor in addressing
barriers that you or others face?” prompted participants to share insights into how their identities
as BIPOC individuals shaped their advocacy-driven career choices. For instance, P08 explained,
"Being a person of color from a rural area makes you see things differently. You’re aware of all
these barriers that others might not even think about, and you want to break those down for
people who come after you." Similarly, P11 reflected, "I feel like it’s my duty to challenge the
system and create more opportunities for people like me." These statements highlight how
participants’ personal experiences with systemic barriers inspired their commitment to advocacy
and social change.
Four participants described advocacy as central to their career choices, with many
viewing their roles as counselors as opportunities to challenge injustices and address inequities
within the field. Their lived experiences as BIPOC individuals fostered a commitment to
improving accessibility and inclusivity for marginalized groups. This advocacy-driven
perspective illustrates how participants internalized the need for systemic change within the
counseling profession. Rather than solely focusing on personal career growth, they emphasized
their roles in fostering a more equitable field. This perspective reflects a dedication to advancing
social justice that transcends individual success, underscoring their desire to create lasting impact
within and beyond their communities.
The connection between advocacy and career choice aligns closely with SCCT’s
emphasis on personal values as drivers of career interests and decisions. SCCT posits that
individuals are likely to pursue careers that resonate with their core values, especially those
related to social outcomes (Lent & Brown, 2019). Participants' commitment to social justice
reveals how their career paths are intertwined with a desire to address systemic inequities. This
alignment of values with career goals illustrates how personal experiences and motivations shape
professional trajectories. By seeking to effect change within their field, participants exemplify
the influence of values-based self-efficacy in SCCT.
Summary of Key Themes
All ten participants consistently described their experiences as shaped by various
combinations of financial barriers, geographic isolation, and the importance of social support
from family and peers. The analysis identified eight key themes that illustrate how these factors
influenced participants' self-efficacy and career decision-making processes. Limited access to
resources, mentorship, representation, and technology posed significant challenges, particularly
for those in rural settings. Six participants emphasized the critical role of family support, while
seven highlighted peer relationships as pivotal to their resilience. Similarly, 10 participants
described the impact of geographic isolation on their career opportunities, and six participants
emphasized the barriers created by unreliable technology. These factors compounded the
difficulties they encountered, creating a heightened sense of isolation and professional
disadvantage.
Despite these obstacles, participants’ commitment to advocacy, social justice, and their
communities provided the motivation to persist in their chosen career paths. The importance of
representation emerged as a driving factor for four participants, who viewed their careers as
opportunities to address systemic inequities and serve as role models for future generations.
Advocacy and social justice were central themes for four participants, reflecting their shared
desire to create equitable spaces within the counseling profession.
Viewed through the lens of SCCT, the analysis highlights the central role of personal
experiences, environmental influences, and behavioral factors in shaping participants' career
trajectories. The intersection of financial hardship, social networks, professional isolation, and a
desire to be role models for others underscored how participants' identities and environments
influenced their academic and professional goals. This descriptive analysis provides a unique
perspective on the resilience of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students and the complexities they
navigate as they work toward their career aspirations. Each of the eight themes reflects an
essential aspect of their journey, emphasizing both the challenges they face and the strengths they
draw upon in pursuit of their goals.
Integration of Textural and Structural Descriptions
By integrating the textural and structural descriptions, a more comprehensive
understanding emerges of how participants experienced the interplay between race, rurality, and
career decision-making within CES doctoral programs. The narratives of participants revealed
not only the practical and emotional challenges they encountered but also the systemic conditions
that shaped these experiences. Together, these descriptions reflect how elements such as financial
limitations, cultural isolation, and geographic barriers interacted with participants' identities to
create a unique set of obstacles.
The data suggest that rural BIPOC CES doctoral students face distinct barriers that often
extend beyond individual circumstances and are influenced by their broader social environments.
The convergence of limited access to resources, racial and cultural isolation, financial strain, and
technological challenges created conditions that shaped participants' educational and career
journeys in profound ways. These factors made their career decision-making processes more
complex and often fraught with additional difficulties compared to students from urban settings
or more privileged backgrounds. Table 2 below provides a summary of the distribution of each of
the eight identified themes across participants, underscoring both commonalities and variations
in their experiences. This summary illustrates the prominence of each theme within the study,
highlighting the central challenges and strengths that define the journeys of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students.
Table 2
Themes Across Participants
Participant Limited
The Importance Access
to
Financial of Geographic Technological
Mentorship
Constraints Representation Isolation Barriers & in
Counseling
Networking
Peers as a
Source of
Family Emotional
Support and
Academic
Support
Advocacy
& Social
Justice
P01 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
P02 ✓ ✓ ✓
P03 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
P04 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
P05 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
P07 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
P08 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
P09 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
P10 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
P11 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Linking to Research Question
The findings of this study are intricately tied to the research questions, which aimed to
uncover the lived experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students and the factors influencing
their career decision-making processes. As the data revealed, all eight themes emerged as
significant determinants in shaping participants' academic and career trajectories. These findings
underscore how systemic and environmental factors, often influenced by participants' rural and
BIPOC identities, create complex layers of challenges and facilitators within their career
decision-making journeys. The narratives shared by participants provided rich, detailed insights
into the structural barriers they faced and their resilience in navigating these obstacles.
Integrating the textural and structural descriptions from the data provides a more holistic
understanding of how participants' lived experiences were shaped by both their identities and
environments. By examining these layers of experience, we gain insight into the unique
challenges rural BIPOC CES doctoral students face. This integration lays the groundwork for a
deeper exploration of the emergent themes and their connection to the research questions,
offering further insight into how the participants’ resilience influenced their career decisions in
the face of systemic barriers.
To further illustrate how the participants' experiences relate to the main research question,
Table 3, titled "Integration of Themes and Meaning Units in Relation to Research Questions,"
organizes the themes and descriptive insights according to the guided interview and follow up
questions, illustrating how the participants' experiences align with the main research question.
This table presents the meaning units and highlights how specific themes, such as financial
constraints, geographic isolation, and family support, emerged from the participants' responses. It
provides a clear overview of the connections between the interview prompts and the broader
career decision-making processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students.
Table 3
Integration of Themes and Meaning Units in Relation to Research Questions
Interview
Question Theme Meaning Unit Quote Descriptive Insight
IQ1
Financial Constraints
Financial uncertainty caused continuous
"Every semester I wasn’t sure if I emotional distress and instability
could afford it." (P07) regarding completing education.
Financial hardships affected necessities,
"I had to choose between paying increasing stress and causing participants
rent or getting textbooks." (P05) to doubt their ability to continue.
Limited Access to
Mentorship
Geographic isolation led to feelings of
"It’s hard to build connections inadequacy and limited career-related
where I live." (P02)
self-efficacy.
“The lack of in-person connections The lack of accessible mentors made
made me feel like I was on my own participants feel disconnected and most
of the time." (P07) unsupported in their career progression.
IQ2 Representation in
Counseling
"I want to be someone young
people can look up to." (P11)
The lack of representation in the field
acted as both a challenge and motivation
to become a visible role model for future
generations.
"Seeing so few people who look
like me in these roles makes me
want to change that." (P08)
The absence of representation encouraged
participants to challenge barriers and aim
for greater visibility for BIPOC
individuals.
IQ3 Geographic Isolation
"I had to drive hours just to get to
my residency site." (P10)
The logistical challenges of living in rural
areas led to emotional exhaustion and
financial strain, influencing perceptions of
career viability.
"I missed out on several internships Geographic distance limited careerbecause
they were too far away, building opportunities and made
and I couldn’t afford to travel." participants feel at a disadvantage
(P04) compared to their urban peers.
Technological Barriers
"The internet would go down for
days sometimes. I missed deadlines
and meetings." (P03)
"I’d miss out on webinars or
networking opportunities because
my internet was too slow." (P07)
Technological challenges disrupted
participants' academic progress and
further isolated them from academic and
professional communities.
Unreliable internet access deepened the
sense of isolation and created obstacles to
academic and professional development.
IQ4 Family Support as a
Critical Motivator
"My family was always there,
cheering me on." (P05)
Emotional support from family gave
participants a sense of purpose,
motivation, and persistence.
"Even when I thought I couldn’t Family encouragement was a vital source
keep going, they kept pushing me." of strength, helping participants overcome
(P10) academic challenges.
Interview
Question Theme Meaning Unit Quote Descriptive Insight
Peers as a Source of
Emotional and
Academic Support
"My peers became my lifeline. We Peer relationships provided emotional and
understood what each other was academic support, fostering a sense of
going through." (P01) community and solidarity.
Peers alleviated feelings of isolation and
"We were there for each other, provided essential academic and whether it was
for academic help or emotional support throughout the doctoral just someone
to talk to." (P05) journey.
Advocacy and Social
Justice
"It’s not just about getting a
Participants’ desire for advocacy shaped
degree; it’s about making a their career aspirations, driven by a need
difference for people who face the to challenge systemic barriers. same
barriers I do." (P07)
"I feel like it’s my duty to
A strong sense of purpose in advocacy
challenge the system and create and social justice influenced participants’
more opportunities for people like career choices and professional goals. me."
(P11)
Integration with the SCCT Framework
This study’s findings reveal the intricate relationship between participants' self-efficacy,
outcome expectations, and career goals, in alignment with SCCT. The lack of early
representation and mentorship impacted participants’ initial self-efficacy, but as they received
mentorship and peer support, their confidence and self-efficacy gradually improved. Participants’
outcome expectations were significantly shaped by systemic barriers, as many felt they had to
work harder to succeed due to their rural and BIPOC identities. Additionally, challenges related
to financial constraints, geographic isolation, technological barriers, and limited access to
resources significantly influenced their career decision-making.
These findings offer a comprehensive perspective on the career decision-making
processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, with Giorgi’s phenomenological method
providing a deep understanding of the structural and personal factors that influence their
professional journeys. The integration of SCCT provides valuable insights into how these
students navigate both internal and external obstacles, offering a clearer path for supporting
underrepresented groups in higher education and the counseling profession. The participants'
experiences reflect the intersection of multiple layers of challenges such as financial constraints,
lack of mentorship, limited representation, and geographic isolation, shaping their resilience and
career aspirations.
Table 4 offers a detailed overview of how the key themes from the participants' narratives
align with the SCCT framework. This table links the themes, such as financial constraints, access
to mentorship, family support, representation, geographic isolation, and technological barriers, to
SCCT components, including self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and environmental factors. By
directly connecting participant experiences with SCCT, this table helps clarify how various
personal and contextual factors influence the career decision-making of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students.
Table 4
Integration with SCCT Framework
SCCT
Theme
Component
Participant Insight Impact on Career Decision-Making
Financial Constraints Self-efficacy
"Every semester I wasn’t sure if Reduced confidence in academic and I
could afford it." – P07 career success due to financial instability.
"I had to work extra jobs to
The pressure of managing finances
make ends meet, which made it impacted participants' focus and
hard to focus on my studies." persistence in their programs. (P03)
Limited Access to
Mentorship
Outcome
Expectations
"It’s hard to build connections
where I live." (P02)
Lower expectations of career
opportunities due to lack of professional
networks in rural settings.
"I missed out on so many
networking events because of
the distance." (P09)
Participants perceived limited access to
career-building opportunities, affecting
their expectations for future success.
Representation in Values "I want to be someone young Motivated career choice to increase
Counseling people can look up to." (P08) representation in the field and become a
role model.
"Seeing so few people like me Participants’ desire to address in
the field pushed me to be that underrepresentation shaped their
change." (P10) professional goals and commitments.
"I want to bring a different Motivated by a desire to bring
cultural perspective and help people diversity to counseling and
create a feel seen." (P11) more inclusive environment.
SCCT
Theme
Component
Participant Insight Impact on Career Decision-Making
Environmental
Geographic Isolation
Factors
"I had to drive hours just to get
to my residency site." (P10)
Geographical isolation lowered access to
career-related opportunities, influencing
career trajectory.
"There were no training sites
nearby, so I felt like I was
constantly missing out." (P04)
Geographic challenges limited
participants’ access to crucial career
development experiences.
Technological BarriersEnvironmental
Factors
"The internet would go down
for days sometimes. I missed
deadlines and meetings." (P03)
Technological challenges disrupted
participants' academic progress and
further isolated them from academic and
professional communities.
"I’d miss out on webinars or
networking opportunities
because my internet was too
slow." (P07)
Unreliable internet access deepened the
sense of isolation and created obstacles to
academic and professional development.
Family Support Social Support
Systems
"My family was always there,
cheering me on." (P05)
Increased confidence and resilience
through strong family support, impacting
career persistence.
"They reminded me why I was Emotional support from family
provided doing this, even when I felt like motivation during challenging
times, giving up." (P01) aiding in career perseverance.
Peers as a Source of
Emotional and
Academic Support
Social Support
Systems
"My peers were my lifeline, Emotional and academic support from
helping me with coursework peers helped participants stay
motivated
and being there emotionally." – and navigate challenges, reducing
P01 isolation.
"We were there for each other
Peers fostered a sense of camaraderie and
in every sense—whether it was shared understanding, providing mutual
for academic help or just support that enhanced persistence. someone to
talk to." – P05
Advocacy and Social
Values
Justice
"It’s not just about getting a
Participants’ desire for advocacy shaped
degree; it’s about making a their career aspirations, driven by a need
difference for people who face to challenge systemic barriers. the same
barriers I do." (P07)
"I feel like it’s my duty to
A strong sense of purpose in advocacy
challenge the system and create and social justice influenced participants’
more opportunities for people career choices and professional goals. like
me." (P11)
Summary of Results
The findings presented in this chapter offer a rich and detailed exploration of the lived
experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students as they navigate their career decision-making
processes. Through Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological method, this study uncovered several
recurring themes that provide insight into the multifaceted challenges and sources of resilience
these students encountered on their educational journeys. Each theme sheds light on the
intersectionality of rurality, BIPOC identity, and career aspirations, contributing to a deeper
understanding of how these factors shape self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and overall career
development.
One of the most prominent findings was the pervasive impact of financial constraints and
barriers to education. Participants consistently expressed the financial instability they faced
throughout their academic journeys, with several describing moments of uncertainty regarding
their ability to continue their studies. The emotional toll of financial instability was evident, as
participants shared the constant stress and anxiety of securing funds to remain in their programs.
This theme aligns with SCCT, which suggests that financial barriers significantly lower
selfefficacy and influence outcome expectations. For rural BIPOC students, these challenges
were further compounded by their limited access to resources and the systemic barriers
embedded in both rural and academic environments.
Geographic isolation and limited access to mentorship and networking opportunities
emerged as another critical theme. Living in rural areas made it difficult for participants to form
meaningful professional connections, access internships, and engage in networking opportunities
that are crucial for career advancement. Many described the sense of isolation they felt, both
geographically and professionally, as they lacked mentors who could guide them through the
complexities of the CES field. Geographic isolation not only highlighted the practical challenges
of rurality but also underscored the emotional impact of navigating academic spaces without
adequate support. Within the SCCT framework, the lack of mentorship weakened participants'
career-related self-efficacy, which in turn influenced their career decisions.
The study also revealed the profound impact of BIPOC identity on career
decisionmaking, with participants emphasizing the importance of representation in the
counseling field. Many participants shared their desire to become role models within their
communities, filling the gap in visible representation for future generations of BIPOC students.
This sense of responsibility to “give back” and challenge systemic inequities in the counseling
profession served as a strong motivator for pursuing doctoral studies despite the difficulties. This
finding aligns with SCCT’s emphasis on outcome expectations and the influence of role models
in shaping career aspirations. For rural BIPOC students, their career paths were often intertwined
with advocacy and a desire to address the social justice issues they had encountered throughout
their own educational journeys.
Additionally, participants spoke about career decisions shaped by advocacy and social
justice, further reflecting their commitment to addressing systemic barriers within the counseling
profession. Their experiences of marginalization, both as members of the BIPOC community and
as rural students, heightened their awareness of these inequalities, prompting them to pursue
careers that could foster positive change. This desire for advocacy underscores the values-driven
decision-making process that SCCT highlights, where personal values and motivations play a
central role in shaping career interests and choices.
Another critical finding was the impact of support systems, including family, peers, and
mentors, on the participants’ career decision-making processes. Family support emerged as a
crucial factor, with participants describing how their families provided emotional and financial
support, particularly during moments of doubt or difficulty. Peer relationships were also
invaluable, offering a sense of solidarity and shared understanding as participants navigated the
challenges of doctoral programs. Even when mentorship opportunities were limited due to
geographic isolation, participants who were able to connect with mentors found that these
relationships offered crucial guidance, emotional support, and professional advice. The presence
of these support systems directly contributed to increased self-efficacy and a stronger sense of
resilience, as outlined in the SCCT framework.
Systemic barriers, such as technological challenges and access to resources, were also
recurrent themes. Participants often faced unreliable internet access, which hindered their ability
to engage in online coursework and professional development opportunities. These technological
barriers exacerbated the isolation they already felt as rural students, adding another layer of
difficulty to their academic and career development. Within the SCCT framework, such
environmental factors play a crucial role in shaping outcome expectations and career-related
selfefficacy, particularly when access to critical resources is restricted.
The theme of limited access to mentorship and networking was evident in many
participants' experiences, particularly in the early stages of their academic journeys. Several
participants described how they were initially unaware of the counseling profession or CES
doctoral programs, resulting in changes in their majors or career paths as they gained more
exposure to the field. This confusion was often compounded by the lack of professional role
models or guidance early on, leading to delayed entry into the field. However, as participants
gained mentorship and professional exposure, their career paths became clearer, and their
commitment to the counseling profession solidified. This finding reinforces SCCT’s emphasis on
the importance of learning experiences and the role of mentorship in clarifying career goals.
The integration of these findings with the SCCT framework provides a comprehensive
understanding of how rurality, BIPOC identity, and external systems shape the career
decisionmaking processes of CES doctoral students. The themes of financial constraints,
geographic isolation, mentorship, technological barriers and family support offer significant
insight into the unique challenges and sources of resilience experienced by this group. These
findings not only contribute to the literature on career development for underrepresented
populations but also offer practical implications for supporting rural BIPOC students in higher
education and the counseling profession.
As the study moves into Chapter 5, the broader implications of these findings will be
explored in greater depth. The discussion will focus on how these themes align with existing
literature, provide recommendations for future research, and offer practical strategies for
addressing the systemic barriers identified in this study. Chapter 5 will also consider how these
insights can be applied to career counseling practices to better support the career development of
rural BIPOC students, ensuring that they have the resources, mentorship, and opportunities
necessary to thrive in their educational and professional journeys.
CHAPTER 5. FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
This chapter presents the findings and conclusions derived from the data analysis in the
previous chapter, focusing on how the results answer the research questions and contribute to
understanding the career decision-making processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. The
chapter begins with a summary of the key findings and then situates these findings within the
framework of SCCT. By connecting the results to existing literature, this chapter highlights how
the study aligns with or challenges previous research on rural BIPOC students and their
experiences in doctoral programs.
The study’s limitations are discussed, acknowledging areas where the research design
may impact generalizability and how future studies could address these challenges. The chapter
also explores the implications of the findings for policy and practice, offering recommendations
on how institutions and educators can better support rural BIPOC students in CES programs.
Finally, the chapter concludes with suggestions for future research, emphasizing areas where
further investigation is needed to enhance the understanding of this population's unique
challenges and strengths.
Summary of Findings
This study addresses a critical need to understand the unique challenges and support
needs of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, a group often underrepresented in counseling
literature. Recent studies have increasingly acknowledged the role of geographic and social
isolation in shaping the educational experiences of BIPOC students in rural settings, yet gaps
remain in addressing these compounded challenges within counselor education. By focusing on
this population, the research highlights the difficulties they face and the importance of providing
tailored support systems. Grounded in SCCT and using Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological
approach, this study explores how self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and environmental
influences shape their career decision-making processes.
The analysis identified eight key themes that collectively illustrate the multifaceted
barriers and resilience factors influencing rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. These themes
were finalized through a rigorous and iterative analytical process, ensuring each theme captured a
distinct and meaningful aspect of participants’ lived experiences. The process involved refining
meaning units, consolidating related clusters, and defining clear thresholds, all guided by
methodological rigor and adherence to established qualitative frameworks.
Specifically, themes were identified based on recurring patterns and their psychological
significance, following Giorgi’s (2020) descriptive phenomenological method. This approach
ensured that themes reflected the essence of participants’ lived experiences by focusing on
meaningful insights rather than mere frequency. Creswell and Poth’s (2024) guidance further
emphasized the importance of systematic and transparent analysis, prioritizing patterns that
contributed to a comprehensive understanding of the research question. Additionally, Ozuem et
al.’s (2022) thematic analysis framework reinforced the need for researcher reflexivity,
highlighting the value of a dynamic and iterative process in identifying themes that provided rich
and significant insights into the phenomenon under study.
The findings reveal that participants reported financial constraints as a significant
obstacle, with limited resources affecting both their self-efficacy and academic progress.
Geographic isolation further exacerbated these challenges, restricting access to mentorship and
professional networks essential for career growth. Technological barriers intensified the sense of
isolation, as unreliable internet access disrupted participation in online coursework and virtual
networking opportunities. Despite these barriers, family and peer support emerged as crucial
resilience factors, providing stability and emotional encouragement. A strong commitment to
advocacy and social justice also influenced participants’ career motivations, with many students
aiming to address systemic inequities and serve as role models within their communities. The
importance of representation in the counseling profession was another key theme, with
participants emphasizing the need for visible role models to inspire future generations.
These themes reflect SCCT’s principles, emphasizing the interplay of personal values,
environmental influences, and social support systems in shaping career pathways. Advocacy
emerged as a central motivating factor for participants, highlighting their dedication to advancing
equity within the counseling profession. The iterative process of refining and defining themes
underscored the complexity of participants' experiences while ensuring the findings accurately
represented their voices.
This study contributes to the literature by extending discussions of BIPOC student
challenges to include the role of rurality, showing how geographic isolation and resource scarcity
add complexity to their educational experiences. The findings offer actionable insights for
educational institutions, practitioners, and policymakers to develop targeted strategies that
acknowledge and address the unique needs of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, fostering an
environment that supports their growth and success
Findings in Context of the Theoretical Framework
This study was grounded in SCCT, offering a framework for understanding how
selfefficacy, outcome expectations and environmental influences shape the career decision-
making processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. The findings from this research reflect
key principles of SCCT, particularly in how participants described the impact of systemic
barriers, individual resilience, and social support systems on their career development. These
descriptions provide insight into how participants navigated their educational and professional
journeys, shaped by both external obstacles and internal motivations.
Self-efficacy was deeply affected by financial constraints, as many participants
experienced significant financial instability throughout their programs. Consistent with SCCT,
financial challenges often diminished participants' confidence in their ability to persist. Despite
these challenges, the study identified significant sources of resilience that helped restore
participants' self-efficacy, such as family support. Emotional encouragement and financial
assistance from family members enabled participants to maintain confidence in their ability to
succeed, even in the face of obstacles.
Outcome expectations were influenced by both personal motivations and systemic
barriers. Participants often anticipated needing to work harder than their peers due to their rural
backgrounds and BIPOC identities. Despite these challenges, many were driven by a
commitment to advocacy and social justice, which became a central motivator in their career
decision-making. SCCT acknowledges the role of personal values in shaping career aspirations,
and for participants in this study, the desire to challenge systemic inequities and increase
representation in counseling fueled their persistence. This finding suggests that SCCT could be
expanded to better capture how advocacy-oriented motivations drive the career choices of
underrepresented populations.
This study highlights the potential for SCCT to better incorporate advocacy as a central
motivational factor in the career decision-making of rural BIPOC students. The participants'
commitment to addressing systemic inequities and their desire to serve as advocates suggest that
SCCT could be adapted to more directly acknowledge the role of social justice motivations. Such
an adaptation would offer a more comprehensive understanding of how underrepresented
populations navigate their career paths.
Environmental influences, particularly geographic isolation, played a pivotal role in
shaping participants' experiences. Consistent with SCCT, access to resources and opportunities
significantly impacted self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Participants described how
geographic isolation limited their access to professional networks, internships, and residencies,
which are crucial for career development in counseling. Despite these barriers, participants
adapted by leveraging online resources and seeking out virtual mentorships, demonstrating their
resilience in the face of these challenges.
The findings align with SCCT’s core principles, illustrating how self-efficacy, outcome
expectations, and environmental influences intersect to shape career decision-making (Lent et al.,
1994). While the study confirms SCCT's applicability to rural BIPOC students, it also extends
the theory by highlighting the critical role of social justice as a motivating factor in career
development (Perez & Carney, 2018; Lent et al., 2019). These insights underscore the need for a
broader understanding of how advocacy and resilience contribute to the career trajectories of
rural BIPOC students, offering a more in-depth perspective on their unique challenges and
strengths (Borders et al., 2020; Spellman et al., 2022).
Findings in Context of the Previous Literature
This section contextualizes the findings of this study within the existing body of literature
on rural BIPOC students and career development in CES. By comparing the results with previous
studies, this discussion highlights the unique contributions of this research while addressing how
the findings support or challenge existing knowledge. Lent et al. (1994, 2019) emphasizes the
importance of financial, environmental, and social support systems within SCCT, which aligns
with the study's findings that illustrate these factors as critical in shaping career trajectories for
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. Additionally, this study adds to the literature by exploring
the intersections of rurality, BIPOC identity, and doctoral-level education, offering new insights
into the barriers and sources of resilience faced by these students. In doing so, the discussion not
only reinforces existing challenges but also reveals areas where further research is needed to
better support rural BIPOC CES students.
Financial Constraints and Geographic Isolation
The findings of this study align with a growing body of research indicating that financial
constraints and geographic isolation present significant barriers to the academic and career
development of BIPOC students. Pérez & Carney (2018) emphasize the financial difficulties that
are particularly pronounced among rural students, where limited access to resources exacerbates
these issues. Participants in this study consistently expressed concerns about financial instability,
echoing previous findings from Borders et al. (2020) who highlight the persistent anxiety and
impact on self-efficacy and motivation associated with educational costs for marginalized
students. Participants like P07 highlighted this challenge, stating, "Every semester I was on edge,
worried about how I was going to pay for everything," which reflects the ongoing stress
described by these scholars.
While financial challenges are well-documented (Davidson et al., 2020; Spellman et al.,
2022), this study adds depth by emphasizing how rurality further complicates these barriers.
Existing studies primarily focus on urban BIPOC students, where resource accessibility is more
prevalent, as noted by Allen et al. (2019) and Bright (2020). For rural BIPOC students,
geographic isolation creates additional barriers that limit access to academic support, mentorship,
and professional networks, leading to feelings of disconnection from the broader academic
community, as described by Borders et al. (2020) and Ngadjui and Doughty (2024). These
geographic limitations amplify the impact of financial constraints on rural students’ educational
and career development, contributing to unique challenges in their career decision-making.
Additionally, the study highlights the compounded challenges of intersecting identities,
such as gender and socioeconomic status, alongside race and rurality (Collins, 2000; Spellman et
al., 2022). Female participants discussed balancing caregiving responsibilities with academic
demands, which aligns with the findings of Pérez & Carney (2018), who note that these
intersecting identities often impose additional pressures. This intersectionality, as emphasized by
Hipolito-Delgado et al. (2021), complicates the navigation of educational paths, highlighting the
unique pressures rural BIPOC CES doctoral students face and emphasizing the importance of
further exploration in the literature.
Access to Mentorship
This study extends the literature on mentorship as a critical factor in the success of
BIPOC students in higher education, as noted by Martinez & Dong (2020) and Schuermann et al.
(2018). Participants emphasized the importance of mentorship in shaping their career paths and
developing their professional identities, which aligns with Ngadjui and Doughty (2024), who
describe mentorship as essential for BIPOC students’ persistence in higher education. However,
the limited access to mentorship due to geographic isolation, a barrier also identified by Borders
et al. (2020), underscores the additional challenges faced by rural BIPOC students.
Although previous studies have explored mentorship's importance (Allen et al., 2019;
Pérez & Carney, 2018), this study highlights the impact of rurality on mentorship opportunities.
Mentorship, often accessible in urban or well-resourced settings, is notably difficult for rural
BIPOC students to obtain. As Borders et al. (2020) and Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) suggest, the
lack of mentorship in rural settings limits students' academic and professional networks, which
this study further emphasizes. This finding supports previous literature by illustrating how
geographic isolation complicates the mentorship landscape for rural BIPOC CES students and
highlights the need for institutional interventions that bridge this gap.
Advocacy and Social Justice
One of the unique contributions of this study is its emphasis on advocacy and social
justice as significant motivators in the career decision-making of rural BIPOC students. Lent et
al. (2000, 2019) highlights the role of personal values in shaping career aspirations, which is
reflected in participants’ commitment to social justice as a source of resilience. For instance, P08
shared, "I wanted to be a face that my community could recognize… We don’t see many people
of color in these roles, especially in rural areas." This commitment to advocacy aligns with
studies by Vande Griek et al. (2020) and Ngadjui and Doughty (2024), who discuss the
significance of representation and social justice as motivators for BIPOC students in
predominantly White fields.
The influence of intersecting identities, such as gender and socioeconomic status, also
emerged as significant, with female participants balancing caregiving with academics, a
challenge documented by Pérez and Carney (2018) and Spellman et al. (2022). Participants from
low-income backgrounds discussed the compounded difficulties of juggling part-time jobs while
pursuing advocacy-driven goals. Hipolito-Delgado et al. (2021) emphasize the importance of
recognizing these intersecting identities in shaping career trajectories, suggesting the need for
support systems that accommodate such complexities.
Participants also highlighted how the limited mentorship opportunities impacted their
career development, particularly among those from low-income backgrounds (Borders et al.,
2020). As P02 shared, "There aren’t many professionals around where I live, so I mostly rely on
what I can find online," reflecting the struggles of rural BIPOC students to build networks.
Martinez & Dong (2020) and Schuermann et al. (2018) argue for the importance of targeted
mentorship, which this study reinforces by emphasizing the challenges of accessing professional
support in rural settings.
Existing research often discusses advocacy in general terms, as noted by Ngadjui and
Doughty (2024) and Lent et al. (2019); however, this study provides a focused view of how these
motivations intersect with rural BIPOC students’ experiences. Participants viewed their
commitment to advocacy to dismantle systemic barriers, aligning with the findings of Borders et
al. (2020). P08’s reflection, “I wanted to be a face that my community could recognize… We
don’t see many people of color in these roles,” captures this commitment, which extends beyond
personal fulfillment to systemic change.
Contribution to Existing Literature
While the findings of this study align with existing research on the challenges faced by
BIPOC students, its unique contribution lies in its focus on rurality as a compounding factor.
Borders et al. (2020) highlighted the barriers that BIPOC students encounter in urban contexts,
including financial stress, limited mentorship, and underrepresentation in professional spaces.
Borders et al. (2020) specifically examine how financial constraints limit access to resources
critical for academic success, while Wade-Ball et al. (2021) discuss the consequences of
underrepresentation on career self-efficacy among BIPOC students in higher education.
However, this research emphasizes how rurality intensifies these challenges, adding layers of
complexity that are not fully explored in urban-focused studies. Geographic isolation, as noted
by Pérez and Carney (2018) and Allen et al. (2019), creates barriers that restrict access to
mentorship and networking opportunities, leaving students more dependent on limited online
resources. This study builds upon Pérez and Carney’s (2018) insights into the lack of accessible
mentors in rural areas and Allen et al.'s (2019) analysis of the barriers to networking that rural
BIPOC students face. The contrast with urban counterparts, who often have more access to
inperson connections, underscores the role of geographic isolation in amplifying systemic
barriers and making it harder for students to pursue their career aspirations.
Technological barriers unique to rural settings further complicate the educational and
professional experiences of rural BIPOC students. As highlighted by Ngadjui and Doughty
(2024), reliable internet access is often taken for granted in urban areas, yet it poses a significant
challenge for rural students. This study confirms Ngadjui & Doughty’s (2024) observations by
showing how unreliable internet access disrupts academic requirements and engagement in
virtual networking for rural BIPOC students. Similarly, Borders et al. (2020) emphasize that
technological disparities disproportionately affect rural students, limiting their ability to access
critical resources and maintain connections with mentors or professional networks. By focusing
on these technological challenges, this study provides a more comprehensive understanding of
how rurality compounds systemic issues identified by Borders et al. (2020) and Ngadjui and
Doughty (2024), highlighting the need for targeted support in these communities.
This study also emphasizes advocacy as a key motivator for rural BIPOC students,
introducing a new dimension to conversations about career decision-making in the counseling
profession. Lent et al. (2000) and Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) have previously documented the
importance of mentorship, self-efficacy, and representation in shaping career trajectories for
BIPOC students. Lent et al. (2000) discuss how social cognitive factors, such as self-efficacy and
outcome expectations, drive career motivation, while Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) explore how
mentorship and representation affect career self-concept. However, this research identifies
advocacy and social justice as central drivers in the career paths of rural BIPOC students.
Participants in this study demonstrated a strong commitment to challenging systemic inequities
and creating opportunities for underrepresented students, echoing Lent et al.'s (2019) findings
that social justice-oriented goals serve as powerful motivators for BIPOC students in helping
professions. This advocacy-driven approach reflects a desire not only for personal success but
also for meaningful change within their communities and the counseling profession, adding
depth to Lent et al.’s (2000) and Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) discussions of motivational factors.
The study opens avenues for future research on how advocacy-driven career motivations
can be nurtured and supported, especially for underrepresented groups in rural areas. Lent et al.
(2020) and Ngadjui and Doughty (2024) suggest that creating environments that encourage
advocacy among BIPOC students could play a crucial role in supporting their career
development. Educational institutions and policymakers could consider how to create mentorship
programs that connect rural students with professionals who share their commitment to social
justice, as advocated by Martinez and Dong (2020). Additionally, implementing institutional
policies that prioritize diversity and inclusion, as discussed by Schuermann et al. (2018), could
further support advocacy-driven career paths. Future research could explore how to cultivate
these advocacy motivations through targeted interventions, helping to address the systemic
barriers rural BIPOC students face
Discussion of the Results
This section offers a detailed interpretation of the findings presented in Chapter 4,
grounded in Giorgi’s descriptive phenomenological approach. The goal here is to understand
what these findings reveal about the lived experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students and
how they answer the original research questions. By focusing on an intra-study interpretation,
this discussion reflects on how the findings address the research questions and what underlying
factors might explain these results. This section also examines the broader meaning of the study,
shedding light on practical and theoretical implications while noting relevant limitations that may
have shaped the outcomes.
Interpretation of Key Findings
The findings of this study reveal significant insights into the lived experiences of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students, particularly in relation to financial constraints, geographic
isolation, limited access to mentorship, and a shared commitment to advocacy and social justice.
These results demonstrate the unique challenges this population faces, suggesting that structural
barriers profoundly impact both their academic journeys and career decision-making processes.
From a phenomenological perspective, these findings highlight not only the external challenges
but also the subjective meaning participants ascribe to these experiences. Financial constraints
emerged as a prominent theme, influencing participants' self-efficacy and motivation and often
contributing to heightened levels of stress. This aligns with existing research on BIPOC students
in higher education, suggesting that financial concerns can be a significant obstacle to academic
success, especially for students in rural areas where resources and job opportunities may be
limited (Bright, 2020; Long et al., 2021; Merrell-James et al., 2019; Turner & Griffin, 2020).
These insights strongly support the research question by identifying the specific financial
challenges unique to rural BIPOC students.
Geographic isolation further compounds the impact of financial barriers, creating
additional challenges related to mentorship and support networks. Participants described feeling
disconnected from institutional resources and peers, which exacerbates feelings of isolation and
leaves them navigating their academic journeys with limited guidance. This lack of mentorship is
significant in a field like CES, where professional networks and support are essential for career
development. In a phenomenological context, the participants’ accounts reflect a deeper sense of
alienation tied to both their racial and geographic identities. Giorgi’s approach emphasizes
capturing this subjective reality, which in this case involves understanding how geographic and
cultural isolation intertwine to influence participants' perceptions of their own potential and place
within the field. This theme partially answers the research question by highlighting the role of
mentorship and geographic factors but also suggests an area for future study.
Plausibility and Potential Explanations
One of the most compelling findings of this study is the role of advocacy and social
justice as intrinsic motivators for participants, driving their persistence in CES programs despite
the challenges they face. For many rural BIPOC students, entering the counseling profession
represents not only a career choice but also an opportunity to make a meaningful difference in
their communities. This drive toward advocacy suggests that these students view their roles as
counselors as vehicles for social change, a perspective shaped by their personal and community
experiences. This sense of purpose is particularly powerful considering the limited institutional
support many participants reported, as it underscores their commitment to the field regardless of
external barriers. In phenomenological terms, this motivation for advocacy highlights the value
participants place on their work and their determination to overcome systemic challenges.
The presence of these resilience factors, including a strong sense of purpose and
commitment to social justice, suggests a complex interplay between the participants' internal
motivations and the systemic obstacles they encounter. The findings support the hypothesis that
mentorship and support systems play critical roles in student success yet also highlight the
resource gap that rural BIPOC students must often bridge independently. In the absence of
adequate institutional resources, these students must rely on personal resilience, drawing strength
from their cultural identities and community connections. Through Giorgi’s approach, this aspect
of resilience emerges as a key theme, offering insight into how rural BIPOC students navigate
their unique educational and professional landscapes while actively countering the barriers they
encounter. These findings highlight both the challenges and strengths of this population, adding
depth to SCCT by showing how advocacy serves as a motivational force for underrepresented
groups in educational settings.
Limitations
While this study provides valuable insights into the experiences of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students, several methodological limitations and challenges must be acknowledged to
contextualize the findings. One primary limitation is the decision to conduct a single, in-depth
interview with each participant. This approach allowed for a focused exploration of individual
experiences at a particular moment but provided only a time-specific view of participants' career
decision-making processes, potentially overlooking factors that could evolve over time. Using
Giorgi’s phenomenological method emphasizes capturing the immediacy of lived experiences but
inherently limits the study's ability to generalize findings or capture longitudinal shifts in
participants' perceptions. A longitudinal approach could have offered a more dynamic perspective
on how participants’ challenges and career trajectories evolved as they progressed in their
academic journey.
The study’s small sample size, though appropriate for phenomenological research, also
limits the generalizability of the findings to the broader population of BIPOC CES doctoral
students, particularly those outside rural settings. The small sample enabled an in-depth
examination of personal experiences, but it does not fully capture the diversity of perspectives
within the rural BIPOC CES student community. Additionally, the sample distribution regarding
gender, socioeconomic background, and geographic diversity within rural contexts was not
equal, which may affect the applicability of the findings to other groups with different
demographic characteristics. Future research with a larger and more demographically diverse
sample would offer greater insights into how intersecting identities shape the experiences of rural
BIPOC CES students.
Several unanticipated challenges also impacted the study and should be considered when
interpreting the findings. Participant screening proved difficult, as the initial screener attracted
responses from many individuals who did not meet the study’s criteria. This included responses
from individuals who were not doctoral students or were from non-CES programs, requiring
additional time and resources to filter through responses and identify suitable candidates. This
challenge highlights the need for a more targeted recruitment strategy, potentially involving
outreach to networks and groups more likely to meet the criteria. Future studies could benefit
from a refined screening process to ensure that only participants meeting the strict inclusion
criteria are directed to complete the screener, reducing the burden on researchers and allowing
for a more streamlined recruitment process.
Technological challenges emerged as another unexpected limitation that directly impacted
data collection. Due to the rural settings of many participants, inconsistent internet access
disrupted some interview sessions, which occasionally affected the flow of conversation and
limited participants' ability to fully express their experiences. This technological issue
underscores the impact of connectivity barriers on the study itself and echoes a prominent theme
identified in participants’ educational journeys. Future studies might address this limitation by
using more robust technological platforms or by considering in-person interviews, if feasible, to
ensure a more seamless and uninterrupted data collection process.
Researcher bias presents an additional limitation in this study. As a BIPOC researcher
with a vested interest in the subject matter, personal perspectives may have subtly influenced
data collection and interpretation. Although bracketing techniques, such as reflective journaling,
were employed to minimize these biases, the subjective nature of qualitative research means that
complete objectivity is challenging to achieve. Future studies could involve multiple researchers
with varied backgrounds to provide diverse perspectives, which could enhance data
interpretation, reduce individual bias, and lead to more balanced insights. This collaborative
approach would strengthen the study’s credibility and deepen its contributions to understanding
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students’ experiences.
Another potential limitation of this study is the absence of a detailed examination of
participants' income levels. Although socioeconomic status (SES) was indirectly addressed
through participant descriptions of financial challenges, the study did not specifically stratify
participants based on income or analyze the direct impact of varying income levels on career
decision-making processes. Given the significant role that financial instability plays in shaping
the academic and professional experiences of rural BIPOC students, a more detailed focus on
income levels could have provided additional insights into the unique challenges this group
faces. Future studies could benefit from explicitly addressing income as a central variable to
better understand how SES intersects with race, rurality, and other identities to impact career
outcomes.
If the study were to be conducted again, certain methodological adjustments would be
considered to improve data quality and comprehensiveness. For example, refining the
recruitment and screening processes to better target eligible participants from the outset could
help address the challenges encountered in this study. Additionally, employing a mixed-methods
or longitudinal approach could capture a broader range of experiences over time and provide
quantitative data to support qualitative insights. These approaches would allow for a more
comprehensive understanding of the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students and
contribute to more robust findings.
These limitations reflect both the study’s focused scope and its inherent constraints,
offering a nuanced understanding of the challenges and resilience of rural BIPOC CES doctoral
students. While these limitations affect the generalizability and comprehensiveness of the
findings, they underscore the need for further research to deepen our understanding of this
population’s unique experiences and career trajectories. Future studies could expand on these
insights with larger, more diverse samples or employ longitudinal methods to observe changes in
participants’ experiences over time, ultimately contributing to a richer knowledge base on the
intersection of rurality, race, and doctoral education in CES programs.
Delimitations
This study was designed with specific delimitations that reflect purposeful choices about
its scope and focus. The primary delimitation was the decision to concentrate exclusively on rural
BIPOC doctoral students enrolled in CES programs. This focus on a unique subset of the broader
population was intended to capture the distinct experiences of students who face the combined
challenges of racial marginalization and geographic isolation. By narrowing the scope to rural
students, this study aims to contribute to the limited literature on how geographic location
influences career decision-making processes for BIPOC individuals in doctoral programs.
Another delimitation involved selecting participants who were actively enrolled in CES
doctoral programs at the time of the study. This choice reflects an interest in examining
experiences and challenges as they occur within the academic journey rather than retrospectively,
which might have yielded insights that were impacted by post-graduation experiences.
Consequently, the findings may not fully represent the career trajectories or perspectives of CES
graduates who have navigated similar challenges but have already entered professional roles.
The research design also excluded non-BIPOC rural students, as well as BIPOC students
in urban settings. This decision was made to maintain a concentrated focus on how the
intersection of race, rurality, and career choices play out specifically for BIPOC students in rural
areas. Although including additional groups may have provided broader comparative insights, the
study's scope was limited to a population that remains underrepresented in the literature, with the
intent to shed light on their unique challenges and resilience factors.
In terms of methodology, this study employed a qualitative, phenomenological approach,
using Giorgi’s descriptive method to explore the participants' lived experiences. While this
approach provided rich, in-depth insights, it inherently limits the study to subjective accounts
rather than seeking generalizable quantitative data. Additionally, a single interview was
conducted with each participant to capture a specific moment in their academic journey. This
decision limits the study’s ability to capture changes over time in participants’ perspectives or
career decision-making processes, which might have been addressed with a longitudinal
approach.
These delimitations were made to ensure that the study remained focused and
manageable, given the constraints of time and resources. While they may limit the breadth of the
findings, they enable a deeper and more nuanced understanding of a highly specific population.
Future research could address these delimitations by expanding the participant pool to include
urban BIPOC students, examining career trajectories post-graduation, or utilizing longitudinal
methods to explore how experiences evolve over time.
Implications for Policy or Practice
The findings of this study reveal significant insights into the career decision-making
processes of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, highlighting the challenges they face and the
resources that contribute to their resilience. These insights have important implications for
educational institutions, practitioners, and policymakers seeking to support this underrepresented
population more effectively. By addressing the specific needs and barriers identified in this
research, stakeholders can create a more inclusive and supportive environment for rural BIPOC
students.
The refinement of themes highlights several implications for research, practice, and
policy. For instance, the integration of codes related to financial barriers and mentorship gaps
into broader systemic challenges demonstrates the interconnected nature of these obstacles for
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. By consolidating and refining themes, the findings
emphasize the systemic inequities these students navigate and the critical role of support systems
in mitigating these barriers.
In practice, recognizing the distinct themes related to geographic isolation, technological
barriers, and representation underscores the need for targeted interventions. These interventions
should prioritize increasing access to resources, improving technological infrastructure, and
fostering mentorship opportunities, particularly for students in rural areas. Additionally, the role
of family and peer support highlights the importance of community-building efforts within
counseling programs.
The iterative process of theme refinement has important methodological implications for
future research. The decision to define themes based on a balance between shared experiences
and individual narratives reflects a commitment to rigorous and transparent analysis in
qualitative research. This approach ensures that findings remain grounded in participants’ voices
while also providing insights applicable to broader contexts. One significant recommendation
emerging from this study is the development of virtual mentorship programs specifically tailored
to rural BIPOC students. These programs could include virtual peer networks for
experiencesharing, faculty-led online mentorship sessions, and webinars featuring BIPOC
professionals to inspire and guide students in their academic and career pathways.
This recommendation is rooted in participants' accounts of geographic isolation, which
limited their access to traditional, in-person mentorship opportunities. Virtual mentorship
programs can mitigate these barriers by enabling students to build professional networks and
access guidance, regardless of location. Spellman et al. (2022) emphasized the importance of
mentorship initiatives within professional organizations, such as the Association for
Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD), in supporting underrepresented groups.
Borders (2020) highlighted the profound benefits of mentorship relationships for BIPOC
students, particularly those involving professionals who share similar racial and cultural
backgrounds, as these connections enhance self-efficacy, professional identity, and a sense of
belonging within the field.
Implementing structured mentorship programs through platforms like AMCD or other
professional associations offers a valuable opportunity to bridge the geographic gap faced by
rural students. These programs can foster supportive relationships between students and
experienced counselor educators of color, creating meaningful connections that resonate with
students’ unique experiences and challenges. By leveraging virtual platforms, mentorship can
become an accessible and impactful tool for empowering rural BIPOC students in their academic
and professional journeys.
Educational institutions should also focus on developing leadership training programs
specifically designed for rural BIPOC students in CES. Incorporating alumni from similar
backgrounds into these programs can provide valuable guidance and serve as role models for
current students. Alumni who have navigated similar challenges can offer practical advice and
inspire resilience, helping students envision a path forward despite obstacles. Leadership
workshops that focus on skills like advocacy, community engagement, and organizational
leadership can prepare rural BIPOC students to assume influential roles both within their
communities and in the broader field of counseling. Lambie (2018) highlights that structured
leadership programs can empower underrepresented students to become change agents within
their fields, which helps address the underrepresentation of BIPOC professionals in leadership
roles. Another significant recommendation involves expanding financial aid initiatives
specifically for rural BIPOC students to alleviate the burden of education costs. Scholarships
should not only cover tuition but also address additional financial barriers, such as travel
expenses for residencies and professional conferences. Participants in this study, such as P04 and
P09, emphasized that receiving even small scholarships significantly alleviated their financial
pressures, allowing them to focus on their academic goals. While the NBCC Foundation Rural
Scholarship (2024) provides valuable financial support for tuition, it has limitations. The
scholarship does not consistently cover additional costs, such as travel expenses for residencies,
professional conferences, or networking opportunities, which are critical for rural CES doctoral
students. Furthermore, the scholarship is awarded to a limited number of recipients, leaving
many eligible students without the necessary support. This highlights the need for more
scholarships of this kind, with expanded funding to address indirect educational costs and a
greater number of recipients to support rural BIPOC students comprehensively. Perez and Carney
(2018), along with Borders (2020), emphasize that targeted financial support is essential for
underrepresented groups, as it lowers dropout rates and strengthens academic persistence.
Incorporating financial literacy workshops into support services can empower students to handle
budgeting challenges more effectively, providing greater control over their financial situations
and alleviating finance-related anxiety.
Policymakers also play a vital role in supporting rural BIPOC students, particularly by
investing in technological infrastructure to improve internet access in rural areas. This investment
would enable students to participate fully in online learning and virtual networking, mitigating
the isolation exacerbated by unreliable internet connectivity. Allen (2019) emphasizes the
importance of reliable internet access for rural students, as it significantly affects their academic
engagement and ability to connect with mentors. Policies should also account for the intersecting
identities of rural BIPOC students by offering flexible program structures that accommodate
caregiving responsibilities, financial needs, and the challenges of geographic isolation.
Institutions might consider hybrid program models, as suggested by Woo et al. (2021), which
combine in-person residencies with online components, making higher education more
accessible for students in remote areas. Flexible program structures allow rural BIPOC students
to pursue doctoral studies without sacrificing familial responsibilities or incurring substantial
financial burdens.
To support participants' strong commitment to social justice, a valuable recommendation
is the development of advocacy-oriented support systems within CES programs. Recognizing
that many rural BIPOC students view advocacy and activism as integral to their career paths,
creating spaces that encourage these pursuits could further reinforce and nurture this motivation.
Storlie (2018) suggests that institutions can establish advocacy training and social justice
workshops that equip students with the tools needed to challenge systemic barriers within their
field. Such programs can support rural BIPOC students in developing their advocacy skills,
preparing them to become influential voices for change in counseling and higher education.
Encouraging advocacy within professional organizations and providing access to conferences
focused on social justice can also strengthen students' resolve to address inequities in the
counseling profession.
Addressing these implications could significantly enhance the educational experience and
career opportunities for rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. By focusing on mentorship,
financial support, leadership development, technological accessibility, and advocacy training,
stakeholders can work toward reducing the systemic barriers that these students face. Ultimately,
such efforts will contribute to diversifying the counseling profession and ensuring that more
voices from underrepresented communities are represented within it.
Summary of Key Findings
The findings of this study reveal that rural BIPOC CES doctoral students face several
significant challenges in their educational and career development, directly responding to the
research question on the lived experiences of this population. Financial constraints, geographic
isolation, limited access to mentorship, the importance of representation in counseling, family
support, peer relationships as a source of emotional and a strong commitment to advocacy and
social justice emerged as key themes that shape their career decision-making processes. Financial
instability was a pervasive issue that influenced participants' self-efficacy and academic progress,
while geographic isolation further compounded these challenges, limiting access to crucial
mentorship and professional networks. Despite these barriers, the students demonstrated
resilience, finding ways to adapt and persist in their programs. The participants' commitment to
advocacy and social justice shaped their professional aspirations, as they viewed their career
paths as opportunities to address systemic inequities and serve as role models for future
generations. These findings not only align with existing literature but also deepen our
understanding of the unique factors influencing rural BIPOC students’ educational trajectories
and career choices.
The participants' strong commitment to advocacy and social justice was another
prominent theme that shaped their career decision-making processes. Many students expressed a
deep desire to address the systemic inequities they encountered both within the educational
system and in their communities. This commitment to advocacy not only influenced their
decision to pursue careers in counseling but also shaped their professional aspirations, with many
participants aiming to work in underserved communities and serve as role models for future
generations. Participants like P08 described how their rural and BIPOC identities motivated them
to challenge the lack of representation in the counseling profession, and they viewed their
success to "give back" and create pathways for others to follow. This advocacy-driven mindset
provided them with a strong sense of purpose, which helped them navigate the numerous barriers
they encountered along the way.
These key findings provide important insights into the specific needs of rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students and inform actionable recommendations for educational institutions,
practitioners, and policymakers. By understanding the unique intersection of challenges these
students face, stakeholders can develop targeted strategies to support their success in higher
education and in the counseling profession. The findings also underscore the importance of
addressing the systemic barriers that disproportionately impact rural BIPOC students,
highlighting the need for policies and practices that promote equity and inclusion. In direct
response to the research question, these findings show how financial instability, geographic
isolation, and limited access to mentorship shape the career decision-making processes of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students, while their strong commitment to advocacy and social justice
serves as a key motivator in navigating these barriers and pursuing meaningful careers in
counseling.
Recommendations for Educational Institutions
Educational institutions should prioritize the development of mentorship programs
specifically for rural BIPOC students. These programs should leverage virtual platforms to
address geographic isolation and create opportunities for students to engage with mentors from
diverse backgrounds. Institutions such as the University of Michigan have implemented virtual
mentorship programs that allow students from rural areas to connect with professionals
nationwide, providing a model for similar initiatives in CES (Kim & Sax, 2020). These programs
foster professional development and reduce the isolation that rural students experience,
contributing to their overall well-being and academic success. Expanding mentorship initiatives
to focus on BIPOC students can address gaps in access to academic and professional guidance
(Perez & Carney, 2018).
Rural BIPOC students who identify as women or come from low-income backgrounds
face compounded barriers in accessing mentorship. Female students often seek mentors who can
relate to both their racial and gender identities, yet they report difficulty finding mentors who
understand these intersecting challenges (Borders et al., 2020). Low-income students may
struggle to participate in networking opportunities due to financial limitations, such as the
inability to travel for conferences or workshops. Mentorship programs should specifically
consider gender and socioeconomic status to effectively support rural BIPOC students in their
academic and professional development.
Mentorship programs should extend beyond graduation. Participants expressed
uncertainty about their post-graduation career trajectories, with many highlighting a lack of
leadership role models in their fields. Some participants voiced concerns about not seeing people
like them in leadership positions, which made them question their place in the field after
completing their programs. Extending mentorship beyond graduation would provide essential
support during the early stages of a career, helping to guide students through the challenges of
transitioning into professional roles. Institutions can develop long-term mentorship programs that
include professional development workshops, leadership training, and alumni networks, offering
graduates a way to stay connected and receive guidance as they advance in their careers
(Martinez & Dong, 2020). These extended opportunities would address participants’ concerns
about navigating career advancement in rural areas and provide critical resources to maintain
engagement with the field.
In addition to mentorship, leadership development programs tailored specifically to rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students are essential for fostering future leaders within the counseling
profession. Several participants expressed concerns about the lack of visible leadership role
models in their fields, particularly in rural areas. For instance, P11 highlighted their uncertainty
regarding finding pathways to leadership in their careers, citing the limited opportunities
available in their communities.
To address these concerns, educational institutions should create leadership training
initiatives that focus on community leadership, organizational development, and advocacy. This
aligns with the theme of advocacy and social justice, reflecting participants' commitment to
addressing systemic barriers and promoting equity within the counseling profession. These
programs would equip rural BIPOC students with the tools necessary to take on leadership roles
both within their local communities and within broader professional settings. Workshops on
leadership, public speaking, and advocacy would empower students to confidently navigate the
professional challenges unique to rural environments (Vande Griek et al., 2020). Furthermore,
pairing students with mentors who hold leadership positions could provide valuable insight into
how to overcome barriers to leadership in the counseling profession. Longitudinal research on
the career progression of rural BIPOC graduates could offer crucial insights into how leadership
opportunities can be expanded and the effectiveness of leadership development programs in
fostering long-term success. These initiatives would ensure that rural BIPOC students are not
only equipped to thrive academically but are also prepared to step into leadership roles that
influence their communities and the field of counseling.
Financial aid initiatives targeting rural BIPOC students should also be expanded to
alleviate the burden of education costs. These initiatives could include scholarships that
specifically consider the additional financial barriers faced by rural students, such as travel and
accommodation expenses for residencies and internships. For example, the Rural Students
Initiative at the University of North Carolina provides scholarships that address these specific
costs, and its success in retaining rural students could serve as a blueprint for other institutions
(University of North Carolina, n.d.). Expanding such initiatives to CES programs can help rural
BIPOC students focus on their academic and professional goals without the constant stress of
financial insecurity, which research has shown to negatively impact self-efficacy and career
decision-making (Borders et al., 2020).
Institutions should also develop financial literacy programs tailored to the needs of rural
BIPOC students. Many participants in this study cited financial instability as one of the most
significant challenges they faced throughout their doctoral journeys. P07 and P03 both described
how financial constraints created stress, particularly when budgeting for essential needs like
residencies, tuition, and living expenses. Providing financial literacy workshops can empower
students to manage these challenges by helping them create realistic budgets, plan for large
expenses such as travel for residencies, and develop strategies for managing student loan debt.
These workshops would give students more control over their financial situations and reduce the
stress that often accompanies financial insecurity. Offering targeted financial education is crucial
for rural BIPOC students, whose financial barriers may be compounded by geographic isolation
and limited access to institutional resources.
The diversity within the participant sample, including differences in gender, age, race, and
socioeconomic status, revealed how varying backgrounds influenced the challenges students
faced and their needs for institutional support. For example, participants who were balancing
caregiving responsibilities or who came from lower-income backgrounds faced compounded
barriers, such as financial instability and limited access to career-enhancing opportunities.
Acknowledging these diverse experiences, educational institutions should implement more
flexible program structures that consider these overlapping identities, offering resources and
support systems tailored to the specific needs of underrepresented groups (Wade-Ball et al.,
2021).
Recommendations for Practitioners
Practitioners in the field of counseling should actively incorporate discussions of
advocacy and social justice into their work with rural BIPOC students. These discussions can
empower students to pursue careers that align with their values and motivations, particularly
those focused on addressing systemic inequities within the counseling profession (Lambie, 2018;
Vande Griek et al., 2020). Encouraging students to engage in advocacy or community work can
help build their confidence in making career decisions while also enhancing their sense of
agency, particularly for those aiming to foster systemic change within their communities
(Spellman et al., 2022). Providing career exploration and professional development workshops
offers rural BIPOC students the tools necessary to navigate their future careers with more
confidence and direction. These workshops could include valuable guidance on accessing
professional networks, finding mentors, and securing funding for their studies and career
development, thus helping them overcome many barriers that may be exacerbated by their rural
contexts.
Family engagement is another critical area for practitioners to emphasize. Many rural
BIPOC students rely heavily on their families for emotional and financial support throughout
their academic journeys. Practitioners can significantly enhance this support by involving
families in the educational process. This can be achieved by providing workshops or resources
that help families understand the unique challenges faced by their students. For example,
practitioners could offer virtual workshops specifically designed for family members to explain
the demands of CES doctoral programs and provide strategies for offering emotional support.
Such initiatives have been found to improve family engagement and reduce feelings of isolation
among students, ultimately contributing to their persistence and academic success (Martinez &
Dong, 2020). Strengthening the support network available to rural BIPOC students can
significantly improve their ability to thrive in demanding academic programs.
Resilience among rural BIPOC students is shaped by intersecting factors such as gender,
socioeconomic status, and their cultural identities. Female participants in this study often relied
on peer networks and family support to balance both academic work and caregiving
responsibilities, highlighting how gendered expectations and caregiving demands influenced
their resilience. This dynamic is particularly important for practitioners to address when
supporting rural BIPOC students. Students from low-income families also demonstrated
remarkable resourcefulness in managing financial constraints, often by working part-time jobs or
seeking out community-based support networks. Practitioners should remain mindful of these
intersecting identities and provide tailored support that considers the specific challenges faced by
women and low-income students. Peer support groups, financial literacy workshops, or targeted
financial aid programs that help students manage the economic pressures associated with
doctoral programs could be extremely beneficial resources. By acknowledging and addressing
the complex realities faced by rural BIPOC students, practitioners can contribute meaningfully to
their long-term success, overall well-being, and academic persistence.
Implications for Policymakers
Policymakers have a pivotal role in addressing the systemic barriers faced by rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students. Specific policies targeting the unique challenges of this
population are crucial, particularly those focusing on increasing funding for rural education
initiatives and expanding access to mental health resources. State and federal governments could
allocate funding to rural education centers that offer specialized support for BIPOC students in
higher education, as suggested by Wade-Ball et al. (2021). These centers could serve as hubs for
mentorship, financial aid assistance, and mental health resources, ensuring that rural BIPOC
students receive the support they need to thrive in their academic and professional careers.
Investing in technology infrastructure is another key area for policymakers. Improved
internet access and resources can significantly enhance educational opportunities, particularly for
rural students who may otherwise struggle to participate in online learning and professional
development activities. Policymakers should advocate for initiatives that bridge the digital
divide, particularly in rural areas where internet access remains limited (Long et al., 2021).
Addressing these technological disparities is essential for creating an equitable environment
where rural BIPOC students can fully engage in higher education and reduce the isolation they
often experience in their academic journeys.
Policy initiatives should also be designed with an awareness of the intersecting identities
of rural BIPOC students, particularly in terms of gender and socioeconomic status. Female
students often balance caregiving responsibilities alongside their academic work, which
highlights the need for flexible program structures and affordable childcare options to help them
succeed. Similarly, low-income students face compounded financial barriers, struggling to cover
the costs of residencies, internships, and other professional development opportunities.
Expanding financial aid programs to address these additional costs can help create more
equitable opportunities for students who experience multiple layers of marginalization (Pérez &
Carney, 2018). By incorporating these considerations into policy, lawmakers can ensure that the
specific needs of rural BIPOC students are addressed, enabling them to fully participate in and
benefit from higher education.
The experiences shared by participants in this study emphasize the need for collective
action from educational institutions, practitioners, and policymakers. Insights from the findings
suggest that tackling financial barriers, mentorship gaps, and geographic isolation could help
create a more equitable framework for rural BIPOC students pursuing careers in CES. By
focusing on these areas, stakeholders can contribute to greater diversity and inclusion within the
counseling profession and better support the success of rural BIPOC students in achieving their
academic and professional goals.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study has provided valuable insights into the career decision-making processes of
rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, highlighting the unique challenges and resilience factors that
shape their experiences. Given the distinct context of this population, several areas warrant
further exploration to enhance understanding and inform practices tailored specifically for rural
BIPOC students in higher education. These insights emphasize the importance of developing
targeted support mechanisms, including financial assistance, mentorship opportunities, and
academic resources that address the specific barriers faced by rural students (Wade-Ball et al.,
2021). Additionally, understanding the intersectionality of race, gender, socioeconomic status,
and rurality is critical in designing comprehensive strategies that foster career success for these
students (Perez et al., 2020). Future research can build on these findings to offer more
recommendations that align with the unique needs of rural BIPOC students as they navigate their
academic and professional journeys.
Intersectionality of Identities
Future research should focus more deeply on the intersectionality of identities, examining
how race, gender, socioeconomic status, and rurality collectively shape the career trajectories of
rural BIPOC students. While this study touched on these overlapping factors, further research
could investigate the different ways in which gender, particularly for female students juggling
caregiving responsibilities, interacts with geographic and financial barriers to influence career
choices (Martinez & Dong, 2020). Exploring the experiences of low-income students in greater
depth would help uncover how compounded financial challenges limit access to mentorship,
internships, and residencies, providing clearer insight into the specific supports this group needs
(Perez et al., 2020). One participant, P08, shared, “It’s hard to keep up when you have family
responsibilities, and the program isn’t flexible.” This quote underscores the need for more
indepth research on the compounded challenges faced by female students with caregiving
responsibilities.
Longitudinal studies are crucial to providing a clearer picture of the long-term career
outcomes for this population. Future research should examine the career trajectories of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students after they complete their programs, following them beyond their
academic experiences to better understand how early challenges and support mechanisms
influence professional outcomes over time (Vande Griek et al., 2020). Investigating these
longterm outcomes will offer valuable insights into career paths, professional satisfaction, and
the lasting impact of advocacy efforts. Research examining how intersecting identities continue
to affect access to leadership roles and professional opportunities post-graduation would also
provide critical data for informing policy and practice. This long-term perspective would help
institutions and policymakers assess the effectiveness of support programs and adjust better serve
rural BIPOC graduates throughout their careers.
By focusing on the long-term implications of intersectionality, future research can
generate a more comprehensive understanding of how layered identities evolve and influence
career pathways over time. This approach will ensure that higher education institutions and
policymakers develop more targeted and effective strategies to address the multifaceted
challenges faced by rural BIPOC students, ultimately fostering their academic and professional
success while promoting diversity and inclusion within the counseling profession.
Long-Term Career Implications
Several participants expressed uncertainty about their career trajectories post-graduation,
with many citing a lack of role models and clear pathways for advancement in rural areas. P11
voiced concerns, stating, "I want to stay and give back to my community, but I don’t know if I’ll
have the same opportunities as someone in a more urban setting." This uncertainty was
particularly pronounced among participants who hoped to remain in rural areas, where
professional opportunities were perceived to be more limited. These concerns highlight the need
for institutions and professional organizations to create clear career pathways for rural BIPOC
graduates, offering mentorship and networking opportunities that extend beyond graduation
(Perez et al., 2020). Participants suggested that leadership training programs could help prepare
graduates for roles in rural communities. Programs focusing on community leadership,
organizational development, and advocacy could provide participants with the skills needed to
assume leadership roles, despite the barriers in rural areas (Wade-Ball et al., 2021).
Establishing long-term support systems, such as virtual mentorship programs and
professional development workshops, could bridge the gap between academic completion and
career advancement. Pairing rural BIPOC graduates with mentors in leadership positions could
provide insight into navigating professional challenges unique to rural environments.
Longitudinal research on these graduates would offer insights into how uncertainties about
postgraduation prospects impact career outcomes and which support mechanisms are most
effective for fostering long-term success (Vande Griek et al., 2020).
Broader Geographical Contexts
Research could benefit from a broader geographical focus, particularly examining the
unique challenges faced by rural BIPOC students in different regions. While this study
highlighted the experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students, understanding how cultural,
economic, and institutional factors vary across rural settings could provide a more
comprehensive perspective (Perez-Felkner et al., 2018). For example, rural students in the
southern United States may experience different financial or institutional barriers compared to
those in the Midwest or the West Coast due to regional economic disparities and state education
policies. Exploring these variations could reveal region-specific barriers and supports that
influence academic and career outcomes, enabling institutions to create more localized support
programs (Perez-Felkner et al., 2018). Comparing rural students’ experiences with those of
BIPOC students in urban settings would help clarify how geographic isolation affects
professional development and access to resources.
Intersectionality and Diverse Identities
Further exploration into the intersectionality of identities among rural BIPOC CES
doctoral students is essential. Participants shared how race, gender, caregiving responsibilities,
and socioeconomic status intersected to shape their experiences. In this study, participants who
identified as women or who had caregiving responsibilities shared unique struggles that
compounded the challenges, they faced due to their race and rural background (Martinez &
Dong, 2020). For instance, P08 explained, “It’s hard to keep up when you have family
responsibilities, and the program isn’t flexible.” Similarly, participants from low-income
backgrounds described how financial strain added pressure to their academic lives, further
limiting access to mentorship and professional opportunities. P03, for example, noted the
difficulty of affording travel for required residencies, saying, “Every time I had to travel for a
residency, I worried about how I’d make ends meet back home.” This financial burden added
stress and limited their ability to fully engage in the professional development opportunities
offered by their programs.
A deeper understanding of these dynamics can inform the development of inclusive
practices that address the specific needs of rural BIPOC students. Participants also discussed how
mental health challenges intersected with financial stress and cultural expectations. For example,
P03 described how financial stress affected her mental health, stating, “It was hard to focus on
my studies when I was constantly worried about money.” Exploring these complexities will
allow educators and researchers to create interventions that resonate more deeply with students'
lived experiences, offering more tailored support (Perez & Carney, 2018).
Mentorship and Leadership Development
Participants in this study highlighted mentorship as a key factor in navigating academic
and professional challenges. However, geographic isolation and financial barriers significantly
limited access to mentorship, leaving rural BIPOC students without adequate support. Future
research could explore how tailored mentorship programs address these unique barriers, focusing
on how mentorship fosters professional growth and enhances career outcomes (Wade-Ball et al.,
2021).
In addition, many participants expressed concerns about the lack of visible role models
and clear pathways to leadership, particularly in rural areas. Leadership training programs, such
as those focusing on community leadership, advocacy, and organizational development, were
mentioned as potential solutions. Participants described how these programs could help them
acquire the skills necessary to lead and influence change in their fields. Research could further
investigate how leadership opportunities are made available to rural BIPOC students and how
leadership training programs may help them overcome career advancement barriers (Spellman et
al., 2022).
By developing mentorship and leadership opportunities, institutions and policymakers
can help bridge the gap between academic completion and career success. These programs could
also provide ongoing professional development, giving graduates the tools and networks they
need to navigate professional challenges unique to rural environments. Participants emphasized
that further research should identify best practices for mentorship and leadership development to
support the long-term success of rural BIPOC students.
Examination of Institutional Practices
Investigating the effectiveness of institutional practices aimed at supporting rural BIPOC
CES doctoral students is a crucial area for future research. Studies could evaluate the impact of
targeted mentorship programs, financial aid initiatives, and culturally relevant support services
on student success. This evaluation should examine how well these programs address intersecting
identities, as some students may require more personalized support due to compounded barriers
(Spellman et al, 2022). For example, female BIPOC students from lowincome backgrounds may
benefit from different mentorship strategies compared to wealthier male counterparts.
Understanding these specific needs can help institutions develop evidencebased strategies that
enhance educational experiences and outcomes. Additionally, research should focus on how
institutions can foster inclusive environments that promote belonging and a sense of community
for rural BIPOC students, which, in turn, enhances academic success and professional
engagement.
Policy Analysis and Advocacy
Research could include policy analysis that examines the effectiveness of existing
policies aimed at supporting rural BIPOC CES doctoral students. Understanding how these
policies are implemented and how they impact student outcomes will provide valuable insights
for advocates and policymakers. For example, analyzing the effectiveness of state or federal
funding initiatives targeting rural students would highlight which policies are most beneficial in
supporting educational attainment (Wendler, 2020). Additionally, this investigation can identify
gaps in current policy frameworks that may hinder the success of rural BIPOC populations in
higher education. Policies that fail to account for the unique financial or geographic challenges
faced by rural students may inadvertently limit their access to essential resources. Addressing
these gaps can provide insights for creating policies that dismantle systemic barriers and promote
greater equity for rural BIPOC students (Um & Bardhoshi, 2022).
Conclusion
This study explored the lived experiences of rural BIPOC CES doctoral students,
revealing how financial constraints, limited access to mentorship, geographic isolation, and a
strong commitment to advocacy and social justice shaped their career decision-making processes.
Using a descriptive phenomenological approach, key themes emerged that reflect the unique
challenges this group faces and highlight the resilience factors that support their academic and
professional journeys. These findings provide a deeper understanding of the experiences of rural
BIPOC students and emphasize the need for support systems designed to help them navigate
these challenges effectively. By focusing on the specific context of rurality and BIPOC identity,
this research fills an important gap in the existing literature.
Participants described how financial instability significantly influenced their self-efficacy
and motivation, leading to increased anxiety and affecting their academic performance. Limited
access to mentorship and the isolation caused by geographic distance compounded these
challenges, often leaving students to navigate their academic paths without adequate support. Yet,
despite these hurdles, participants expressed a strong sense of advocacy and commitment to
social justice, which served as a powerful motivator driving their pursuit of careers in counseling.
This balance between struggle and resilience highlights the importance of understanding the
context in which these students operate, as well as the critical role of tailored support systems.
While this study provides meaningful insights, certain limitations should be
acknowledged. The reliance on a small, qualitative sample limits the generalizability of the
findings to broader populations. Additionally, the descriptive phenomenological approach
captures participants' experiences at a specific time, potentially overlooking how their
perspectives may evolve. These limitations suggest that further research with larger and more
diverse samples, as well as longitudinal studies, could expand on these findings to provide a
more comprehensive picture of rural BIPOC students’ experiences over time.
The findings have meaningful implications for educational institutions, practitioners, and
policymakers. Addressing the specific needs of rural BIPOC students can promote equity and
enhance tailored support systems. For educational institutions, this includes creating mentorship
programs that leverage virtual platforms, which can mitigate the impact of geographic isolation.
Leadership development initiatives can also prepare students for roles within their communities,
fostering a sense of agency and empowerment. Practitioners in counseling programs are
encouraged to incorporate discussions of advocacy and social justice into their work with
students, emphasizing careers aligned with these values. For policymakers, expanding funding
for rural education initiatives and improving technology infrastructure are crucial steps toward
creating more equitable opportunities for rural BIPOC students.
Reflecting on this research underscores the importance of amplifying the voices of rural
BIPOC CES doctoral students in the counseling profession. As the field of CES continues to
evolve, it is crucial to recognize and address the experiences of underrepresented populations.
This study contributes to ongoing discussions on diversity and representation, offering insights
that can inform future research and advocacy efforts aimed at dismantling systemic barriers. The
findings highlight the collective responsibility of educational institutions, practitioners, and
policymakers to create environments that promote equity and inclusion.
Supporting rural BIPOC students through tailored support systems, particularly those that
address advocacy and career development, directly aligns with the research question exploring
their career decision-making processes. By providing resources that reflect their unique needs
and preparing them to serve as leaders in their communities, stakeholders can foster not only
academic success but also career trajectories that are influenced by a commitment to social
justice and community service. This study highlights the importance of equitable opportunities
and mentorship in diversifying the counseling profession, ultimately contributing to the longterm
success and professional growth of these students, as they navigate complex academic and career
decisions.
